1. hobbies and interests
2. inventors and patents

Journal of Intellectual Property Rights
Vol 14, November 2009, pp 513-522
Importance of Assignment Agreements under Intellectual Property Laws in India*
Sindhura Chakravarty†
Hidayatullah National Law University, HNLU Bhawan, Civil Lines, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 492 001
Received 20 August 2009, revised 29 October 2009
A well-established statutory, administrative and judicial framework exists in India to safeguard intellectual property,
relating to patents, trademarks, copyright or industrial designs.1 An important aspect of these laws deals with assignment
agreements. An assignment agreement is an intellectual property (IP) transaction that deals with the ownership and
disposition of intellectual property rights as well as with the control over the use of or access to intellectual property. This
paper attempts to briefly explain assignment agreements in general terms as well as the essential requirements for
assignment agreements under the Indian Contract Act, 1872, and the Indian Stamp Act, 1899. It discusses in detail the
sections pertaining to assignment agreements in the legislations on Intellectual Property Law in India. It also provides
information regarding the forms through which assignment of the intellectual property can be registered. The Madrid
protocol and the rules regarding assignment of trademarks in the international forum have also been discussed.
Keywords: Assignment Agreement, Contract Act, copyrights, patents, trademark, geographical indications, designs,
semiconductor integrated circuit layout design, plant varieties, biological resources, Stamp Act, recordal
procedure
Assignment Agreements
Assignment agreements pertain to the transfer of
intellectual property rights from the owner of the
rights to another person or organization. An
Intellectual Property Agreement (IP Agreement) or an
Intellectual Property Assignment Agreement is a
written and enforceable contract that consummates
and formalizes an agreement between two companies
for the purchase and sale of intellectual property
rights. The intellectual property being purchased can
consist of copyrights, trademarks and/or patents.2
Assignment agreements differ from license
agreements on the grounds that an assignment
agreement actually transfers the ownership of that
intellectual property from the assignor to the assignee
whereas a license agreement only permits the licensee
to use the intellectual property for a given period
of time.
An assignment agreement cannot be compared to a
negotiable instrument because in case of negotiation,
the transferee can get better title than transferor,
which can never happen in assignment/transfer.
——————
†
Email: Corresponding author: [email protected]
*
Edited by Dr Sudhir Ravindran, Solicitor-England & Wales,
Patent & Trademark Agent and Attorney with Altacit Global,
Altacit Global, Creative Enclave, III Floor,#148-150, Luz Church
Road, Mylapore, Chennai 600 004. Email: [email protected]
For example, if A assigns to B, the assignment is
stolen by C and assigned to D who takes it in good
faith and for value without any notice of the defect in
C’s title, D will have no rights against A. However if
A draws a cheque (negotiable instrument) in favour of
B, the cheque is stolen by C and negotiated to D, who
takes it in good faith and for value without any notice
of the defect in C’s title then D will be entitled to
value of cheque.3
Intellectual property created by students in a
University Research and Development (R&D)
programme can be assigned by the student in the
absence of an agreement as the student is the owner
of the intellectual property created. Most
universities, however, have policies requiring
students to sign pre-invention agreements regarding
the same.
An assignment agreement may involve a complete
and exclusive sale of the rights, thus giving the
assignee complete ownership to exploit the
intellectual property rights in whatever way, shape, or
form it likes, and this is, however, subject to
any limitations listed in the agreement. Partial
assignments are also possible as specified in Section
18 of the Indian Copyright Act. Usually the assignee
will pay the assignor cash or stock consideration in
exchange for these rights.4
J INTELLEC PROP RIGHTS, NOVEMBER 2009
514
Essential Requirements
Agreement
of
an
Assignment
Requirements under the Indian Contract Act, 1872
As per Section 2(h) of the Indian Contract Act,
1872, any agreement that is legally enforceable
by law can be called a contract. An assignment
agreement to be valid must satisfy the requirements of
the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Therefore, it has to be
made by the free consent of parties competent to
contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful
object and also has to be made in such a manner that
it is not declared void under Section 10 of the Indian
Contract Act, 1872. For instance in the case of
Alexander v Rayson,5 P let a flat to R of $1200 a year.
To reduce the municipal tax he entered into two
agreements with R. One, by which the rent was stated
to be $450 only and the other by which R agreed to
pay $750 for services in connection with the flat.
