Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Essentials of What Is Psychology?
Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Measuring Sensation and Perception Must first focus conscious awareness or attention Sense organs detect information via sensation Stimuli are converted to signals that the brain can process Information is interpreted through process of perception Psychophysics – branch of psychology devoted to study of sensation and perception Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Absolute Thresholds What are the limits of senses? Absolute threshold Minimum intensity of stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning The Just Noticeable Difference and Weber’s Law What is the minimum change in intensity of a stimulus that can be detected? Difference threshold or just noticeable difference (JND) Weber’s Law – change in stimulus needed to produce a jnd depends on intensity of stimulus when first present Helps explain subjectivity of experience Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Processing Without Awareness: Subliminal Stimulation of the Senses Subliminal – stimuli at intensities too weak to reach absolute threshold The Coke “experiment” Flashed “drink coke” throughout movie (faster than conscious awareness) Testing subliminal perception Failure to yield convincing evidence of effectiveness of subliminal persuasion Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Extrasensory Perception: Can Perception Occur Without the Five Senses? Extrasensory Perception (ESP) Ability to acquire information about the world without using the known senses Ganzfeld procedure “sender” and “receiver” in different rooms Little support for ESP Neuroimaging no difference in activity when correct vs incorrect Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning How Vision Works: Light Waves and Energy Vision depends on the eye converting electromagnetic waves into action potentials for brain to process Light is electromagnetic energy Color and brightness determined by physical characteristics of light energy Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Measuring Light: Wavelength and Amplitude Wavelength Distance between peaks of consecutive waves Amplitude Height of each wave peak Human eye perceives only part of the field of electromagnetic energy Visible spectrum of light is 360 to 750 nm Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Properties of Light: Hue, Brightness and Saturation Hue corresponds to light’s wavelength Shorter is cool, longer is warm Brightness corresponds to light’s amplitude Higher is brighter Saturation corresponds to light’s purity Light of single wavelength produces most saturated (i.e. richest) Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning The Anatomy of the Outer Eye Cornea Clear outer surface protects eye and begins focusing process Passing through, light waves slow down and bend Pupil Opening through which light passes Iris (colored part) controls adaptation of pupil to light and dark Lens Focuses images through accommodation Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning The Retina: Light Energy to Neural Messages Surface lining inside of back of eyeball Once light waves focus, conversion of light waves into neural impulses happens at the retina Rods and cones convert light into action potentials Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Optic Nerve and Blindspot Blindspot - point where optic nerve leaves retina; no rods or cones The blindspot is not a problem because At side of visual field Both eyes work together Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Rod and Cones Rods Long and skinny, sensitive to all colors of light Don’t transmit color information to brain Highest concentration found at edges of retina Cones Short and fat, transmit color information to brain Require higher intensity light to activate Highest concentration found at fovea More rods than cones Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Turing Light Energy into Neural Messages Photopigments – chemicals activated by light energy found in rods and cones Dark and Light Adaptation Accomplished partly by changes in pupil size Additional process involves photopigment use Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning How We See Color Three different types of photopigments in cones help us see color = Primary colors of light are red, green, and blue; all colors made from combinations Different from primary colors of paint (red, yellow, and blue) Perception of color is due to the color of light entering eye Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning The Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision Opponent-process cell sensitive to two colors of light Red/green, yellow/blue, black/white Cells can only detect presence of one color at a time, therefore oppose each other Explains negative afterimages Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Do Men and Women See the World Differently? Females Better at discriminating objects, naming colors, processing facial expressions Prefer using many colors Prefer warm colors Males Better at processing moving objects and spatial aspects of object Evolutionary or cultural? Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Vibration and Sound Sounds produce waves of compressed air that convert to neural impulses Cycle = the peak of the sound wave and the valley following it Loudness = amplitude (height of wave) Measured in decibels (dB) Pitch = frequency (number of cycles/second) Measured in hertz (Hz) Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning A Noisy Environment Can Lead to Hearing Loss Exposure to noisy environments associated with greater age-related hearing loss Limit exposure to loud noises (e.g. loud concerts) Pay attention to difference in hearing after exposure to loud noises Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning The Anatomy and Function of the Ear Cochlea – turns sounds waves into neural impulses Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Taste: Information From the Tongue Taste and smell are interconnected Referred to as chemical senses as chemicals must come into contact with sense organs Gustation (taste) - chemicals dissolved in saliva come into contact with tongue Smell - Chemicals in air come into contact with cells in nasal cavity Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Properties of Taste: The Four - or Five - Tastes Four types of taste that tongue detects Bitter, sweet, salty, sour A fifth taste Umami (glutamate) primarily found in Asian foods Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Anatomy and Function of the Tongue Taste buds – reside in pits between papillae (bumps on tongue) Convert chemicals into neural impulses that are conveyed to brain 2000 to 5000 taste buds Can regenerate after damage Different taste buds are found in different locations along tongue, none in center Taste blindspot Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Why Don’t We All Like the Same Foods? Age Loss of taste buds with age; may diminish sense of taste Culture Availability of food sources; religious values and traditions Learning Biological Factors Hormonal and genetic influences Supertasters and nontasters Sense of smell Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning The Mystery of Smell Researchers do not know exactly how sense of smell works Lock-and-key-theory: Specific odor molecules unlock certain olfactory receptors Converted impulses travel from olfactory nerve to olfactory bulb in brain Some information to smell cortex, some to limbic system; emotional associations Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pheromones – Are Some Odors Sexy? Used by animals to communicate via pheromones Humans? Some evidence affects humans: Women cycle together (exposed women’s sweat) More interactions with men (men’s sweat) No perfumes found to increase our attractiveness to others Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Touch: The Skin Sense Originates in skin, which contains touch receptors Different types of receptors for touch, temperature, and pain Pressure on skin leads to neural impulses that travel to spinal cord and brain Signals enter thalamus and go to somatosensory cortex of parietal lobe Threatening stimuli go to limbic system Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning The Body Senses: Experiencing the Physical Body in Space Senses that help us experience the body in space Kinesthesis Sensing position of body parts in space and in relation to one another Vestibular Sense of balance Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Kinesthesis Important in athletics Uses information from muscles, tendons, skin and joints Processed in somatosensory cortex and cerebellum Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Perception: Interpreting Sensory Information Perception – interpretation of sensory information Top-down perceptual processing VS. Bottom-up perceptual processing Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning © 2010 Using What We Know: Top-Down Perceptual Processing Using previously gained knowledge to help interpret stimulus Helps in quickly perceiving something Helps fill in missing information Can lead to mistakes in perception Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Building a Perception From Scratch: BottomUp Perceptual Processing Using properties of stimulus to build perception of the stimulus Piecing together perception of many different components Both processes are used continually Perception further influenced by complexity of environment, including movement Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Understanding What We Sense: Perceiving Size, Shape, and Brightness Perceptual constancy - how our brain “corrects” perception to allow a constant perception of objects Size constancy, brightness constancy and color constancy Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Depth Perception: Binocular Cues 3-dimensional world is projected onto retina in two dimensions – how corrected? Binocular depth cues rely on information based on retinal disparity Each eye sees slightly different information Amount of disparity experienced is a function of distance from object Brain uses amount of retinal disparity to calculate how far object is, enabling depth perception Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Depth Perception: Monocular Cues Rely on the use of one eye Easily demonstrated in art Interposition Height on horizon Relative Size Texture Gradient Aerial Perspective Linear Perspective Motion parallax Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Perceiving Form: The Gestalt Approach The whole of a perception is greater than the sum of its parts Perceptual laws Figure-ground Figures are seen in the context of background; figure pulled forward and ground pushed back Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Perceiving Form: The Gestalt Approach (cont.) Closure Tendency to mentally fill in or close object Preference for solid shapes over lines Proximity and similarity Group stimuli together that are close in proximity or similar Good continuation Prefer to perceive stimuli that are part of a pattern Camouflage Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Perceiving Form: Feature Detection Theory Cells in visual cortex fire in response to only certain stimuli Confirmed by animal studies Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Errors Due to Top-Down Processing: Seeing What We Expect to See Misapplied expectations Thinking we heard or saw something not actually heard or seen Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Errors Due to Perceptual Constancy Moon illusion - Moon appears larger as it rises over horizon No interposition cues when moon overhead Ponzo illusion - Lines of equal length lying across converging lines appear to be unequal in length Attempt to maintain size constancy Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning Pastorino/Doyle-Portillo Essentials of What Is Psychology? 1st edition © 2010 Cengage Learning
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