Journalism 614: The History of Public Opinion The History of Public Opinion  Must understand history to understand the current ideas about public opinion and possible directions for future inquiry  Three kinds of history – Intellectual, theoretical debates over what constitutes public opinion – Sociocultural tracing of how opinions have been expressed and assessed – Communication developments linking opinion of key events and occurrences 1. Philosophical Debates  Pre-enlightenment philosophy: – Then, educate public so opinion is in line with the spirit of a fixed, sovereign law  Contemporary approach: – Now, modify the law so that it is in line with the spirit of sovereign general will Plato & Aristotle - 4th Century BC  Plato distrusted the masses – Unsure if citizens can understand their own interests and strive toward a sound state – Argued for educated philosopher kings  Aristotle believed in “power of community” – Defended the wisdom of the citizen – Institutions should take “climate of opinion,” values, norms, and taste — into account Machiavelli - 16th Century  Focused on the strategic use of power by political leaders; how to outmaneuver  Recognized that public opinion has political force that leaders must contend with  Even in the most peaceful society, there are conflicting values between rulers and ruled Contract Theorists - 17th Century  Hobbes – Public is crucial to the formation of the state – Structure of the state created by a “contract” between the public and its leadership – Little need to for ongoing participation  Locke – Argued for genuine and regular participation in civic and political life by citizens – Public opinion is an expression of democratic rights French Enlightenment - 18th Century  Rousseau – Need to place power in the hands of the public – Recognize the need to respect the community – The state is based on the general will • What citizens believe is the best course of action for the community, for the welfare of the populace – Citizen think about their interests and needs but also reason about the general good of society The Utilitarians - 19th Century  Bentham – Public opinion as a sanction – A force that keeps society at equilibrium – Discourages non-normative behaviors • Say within an acceptable latitude  Mills – Emphasized the importance of majority opinion – Greatest good for the greatest number Political Theorists - 19th Century  Tocqueville – Public opinion as a force of social control • Hints at the “spiral of silence” – Recognized the relationship between political equality and importance of public opinion • In systems of inequality, mass opinion is unimportant; focus on political stakeholders • In systems of equality, individuals view themselves as capable and mass opinion is important Political Theorists - 19th Century  Marx – The corruption of democracy by capitalism • Freedom as consumer choice not individual rights – Common citizens tend to mimic the opinions of the ruling class - people with wealth and power • Media and elite opinion leads public opinion • Often hold opinions in contrast with self-interest • Hegemony - control of mass consciousness 20th Century Theorists  Bryce – Traced the role of news organs in the communication of public opinion – Mass media hold a place among other major social institutions - courts, legislature – News media direct and reflect public opinion • Central role for media in political process – Recognized the importance of conversation 20th Century Theorists  Tarde – The press shapes conversation, which in turn shapes opinion and action Media —> Conversation —> Opinion —>Action – Lippmann and Dewey pick up this debate 2. Sociocultural History  Trends in expression and measurement – An increasing emphasis on order and routinization – Movement toward private and anonymous expression – Shift from local to national to international Pre-19th Century Techniques  Less systematic, more public, and local – Opinion is communicated through rhetoric • The art of public speaking and persuasion - 5th C. BC • Oratory, the expression of ideas and values • Rhetoric conveyed in unmediated, public forums – Opinion is communicated in printed word • • • • Printing press enables formation of publics - 16th C. Large number of dispersed people can communicate People can ally with causes, ideas, and institutions Permitted political mobilization of groups Coffeehouses and Salons - 17th C.  Locations of political discussion – Spend hours discussing the news of the day – Coffeehouse: a public space • Lawyers, journalists, tradesmen, workers • Diversity of perspectives encourage debate • Democratic view of public opinion – Salons: exclusive and bourgeois • Intellectuals, statesmen, artists • Visited by Kings to gauge public sentiment • Elitist view of public opinion Petitions and Rallies - 17th/18th C.  Signed declaration of public sentiment – Focus political attention on certain issues – Often angrily presented to leadership • Slow shift toward social and institutional control  Public demonstration of opinion – Rallies, rioting and other public demonstrations • Strikes, marches, public speeches • LA Riots and other “popular disturbances” Elections and Polling - 19th/20th C.  Elections – Secret ballot contrasts with the traditionally public and attributed nature of mass opinion  Straw polling – Nonscientific, non-representative polls – Still done today with “call in” and “e-polls” – Literary Digest Fiasco, 1936 Representative Surveys - 20th C.  George Gallup and Ralph Nafziger – Pioneers in public opinion survey methods – Sampling theory, random sample, response rate – The dominant means of assessing mass opinion  Sum of individual opinions – Misses the notion of opinion elites – Misses the questions of “power” & “influence” 3. Communication and Opinion  Modern public relations developed in U.S.  Result of political and markets freedoms – Need to manage public opinion to thrive  Old concept - dating back to notion of propaganda devised by Catholic Church – Tool to propagate the religion  Has become a vital way for business leaders to deal with economic factors, competitive environment, and policy pressures. History of Public Relations in US  Hyping the Colonies – Many settlers came to US in response to exaggerated publicity claims to “secure money and men” – Use poems, sermons, broadsides, and pamphlets  Fostering a Revolution – Tools of political public relations used to support American revolt - 1763 - 1776 – Use of symbols, slogans, staged events, news framing – Same tools critical to ratification of Constitution Press Agents & the 19th Century  Press agents, promotion, and ads support railroad efforts to sell land and lure settlers to the West  Taken to a new level by P.T. Barnum Circus  By end of the 19th Century, advertising is pervasive in all aspects of commerce – An outgrowth of industrialization – J. Walter Thompson founded in 1864 – Focus on name recognition and liking – First PR firm in 1900 - Publicity Bureau Ads and PR in Early 20th Cent.  Beginning with WWI, Wilson uses “information ministry to build public support – Shift from defensive - reputation protection - to offensive to build patriotic fervor  Rise of experts in advertising, marketing, public relations, and fundraising for post-war boom  Bernays pens “Crystallizing Public Opinion” – Defines PR as “two-way street” – Must interpret the public for the institution and present the institution to the public The Modern Age  WWII and the action agencies – Need publicity to win cooperation and acceptance – 100,000 people served in information posts (PR)  Birth of the scientific public opinion poll – Roper, Gallup, Nafziger develop systems: 1932 -1945 – Key tool for public relations specialists  Rise of television, globalization, and Internet – Information overload with marketing messages – Mergers of PR and advertising agencies for integration