In a suit filed against R to recover $750, it was
held that the agreement was made to defraud the
municipal authority and was void and A cannot
recover the money.
In contract law, the term ‘assignment’ means a
transfer or making over to another of the whole of any
property, real or personal, in possession or in action,
or if in estate or in right therein.6 To simplify, it refers
to an agreement by means of which the rights or
obligations of one party can be transferred to another
party. Though not specifically mentioned in the
Indian Contract Act, 1872, assignments have been
inherited from English Contract Law.7 Assignment
agreements in the context of intellectual property law
refers to the transfer of a specific kind of rightsintellectual property rights, which are personal,
movable property. This is considered a lawful object.
To be a valid and legally enforceable contract it
must be ensured that the consideration provided is
also lawful and the contract itself is lawful. An
agreement stating that a person would work for
another person for two years in return for Rs 100 and
in case of default would have to pay an exorbitant
interest and principal at once was held to be
indistinguishable from bonded labour and was thus
held void.8 Assignment can only be made from free
consent of both parties. The parties to the agreement
must also be competent to contract- thus neither can
be a minor or of unsound mind according to Section
11 and 12 of the Indian Contract Act, respectively.
It is interesting to note at this point that as per
English law, a minor can dispose of a copyright
in the same way as an adult subject to the rules
of infant contracts.9
The Indian Contract Act, 1872 does contain certain
provisions which indirectly refer to assignment yet it
does not specify what assignments are or are not good
in law.10 The courts have however made certain
guidelines regarding the same. For instance, it has
been determined by the Madras High Court that an
agreement regarding the publishing of a book between
an author and a publisher is personal to the
individuals entering it and the benefit received from
this cannot be assigned.11 It has also been determined
by the High Court of Lahore that a copyright cannot
be assigned for a non-existing work.12
Both Section 37 and Section 40 of the Indian
Contract Act, 1872 allude to the enforceability of
assignments by laying down that subject to certain
exceptions, a contract in the absence of a contrary
intention, express or implied, will be enforceable by
and against the parties and their legal heirs and legal
representatives including assignees and transferees.13
Section 40 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 specifies
that a contract which the promisor is required to
perform personally is not capable of assignment.14
Assignment agreements are thus a form of contract
and must therefore satisfy the requirements that are
mentioned under the Contract Act. It is only then that
the assignment agreement can be enforced by filing a
suit for damages under Section 73 of the Indian
Contract Act, 1872.
Requirements under the Indian Stamp Act, 1899
The Stamp Act is a fiscal measure enacted to
secure revenue for the state on certain classes of
instruments.15 As per Section 2(14) of the Indian
Stamp Act, 1899, an instrument includes every
document by which any right or liability is, or
purports to be, created, transferred, limited, extended
extinguished or recorded. An assignment agreement
involves the transfer of intellectual property rights and
hence it would fall under the purview of the definition
of the term ‘instrument’ as per the Act. As per the
schedule, depending on whether the assignment
pertains to ‘conveyance’, ‘transfer’ or ‘transfer of
lease’ different stamp duty is to be charged. As per
Section 23 on ‘conveyance’ in the Indian Stamp Act,
1899, an assignment of a Copyright is exempted from
Stamp Duty. Therefore, in a Deed of Assignment,
assigning copyright along with some other property,
say trademarks, it is advisable to state as to what
part of consideration is towards the assignment of
CHAKRAVARTY: IMPORTANCE OF ASSIGNMENT AGREEMENTS UNDER IP LAWS IN INDIA
copyright, thereby exemption from stamp duty can
be sought on that portion of the assignment.
In Bihar, however, the above-mentioned exemption
of copyright assignments has been deleted by the
Amendment made by the State Act with effect from
31st March 1958 as a result of the examination of
exemptions suggested by the Taxation Enquiry
Committee.16 In Uttar Pradesh, the exemption is
restricted to assignment of copyright in musical
works.17
In a recent case regarding trademarks,18 it was
determined that Section 35 of the Indian Stamp Act,
1899 prohibited the courts from admitting into
evidence documents not duly stamped merely to
ensure Stamp duty collection and could not be used as
a means of denying a person rightful ownership.
Thus, it can be seen that though Stamp duty is
applicable on assignment of intellectual property
(except Copyright) in most States of India, the
non-payment of this cannot invalidate the assignment.
