1. society

Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
In the following presentation I shall assume that students
have some familiarity with introductory Marxist Theory . Students
requiring an introductory outline may click here.
Students requiring additional information on the definition and
measurement of Power may click here.
In the presentation I concentrate primarily on the Marxist Theory
of the State as outlined by Ralph Miliband . Toward the end of the
presentation there is also information on the so-called MilibandPoulantzas debate on the State.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The following presentation is intended as an introduction
but if you require more detailed information you may find
the following books useful.
Models of Democracy David Held 3rd Edition 2006
The State: Theories and Issues Colin Hay, Michael Lister
and David Marsh Eds. 2008
Theories of the Democratic State John S. Dryzek and
Patrick Dunleavy 2009
Power: A Radical View Steven Lukes 2nd Edition 2005
State Power Bob Jessop 2008
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Marxism: a very brief summary [1]
Marxists argue that capitalist societies are unequal, exploitative, undemocratic
and unjust.
They focus especially upon the relationships between the property owning
Bourgeoisie and the property-less Proletariat which are based upon exploitation
and conflict. Intermediate strata are considered in more detailed Marxist theories.
. The key elements of the superstructure include the institutions of the state but
also the family, the Church, the education system and the mass media.
Marxists also focus on relationships between the economic base and the
superstructure and argue that the economic base heavily influences the
organisation and operation of the institutions of the superstructure although some
Neo-Marxists , especially those influenced by Gramsci, assert that the
superstructure operates to some extent independently of the economic base.
According to Marx the inequalities and instability associated ith capitalism would
lead ultimately to the transitions to Socialism and then Communism possibly via
revolution although Marx also suggested that a Parliamentary road to Socialism
might be possible in Western European capitalist societies
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Marxism: a very brief summary [2]
In Marxist theories the State is defined to include the Government, the
Civil Service, the Judiciary, the Police and Military and the institutions of
Regional and Local Government.
Louis Althusser defines the family, the Church, the education system
and the mass media as Ideological State Apparatuses. [ISAs]
Antonio Gramsci defines the State as consisting of Political Society
plus Civil Society and the above mentioned ISAs are seen as part of
Civil Society.
Within the Marxist theoretical framework there has been an important
debate about the nature of the State between Ralph Miliband and Nicos
Poulantzas who are said to adopt Instrumentalist and Structuralist
approaches respectively to the analysis of the State.
This debate is considered briefly toward the end of this presentation
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Theories of Post-Capitalism
By the 1950s and early 1960s it was argued widely that Western
capitalism had changed very significantly to such an extent that
modern Western societies could better be described as “PostCapitalist” rather than as “Capitalist”.
Consequently even if Marx’ theories of capitalism had been
relevant to the analysis of 19th Century capitalism they were
decreasingly relevant by the Mid 20th Century and Marx’
predictions as to the future development of capitalist societies
appeared increasingly inaccurate.
According to the Post-Capitalist theorists the immiserisation of
the proletariat and polarisation of classes had not occurred and
Marxist-inspired socialist revolution was entirely unnecessary and
therefore very unlikely to occur.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The Claims of Post-Capitalist Theorists [1]
The economic power of the UK Capitalist Class had declined as a
result of the nationalisation of several basic industries such as Coal,
Gas, Electricity and the Railways.
The increased technological and commercial complexity of modern
industry meant that decision making power had been transferred from
the Capitalist owners to skilled managers who were likely to take into
account objectives such as worker satisfaction and public corporate
image as well as profitability in their decision making whereas the
Capitalist owners had been much more concerned with profitability.
This element of Post-Capitalist theory was known as “the Managerial
Revolution” or “the Divorce of Ownership from Control”.
Consequently the Bourgeoisie [the owners of the means of production]
could no longer be regarded as the dominant economic class.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The Claims of Post-Capitalist Theorist [2]
Significant changes in social class structure were occurring in
post-capitalist societies.
The relative sizes of the middle class and the skilled working
class were increasing.
The relative sizes of the semi-skilled and unskilled working
classes were declining
There was a general trend toward greater income and wealth
equality and more widespread ownership consumer durables.
Full employment, economic growth and the expansion of the
Welfare State were improving average working class living
standards and reducing poverty.
