Utilitarianism Objectives from reading: • EMP (24 pages) – Moral Reasoning in Western Culture (Lucas), pp. 115-117; Utilitarianism and the Greatest Good (Lucas), pp. 119121; Utilitarianism (Mill), pp. 123-131; Utilitarianism, (Pojman), pp. 133-137; The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas (LeGuin), pp. 139-142. • CSME (5 pages) – Leave No One Behind (Rubel), pp. 3-5; – Hiroshima: The First Use of Nuclear Weapons (Valaquez and Rostenkowski) pp. 75-76. Comprehend the moral basis and standard of Utilitarianism • What is Utilitarianism? • What is the difference between Mill & Bentham’s concept of utilitarianism? • Difference between “rule” & “act” utilitarianism • What are the strengths & weaknesses of utilitarianism as a moral theory? • Understand the “Principle of Utility.” Those Who Walk Away From Omelas Why do some people walk away? What is the author saying about utilitarianism? How many of your troops are you willing to risk? The Range of Ethics Absence of Ethics The Criminal “I KILLED HIM AND I DON’T CARE” The Delinquent Relativism Normative Relativism Consequentialism Teleological Ethics Utilitarianism Descriptive Relativism Most Pleasure Individual Relativism Greater Net Happiness Accepted Practices Based On : Consequences Outcomes Duty Ethics Deontological Virtue Kantian – Duty Aristotle Truth Honor Justice Character Rights Habituation Divine Law Stoicism Natural Law “I DON’T CARE ABOUT THAT” “CATCH ME IF YOU CAN.” Rule Based Moral Theories Character Based What do Moral “Theories” Offer? • We don’t require moral theories to tell us that lying and homicide are wrong, and helping those in need is a good thing to do. • Moral theories – explain WHY these things are right and wrong, and – give me REASONS for believing them so • Moral theories also – help illuminate “grey areas,” – clarify difficult problems, or – resolve conflicts that arise What are the Characteristics of a Good Moral Theory? • Clear and unequivocal: – tell us what actions are right (or wrong) and WHY • Reliable: – Offers straightforward answers in a wide variety of situations & able to resolve conflicts when they arise • Comprehensive: – Covers not only individual actions, but social and political practices, institutions, and policies • Psychologically realistic: – Doesn’t depend on false assumptions about what people are like • Yields predictable results in familiar situations • Is not wildly at odds with our habits, intuitions, and customary responses to ordinary problems Counting Costs & Making Tough Calls Military decision-making, and public policy generally (including economic policy), frequently make use of “outcomes-based” reasoning The “right” decision, action, or policy is often defined as the one that optimizes the balance of benefits over harms for all affected. For example:  President Truman’s decision to use nuclear force on Hiroshima  “Lifeboat” dilemmas  “Medical triage” decisions Isn’t the military a decidedly “Utilitarian” organization? Is this good or bad??? Remember…from the 1st class??? Utilitarianism The “utility” (usefulness or moral rightness) of a policy is measured by its tendency to promote the “good” (or to prevent harm). Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) : “The good” is simply pleasure John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) : “The good” is happiness - a more complex notion, achieved by living a principled and prudent life” Bentham and Mills were reformers concerned with political reform and franchising the populace Utilitarianism A kind of practical reasoning in which we first decide how to act, and then justify our choices and actions, by deciding which of the feasible alternatives results in the greatest good. Choose to act so as to avoid, or at least minimize the amount of suffering or harm our actions will cause The greatest good for the greatest numbers. Early Criticisms of Utilitarianism • Hedonism – a moral theory “fit for swine” • Atheistic – leaves out God (and by extension, any higher-order moral considerations) • Promotes selfishness – calculus of pure selfinterest Bentham’s rebuttal: Vulgar or not, nature has placed us under two masters, pleasure and pain - there is no other standard Those who walk away… • Why did they walk? • Would you stay or would you walk away? • …or would you try and change it? – What important values appear to be missing in the Utilitarian calculus? LeGuin won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story in 1974 The Principle of Utility (or Principle of Greatest Happiness) says: “The greatest happiness of all of those whose interest is in question, is the right and proper, and universally desirable, end of human action.” The greatest good for the greatest number The Principle of Utility “Principle of Utility” performs three vital functions: 1) Explains the foundations, and offers justification, for our moral rules, laws, and customs, or 2) Exposes the inadequacy of unjust laws or customs that do NOT promote utility; and 3) Offers us a means for resolving conflicts between rules and laws, or deciding vexing cases on which traditional moral rules and laws are silent Do no harm Don’t lie Mill – 147 Intro - 139 Act vs Rule Utilitarianism Act Utilitarianism • Assesses the consequences of our actions Rule Utilitarianism • Assess the consequences of following particular rules: – Is there justification in