Assignment of Intellectual Property
Assignment of Copyrights
Copyright is often referred to as the ‘Cinderella of
Intellectual Property Law’.19 This is because it was
once over-shadowed by the twin sisters- Franchise
Law and Patent Law but it now plays a very important
role in the IP regime. It provides protection to authors,
composers and other artists against unauthorized
reproduction of their work.20 The exact meaning of
the term with respect to India is given in detail in
Section 14 of the Copyright Act, 1957.
Copyrights are personal, moveable property and
can be transferred though assignment agreements
from one person to the other. In India, Sections 18, 19
and 19A of the Copyright Act, 1957 govern the
assignment of copyrights. Section 18 of this Act gives
every copyright holder the right to transfer his
copyright to an assignee by means of an assignment
agreement.
Section 19(1) of the Copyright Act, 1957 clearly
states that no assignment of the copyright in any work
shall be valid unless it is in writing signed by the
assignor or by his duly authorized agent. Thus, no
particular form of assignment is required under
Section 19 of the Copyright Act, 1957 and it will
suffice if the assignment can be culled out in writing
from some document.21 Oral assignment of copyright
is neither permissible nor valid.22 In a case,23 the
Supreme Court held that an existing and future right
515
of a music composer and lyricist is capable of
assignment, subject to the conditions that the
assignment shall take effect only when the work
comes into existence and the assignment is required
to be in writing, signed by the assignor or his duly
authorized agent. A deed of assignment of copyright
is not compulsorily registrable.24
Section 19A of the Copyright Act, 1957 makes
provisions in the case of disputes arising with respect
to a transaction. It states that any such complaint will
be dealt with by the Copyright Board. The Board
cannot pass any order to revoke the assignment unless
it is satisfied that the author is the assignor and that
the terms of assignment are harsh to the assignor.
In any event, no order of revocation of assignment
can be made within a period of five years from the
date of assignment.25
The term copyright encompasses a bundle of rights,
one of which is a ‘moral right’. This constitutes
certain specific rights that the author of an original
literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work and the
director of a film enjoy in their creation. It can only
be exercised by the creator himself and these rights
are not assignable as per English law.20 The Law of
the United States of America does not protect these
rights conclusively.26 Moral Rights of an author has
been acknowledged under Section 57 of the Copyright
Act, 1957. This states that even after the assignment
of the copyright, the author of a work shall have the
right to claim authorship of the work; and to restrain
or claim damages in respect of any distortion or other
act in relation to the said work which is done before
the expiration of the term of copyright which brings
the author into disrepute.27
The primary function of copyright law is to protect
the fruits of a man’s work, labour, skill or test from
annexation by other people.28 This requires for the
copyright owner to possess several rights including
the right to transfer the intellectual property, if he
chooses to do the same. Assignment agreements are
integral to copyright law as it helps the copyright
owner to implement this right.29
Assignment of Patents
A patent is a monopoly right granted to a person
who has invented a new and useful article or an
improvement of an existing article or a new process of
making an article. During the term of the patent, the
patentee can prevent any other person from using
the patented invention.30 Patent law recognises the
exclusive rights of the patentee to gain commercial
516
J INTELLEC PROP RIGHTS, NOVEMBER 2009
advantage out of his invention.31 In India, patent law
is covered by the Patents Act, 1970 which has been
extensively amended vide the Patents (Amendment)
Act, 1999, Patents (Amendment) Act, 2002 and
Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005.
Patent law gives every inventor a reason to exercise
his creative faculties by protecting his efforts and
ingenuity from imitation. It has been held by the
Supreme Court of India that the object of patent law is
to encourage scientific research, new technology and
industrial progress. Grant of exclusive privilege to
own, use or sell the method or the product patented
for a limited period, stimulates new inventions of
commercial utility.32
In patent law, assignment refers to the act of the
patentee by which the patent rights are wholly or
partially transferred to the assignee who acquires the
right to prevent others from making, using or
exercising or vending the invention. The assignment
can either be exclusive or non exclusive. The
exclusivity can be further limited, for example
exclusivity to a territory or market or line of products.
There are three main types of assignments in patents,
each of which have been discussed briefly as follows:
Legal Assignments
An assignment of an existing deed is a legal
assignment. A patent which is created by deed can
only be assigned by a deed.33 A legal assignee entitled
to be registered as the proprietor of the patent and
acquires all the rights thereof.