Increased Welfare State expenditures were beginning to
improve health and equalise educational opportunity.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The Claims of Post Capitalist Theorists [3]
Universal adult suffrage combined with the growth of the
Labour Party and the Trade Union Movement coupled with the
continued existence of full employment in the post-2nd World War
era had increased the potential political influence and the
economic power of the working class.
Increasing numbers of diverse pressure groups were formed all
of which sought to influence government policy in various ways.
Theories of Classical Pluralism were developed which
suggested that the above developments had caused political
power to be more widely and equally distributed rather than
monopolised by an economically and politically dominant
Bourgeoisie [as in Marxist Theory] of by a political elite [as in
Elite Theories].
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society: The Analysis of the Western
System of Power : Ralph Miliband 1969.[1]
In this study Ralph Miliband, a Marxist academic, sought to
refute the already mentioned conclusions of the Post-Capitalist
theorists and to reassert the validity of the Marxist Theory of the
State.
He sought also to demonstrate that even by the 1960s the
economic dominant class [the Bourgeoisie] still wielded not total
political power but disproportionate political power.
There was indeed some political competition for political power
and influence between competing political parties and pressure
groups but this was an “Imperfect Competition” in which the
Bourgeoisie held the dominant [position so that it could still
reasonable be described as an economically and politically
dominant Ruling Class.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [2]
Ralph Miliband denies that post-2nd World War nationalisation
programmes significantly reduced the economic power of the
capitalist class.
He denies the validity of the Managerial Revolution /Divorce of
Ownership from Control
He claims that changes to the UK class structure have been
less significant than suggested by Post-Capitalist theorists.
He denied that affluent sections of the working class were
experiencing a process of Embourgeoisement.
The redistribution of income and wealth has been mainly from
the rich to the comfortably off with little redistribution to the poor;
affluent working class members are significantly worse of than
most members of the middle class; relative poverty and social
class differences in health and educational opportunity remain
despite the expansion of the Welfare State.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [3]
Ralph Miliband rejects the methodology and conclusions of
theories of Classical Pluralism.
In his study Power: A Radical View [1974; Second Edition 2005]
Steven Lukes distinguishes three Faces of Power.
Ralph Miliband distinguishes explicitly between the first two
faces of power and his emphasis on the ideological dimensions
of power indicate that he also recognises the importance of what
Steven Lukes would subsequently call the Third Face of Power.
On this basis we may conclude that in 1969 Ralph Miliband was
using a concept of power very similar to that employed by Steven
Lukes
He therefore rejected the Classical Pluralist measurement of
power in terms of the outcome of actual decisions as inadequate.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [4]
Continuing from the previous slide students may feel that they
need additional information on the concept of power and
particularly on the three faces of power which can be found here .
You can discuss this with your teachers!
Ralph Miliband did not claim that there were no aspects of
Classical Pluralism in contemporary capitalist systems but that
Capital was by face the dominant influence on State decision –
making and that it was engaged in an “imperfect competition” with
the Labour Party the Trade Unions and other pressure groups all
of which had far less political power than the dominant economic
class.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [5]
The dominant economic class has disproportionate political
power for several reasons.
Business pressure groups are especially well financed and well
organised and their lobbyists have easy access to governing
politicians.
A pro-Business ideology is shared especially by Conservative
politicians but also by relatively moderate Labour politicians and
Trade Union leaders.
Business spokespersons and politicians alike are very prone to
define the interests of business as equivalent to the national
interest. As someone once said “What is good for General Motors
is good for the USA”.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [6]
More on the political power of the dominant economic class
The British Conservative Party was especially electorally successful in the first
70 years of the 20th Century [and after a brief Labour interlude between 1974 and
1979 would form governments continuously from 1979 to 1997] during which time
it could pursue essentially pro-business policies.
The electoral success of the Conservative Party occurred because despite
substantial class inequality it nevertheless attracted support from significant
numbers of working class voters.
The leadership of the Labour Party and of the Trade Union movement mostly
espoused a very moderate form of social democratic ideology which did not
challenge the continued existence of capitalism and the dominance of the
capitalist class..
The political power of the capitalist class derives also from the structural position
of capital within the economy: the government is dependent upon the private
sector for the provision of employment, economic growth, rising living standards
and taxation revenue.