harming someone? – Is there justification in harming a small number of people in order to save a larger number? • An act is right if, and only if, it results in as much good as any available alternative • An act is right if, and only if, it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of rules, whose acceptance will lead to greater utility for society than any other available alternative. Pojman – 151-152 So how do you measure good/bad consequences? • The principle of utility (or Principle of Greatest Happiness) says: – “The greatest happiness of all of those whose interest is in question, is the right and proper, and universally desirable, end of human action.” • Happiness can then be looked at either long term or short term, physical pleasure or intellectual happiness • Should allow everyone affected by the act to “get a vote” • We already reason like this in many cases • Act Utilitarian: The principle should be applied to particular acts in particular circumstances • Rule Utilitarian: An action is right if it conforms to a rule of conduct that has been validated by the principle of utility WHAT DO YOU THINK OF UTILITARIANISM? • • IS IT LOGICAL? INTUITIVE? IS THIS A MORAL THEORY YOU CAN USE TO MAKE DECISIONS? – • Is pleasure vs pain the right metric? WHAT IS UTILITARIAN REASONING BASED ON? – CONSEQUENCES – (OUTCOMES) – TELEOLOGICAL 1. 2. 3. RIGHT/WRONG DETERMINED BY GOOD/BAD OUTCOME PLEASURE (+) PAIN (-) HUMAN FLOURISHING (+) SUFFERING (-) Triage Medical Triage Example 1) Will die without extraordinary measures Is this a “fair” concept? 2) Will live--don’t treat now 3) Might save if they get medical attention • How do we morally justify letting people die without medical attention?  Shouldn’t we be trying to save every human life? • How would you feel if you woke up on tent #1? • How do we morally explain to the patient in tent #1 they will not see a doctor? Live or Let Die? You are a battlefield surgeon, and one of the wounded has been in a coma for several days, and the doctors believe has brain damage and are not certain he will recover. A new group of badly wounded arrive in need of immediate surgery. You determine that they need four different organs to live, and there are four surgeons standing by for your decision. – If you take the four organs from the comatose soldier, you can save four people. (assume surgeries will be successful) Questions on the Case – What kind of argument can you make for taking his organs? – What kind of argument can you make for not taking his organs, and letting the other four die? – What is the morally right thing to do? – What kind of moral reasoning did you use? Closing the Hatch Crimson Tide Questions on Closing the Hatch… • Would you give the order to close the hatch? • What moral reasoning did you use? But… if your principle as C.O. is protect the lives of your men/women, then how do you justify giving the order to intentionally kill one of your men? – Will this moral reasoning work in all situations? – How do you deal with your moral conscience after closing the hatch? The Moral Point • What is the difference between the case “Live & Let Die” and “Closing the Hatch”? – In the case of the battlefield surgeon, you were willing to let all five die, rather than take the life of one, and in the Crimson Tide case, you were willing to take the lives of 3 to save 140…Why? • Is it just Math: ….saving 140 vs saving 4? ….Is that how we make decisions? • How can we explain the different moral answers between the two cases? Hiroshima • GROUP A: Use Utilitarian Reasoning to argue for dropping the bomb • GROUP B: Use any reasoning to argue against dropping the bomb • Which choice brings about the “greatest happiness?” • Is “happiness” always the critical point? • Who decides…What if the US lost the war? • Is victory = tyranny of the masses? Leave No One Behind • 2 Options – Send the second helo – Don’t risk another rescue • Pair up at the table and you decide as a team • What is right? • How did you decide? Final Thoughts… • Isn’t the military the ultimate Utilitarian? – We are willing to sacrifice soldiers to achieve our desired end state? • Don’t Utilitarians use some Kantian ethics? …They have good intent! • Value of the individual – Equal claim to triage treatment? Haqlaniyah, Al Anbar, Iraq (Dec. 19, 2006) - Marines assigned to 2nd Battalion, 3rd Marines (2/3) amuse Iraqi children while on patrol through the city of Haqlaniyah, during Maritime Security Operations (MSO) to develop the Iraqi Security Forces. Reading & Homework for Next Class Intro to Military Justice • Naval Law, 3rd Edition – Chapter 1: Background of Military Justice -16 Pages – Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Military Justice- 5 Pages Objectives from reading & homework: jag.navy.mil – UCMJ – Manual for Courts Martial (MCM 2000) – JAG Manual – US Navy Regulations Comprehend the purpose, scope and constitutional basis of US Navy Regulations & the UCMJ and relate these regulations to personal conduct in the military service.  Comprehend JO roles/responsibilities relative to the military justice system and be aware of the essential publications relating to military justice. Know how discipline and punishment differ.  Know the correct requirements for using Extra Military Instruction (EMI). Homework – See next slide… Be aware of administrative methods used to maintain good discipline.