Equitable Assignments
A document agreeing to transfer a patent or a share
of a patent with immediate effect is an equitable
assignment. This affects proprietorship, but does not
directly change it. The man to whom it is equitably
assigned gets the right in equity to have the ownership
of the patent altered in law.
Mortgages
A mortgage is a document through which patent
rights are transferred to the assignee in return for a
sum of money. Once the assignor repays the sum, the
patent rights are restored to him.30 The term assignee
as per Section 2(1) of the Patents Act, 1970 includes
in its meaning the legal representative of a deceased
assignee. Section 70 of the Patents Act, 1970 confers
inter alia the right on a grantee to or proprietor of the
patent to fully or partially assign his patent to another
or others. As per the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005
which replaces Section 68 of the Patents Act, 1970 an
assignment of a patent shall not be valid unless the
same were in writing and the agreement between
the parties concerned is reduced to the form of a
document embodying all the terms and conditions
governing their rights and obligations and duly
executed.
Section 69 of the Patents Act, 1970 describes the
registration of those assignments. It is necessary for
the agreement between the parties concerned to be
reduced to the form of a document embodying all the
terms and conditions governing their rights and
obligations and the application for registration of such
document ought to be filed in the prescribed manner
with the Controller. The time-limit under the earlier
law requiring ‘the application for registration of such
document filed in the prescribed manner with the
Controller within six months from the date of
execution of the document’ has been omitted by the
Patents (Amendment) Act 2005. Section 68 does not
stipulate any time-limit for registration.34
As per the Law of the United States, the applicant
for a patent must always be an individual. A
corporation or a partnership, or other legal entity
cannot properly be an inventor in an American
Patent.35 The government can own an invention,
however.36 This was reiterated in the case of Wright
v US.37 A corporation may be made an assignee to
a patent through an assignment agreement.
Patents are a very important branch of intellectual
property, as life saving drugs and other essentials
come within its sphere. Thus assignment agreements
of such rights must be couched in clear and concise
terms to ensure that no controversy arises as to its
interpretation.
Assignment of Trademark
Consumers all over the world seek quality. Brand
consciousness is a very common method of achieving
this end. Trademarks are the means by which
consumers distinguish between brands. A trademark
is any word, name, symbol, device or any
combination thereof used by a manufacturer or
retailer of a product, in connection with that product,
to help consumers identify that product and to
distinguish it from the products of competitors.38 For
example, the LEVI v-shaped stitching on the back
pocket Levi’s blue jeans can be called a trademark.39
The main purpose behind protecting trademarks is
because it is of use both to the manufacturer and the
consumer. For the merchant, the trademark serves as
CHAKRAVARTY: IMPORTANCE OF ASSIGNMENT AGREEMENTS UNDER IP LAWS IN INDIA
an advertising tool, facilitating repeated sales and
successful marketing of new products.40 Trademarks
foster competition and the maintenance of quality by
securing to the producer the benefits of a good
reputation.41
In India, trademarks are protected by the
Trademarks Act, 1999. Assignment is an important
aspect of the Act. As per the Section 2(1)(b) of the
Trademarks Act, 1999, assignment has been described
as an assignment in writing by act of the parties
concerned. Thus, this clarifies that for the assignment
of trademarks it is necessary for the agreement to be
in writing and to be an act of the assignor and the
assignee of their own volition and not a third party.
In Section 2(1)(zc) of the above-mentioned Act,
assignment has been differentiated from other forms
of transmission. Section 6 of the Trademarks Act,
1999 allows for the notification of assignment of
trademarks which have been registered. Section 31 of
the same Act states that registration of trademark and
notification of assignments will act as prima facie
evidence of the existence of a trademark.
Chapter V of the Trademarks Act, 1999 deals in
depth with the transfer of trademark by means of
assignment and transmission. Section 37 of the Act
clearly states that only the registered proprietor has
the right to assign a trademark. He is also subject to
the rights conferred to him by registration. Section 38
of the Trademarks Act, 1999 provides the assignment
of a registered trademark. Trademarks in India can be
assigned with or without goodwill. In a marked
change from the previously valid Trade and
Merchandise Mark Act, 1958, Section 39 of the
Trademarks Act, 1999 provides the assignment of an
unregistered trademark. These Sections are subject to
Section 40 and Section 41 of the Trademarks Act,
1999.