Therefore governments’ re-election are dependent to a considerable extent of
the profitability of industry which explains governments’ pro-business policies
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [7]
The institutions of the State are controlled by a series of State elites
whose members share similar ideological views and will govern in the
interests of the Bourgeoisie for the following reasons.
A large proportion of Cabinet Ministers have been involved in business
and business people are heavily involved in many government advisory
groups and in the governing of the Central Bank [the Bank of England.
Administrative, Judicial and Military elites are drawn disproportionately
from the higher reaches of the middle and the upper classes. They will
often have been educated at prestigious private schools and elite
universities.
Miliband assumes that this pattern of recruitment results in a powerful,
pro-capitalist ideological consensus within the State elites in which the
national interest is defined in terms of the interests of capitalism.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [8]
When talented working class people are recruited to State elite
positions they will soon recognise that their promotion prospects
depend on the willingness to discard any radical views which they
may have had.
It is argued that the recruitment of working class candidates to
State elite positions is evidence of substantial social mobility and
meritocracy . However according to Ralph Miliband the real
extent of social mobility in the UK is limited and the Uk is far from
being a meritocratic society.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [9]
Miliband argues that a ruling class ideology supportive of the
continued existence of capitalism and the dominance of the
Bourgeoisie is widely disseminated especially via the mass
media and the education system..
This ideology is accepted by Conservative Parties, the
members of the State elites and also , to a considerable extent,
by leaders of Social Democratic Parties such as the Labour Party
and by Trade Union leaders.
Many working class people also accept this ideology or at least
accommodate passively to it although, according to Marxists, it is
not in their interests to do so. They are said to be subject to
“False Class Consciousness” .
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
The State in Capitalist Society [10]
Finally Miliband and other Marxists argue that “Political Power is
visible in its consequences”. The continued existence of great
inequalities of wealth, income and opportunity is seen as a
consequence of inequality of political power. How otherwise could
inequalities of income, wealth and opportunity be sustained?.
Furthermore the unequal distribution of political power is also
seen as a consequence of the unequal distribution of income
,wealth and opportunity so that a vicious cycle is clearly in
operation.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas: Instrumentalist and
Structuralist Marxism.[1]
In the late 1960s and early 1970s a significant theoretical
debate ensued between Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas
around differing Marxist interpretations of the State.
It is argued that whereas Ralph Miliband has devised what has
been called an Instrumentalist Theory of the State in Capitalist
Society Nicos Poulantzas has devised so-called Structuralist
Theory of the Capitalist State.
What does this mean?
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas: Instrumentalist and Structuralist
Marxism.[2] Ralph Miliband
Miliband’s theory has been seen as evolving from the statement by Marx and
Engels in The Communist Manifesto[1848] that “ the Executive of the modern
state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the Bourgeoisie”.
It has been described as an instrumentalist theory in the sense that the capitalist
class is seen as having the power to ensure that state elites have the power to
ensure that the state elites operate in the interests of the Bourgeoisie or capitalist
class.
Effectively, therefore, the state is seen as an instrument which is under the
control of the Bourgeoisie or capitalist class.
Miliband argues also that state elites do have considerable freedom of
manouevre to decide upon particular policies but that their actual decisions are to
a considerable extent influenced by their own privileged social class background.
Consequently the state elites take decisions which overwhelmingly support the
interests of the Bourgeoisie
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas: Instrumentalist and Structuralist
Marxism.[3] Nicos Poulantzas
Nicos Poulantzas theory is seen as evolving from Marx’ study entitled “ The 18th
Brumaire of Louis Napoleon” and is regarded as a Structuralist Marxist theory of
the State.
Poulantzas emphasises that the capitalist class is itself divided into fractions
[e.g. finance capitalists and manufacturing capitalists and/or large scale and
small scale capitalists] which although they all support the continued existence of
capitalism as a system, may nevertheless have conflicting interests within that
system .
According to Poulantzas the capitalist state must be accorded the autonomy to
resolve these conflicts of interests and also to grant occasional concessions to the
working class which, although they may be opposed by the capitalist class, are
actually necessary to ensure the continued survival of the capitalist system as a
whole.
Consequently the capitalist state operates with some autonomy : it is not the
simple instrument of the capitalist class.. But…now read on
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas: Instrumentalist and
Structuralist Marxism.[4] Nicos Poulantzas
However the autonomy of the state can only be relative. In
seeking to resolve conflicts within the capitalist class or to reduce
the grievances of the working class the state can introduce only
those policies which are viable within an ongoing capitalist
structure. For example the state might attempt to resolve
working class grievances via moderate expansion of the welfare
state but not via large scale nationalisation or the introduction of
very high taxation of profits.