Section 40 of the Trademarks Act, 1999, prevents
the occurrence of a situation wherein exclusive right
of a trademark resides in more than one person. This
is because if assignments and transmission lead to the
creation of multiple exclusive rights in more than one
person this may lead to deception and confusion.42
The proprietor of a registered trademark who
proposes to assign it may submit to the Registrar in
the prescribed manner a statement of case setting out
the circumstances and the Registrar may issue to him
a certificate stating whether, having regard to the
similarity of the goods or services and of the
trademarks referred to in the case, the proposed
517
assignment would or would not be invalid under
Section 40(1). The certificate is subject to appeal.
It will also be conclusive as to the validity or
invalidity under Section 40(1), of the assignment in so
far as such validity or invalidity depends upon the
facts set out in the case. A certificate in favour of
complete validity of assignment/transmission can be
given only if application for the registration is made
under Section 45 of the Trademarks Act, 1999 of the
title of the person becoming entitled is made within
six months from the date on which the certificate is
issued as per Section 40(1).
Section 41 of the Trademarks Act, 1999 prohibits
the assignment of a trademark whether it be registered
or unregistered which may result in different people
using trademark in different parts of the country. If an
assignor retains exclusive right over trademark even
after the assignment agreement, then the assignment
will be void as per Common Law.43
Chapter V of the Trademarks Act, 1999 refers to
the concept of ‘goodwill’ as previously mentioned, in
Section 38, however the Act does not define the term.
In Churton v Dogules,44 it was determined that
goodwill must mean every advantage that has been
acquired by an old firm by carrying on its business,
everything connected to the premises and the name of
the firm, and everything connected or carrying with it
the benefit of the business. There was a time when the
law in UK considered goodwill to be inseparable from
trademark.45 This was subsequently changed.46
Section 42 of the Indian Trademarks Act, 1999
further provides for means by which a sale of
trademark not in connection with goodwill must
occur. It has to be registered before the expiration of
six months from the date on which the assignment is
made or within such extended period, if any, not
exceeding three months in the aggregate, as the
Registrar may allow. Thus the assignee applies to
the Registrar for directions with respect to the
advertisement of the assignment, and advertises
it in such form and manner and within such period
as the Registrar may direct.
Section 43 of the Trademarks Act, 1999 deals with
certification trademarks, it states that the assignment
of certified trademarks would not be possible without
the consent of the registrar which was to be applied
for in writing. Section 44 of the Trademarks Act,
1999 states that associated trademarks must be
assigned or transmitted together and not separately.
This provision is intended to ensure that the marks
518
J INTELLEC PROP RIGHTS, NOVEMBER 2009
associated under Section 16 of the Trademarks Act,
1999 are not assigned separately to different persons
entailing confusion and deception as a result of
simultaneous use of same or similar mark by a
different person in respect of the same goods or
description of goods or same services or description
of services.47 Section 45 of the Trademarks Act, 1999
discusses the registration of assignments or
transmissions in detail. Thus the significance of
assignment agreements in Trademark law is amply
clear from its exhaustive treatment in the Trademarks
Act, 1999.
Assignment of Geographical Indications
Geographical indications have been defined under
Section 2(e) of the Geographical Indications of
Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999. It
basically pertains to an indication that is used to
identify agricultural, natural or manufactured goods
originating from a specific geographical territory
having a special quality or reputation.
Section 24 of the Geographical Indication of Goods
Act, 1999 clearly indicates that assignment,
transmission, licensing, pledge, mortgage or any such
agreement is prohibited by law. Hence there is no way
in which the right over a geographical indication can
be passed to another person except on the death of the
authorized user. In case of which the geographical
indication shall devolve to his successor. This is
mainly because a geographical indication is a public
property belonging to the producers of the concerned
goods which cannot be used to describe another good
as it is indicative of the reputation and quality of
another product.48
Assignment of Designs
When we admire the sleekness of the cellular
phone model or the cut of a formal shirt or even the
shape of a new car, we are actually referring to its
aesthetics or design. The object of the Designs Act,
2000 is to protect new or original designs so created
to be applied or applicable to particular article to
be manufactured by industrial process or means.