The “relative autonomy of the state” is therefore a key concept
within Nicos Poulantzas’ theory
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas: Instrumentalist and
Structuralist Marxism.[5] Nicos Poulantzas
Nicos Poulantzas’ theory is described as Structuralist Marxist
theory because Poulantzas argues that the decisions of state
elite members are influenced far more by the structural position of
the state within capitalist societies than by the social
backgrounds and political values and attitudes of state elite
members themselves.
Here is seen one of the significant differences between the
theories Poulantzas and of Miliband although Miliband did argue
that he had actually acknowledged the importance of structural
constraints but that Poulantzas had overstated them .
Thus , in one of his books Miliband stated that , Poulantzas had
fallen prey to “structural super-determinism.”
General issues of “structure versus agency” are clearly at work
here.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas: Instrumentalist and
Structuralist Marxism.[6] Nicos Poulantzas
In Poulantzas’ theory a state within a capitalist system can
further its own objectives only by facilitating the continued
development of the capitalist system as a whole. For example:
the maintenance of full employment, economic growth and
rising living standards is dependent upon the success of the
capitalist system;
government spending plans, for example on Health and
Education are dependent upon taxation revenues which in turn
depend upon the effectiveness of the capitalist system;
Governments’ electoral prospects are to a considerable extent
dependent upon the health of the capitalist economy.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas: Instrumentalist and
Structuralist Marxism.[7] Nicos Poulantzas
It follows that all governments in capitalist societies are obliged
to pursue policies which are consistent with the continuation of
capitalism and therefore with the interests of the capitalist class.
For Example.
They ensure that rates of corporation tax and rates of income
tax on high income earners are relatively low.
They ensure that environmental and health and safety
regulations do not impose costs which capitalist firms consider
excessive.
They introduce industrial relations legislation which may be
seen as restricting the power of trades unions to defend workers’
living standards
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas: Instrumentalist and Structuralist
Marxism.[8] Nicos Poulantzas
Without such policies capitalist profitability would fall; economic competitiveness
would be reduced; some capitalist firms would relocate to other countries;
employment would fall; government revenues would be reduced; governments
would be more likely to suffer electoral defeat.
At the same time, however, the state uses its relative autonomy to make
occasional moderate concessions to the working class which reduce the dangers
of political stability which would also undermine capitalist viability.
In all cases, ,according to Poulantzas, government policies are influenced far
more by the structural position of governments within capitalist societies than by
the social backgrounds and political attitudes of those in state elite positions.
On the other hand Ralph Miliband gives greater emphasis to the importance of
the social backgrounds of those in state elite positions. However he does not
entirely neglect structural factors although he does claim that Poulantzas has
overstated their importance.
As mentioned Miliband believes that Poulantzas has been prey to “structural
super-determinism!
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Conclusions[1]
You may like to discuss with your teachers the extent to which
Marxist theories of the State help to explain the developments of
UK government policy in the post-2nd World War.
For example it could be argued from a Marxist perspective that
in the era of the post-war consensus the political conditions were
such that the State did make substantial concession to working
class interests without fundamentally altering patterns of class
inequality.
In the subsequent era of relative neo-liberal dominance Marxists
would argue that state policies reflected even more closely the
interests of capital and that class inequalities have consequently
hardened.
In this context the Blair-Brown Governments would be seen as
essentially continuing the neo-liberal policy agenda , a view that
would be rejected, for example, by Third Way theorists.
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Introducing Marxist Theories of the State
Conclusions [2]
In any case of course Marxist theories of the State have been
criticised from differing theoretical perspectives such as those of
Elite Theory and Competitive Elitism [where you will find the ideas of
Max Weber and Joseph Schumpeter], Functionalism, Pluralism
[which itself contains the differing approaches of Classical Pluralism,
Elite Pluralism and Neo-Pluralism], Corporatism, New Right Theory,
Feminism and Post-Modernism.
In order to evaluate Marxist theories of the state detailed familiarity
with these competing perspectives is of course necessary and I wish
you every success in your study of these perspectives
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