It provides the creator of a design with the security
that his aesthetic look will not be applied by others to
their goods.49
This effort can be protected from imitation by
seeking protection under the Design Act, 2000. As per
Section 2(d) of the Designs Act, 2000 ‘design’ means
only the features of shape, configuration, pattern,
ornament or composition of lines or colours applied to
any article whether in two dimensional or three
dimensional or in both forms, by any industrial
process or means, whether manual, mechanical or
chemical, separate or combined, which in the finished
article appeal to and are judged solely by the eye;
but does not include any mode or principle of
construction or anything which is in substance a mere
mechanical device. Section 11 of the of the Designs
Act, 2000 clearly states that a copyright upon design
can last for 10 years from date of registration and can
be extended to a maximum of 15 years.
Section 30 of the Design Act, 2000 read with
Rules 32, 33, 34 and 35 of the Design Rules, 2001,
recognizes the contracts relating to assignment of
designs and provides procedure for the recordal
thereof. Section 30(1) of the Design Act, 2000 states
that where a person becomes entitled by assignments,
transmission or other operation of law to the
copyright in a registered design he may make
application in the prescribed form to the Controller 50
to register his title. Section 30(3) of the Design Act,
2000 makes it clear that for an assignment to be valid
it must be in writing and the agreement between the
parties concerned has to be reduced to the form of
an instrument embodying all the terms and conditions
governing their rights and obligation and the
application for registration of title under such
instrument is filed in the prescribed manner with the
Controller within the stipulated time- that being
within six months from the execution of the
instrument. Section 30(4) of the Design Act, 2000
states that the absolute right to assign the design
rights lie with the person registered as proprietor of
the design.
The Copyright in the design is only protected if
the same is statutorily recognized under the provisions
of the Designs Act, 2000. Similarly, the rights
acquired by third parties by way of assignments or
licenses are only made effective if the same is duly
registered in accordance with the provisions of the
Act and the Rules framed there-under. There is no
concept of common law license under design law.51
Assignment of the Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layout
Design
Semiconductor integrated circuit is an electronic
circuit manufactured on the surface of semiconductor
material.52 Integrated circuits are used in almost
all electronic equipment in use today and have
revolutionized the world of electronics. The sheer
number of electronic appliances we use on an
CHAKRAVARTY: IMPORTANCE OF ASSIGNMENT AGREEMENTS UNDER IP LAWS IN INDIA
everyday basis is a clear indication of how important
semiconductor integrated circuits or chips are in the
modern world.
The manner of arrangement or the lay-out of the
chip is what enables it to perform a particular
function. Thus there was a need to protect the
investment of the chip-designer by way of a separate
enactment.53 This protection is to be provided by
the means of the Semiconductor Integrated Circuits
Layouts Design Act, 2000 in India. This was enacted
in keeping with India’s obligation under the TRIPS
Agreement.54
Assignment as per Section 2(b) of the
Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layout-Design
Act, 2000 has been defined as ‘an assignment in
writing by act of the parties concerned’. Registration
of the design as well as all subsequent assignments
will act as prima facie evidence of the validity thereof
as per Section 19 of the Act.
Chapter V of the Semiconductor Integrated Circuits
Layouts Design Act, 2000 deals with Assignments
and Transmissions. Section 20 of the Semiconductor
Integrated Circuits Layouts Design Act, 2000 allows
the proprietor of a layout-design the power to assign
the layout-design, and to give effectual receipts for
any consideration received for such assignment.
This is subject to the provisions of the abovementioned Act and to any right appearing from the
register to be vested in any other person. Section 21 of
the Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layouts
Design Act, 2000 makes a registered layout-design
assignable and transmissible with or without the
goodwill of the business concerned. As per Section 22
of the Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layouts
Design Act, 2000, when an integrated circuit layout is
assigned without goodwill then the assignment shall
not take effect unless the assignee, not later than the
expiration of six months from the date on which the
assignment is made or within such extended period, if
any, not exceeding three months in the aggregate, as
the Registrar may allow, apply to the Registrar for
directions with respect to the advertisement of the
assignment, and advertises it in such form and manner
and within such period as the Registrar may direct.
Section 23 of the Semiconductor Integrated Circuits
Layouts Design Act, 2000, states that the assignee
must register the title with the registrar. Section 24 of
the Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layouts
Design Act, 2000 prevents the assignee from using
the registration as proof of title if the matter is still
519
before the registrar or an appeal from an order
there-from is pending.
Assignment of Plant Varieties
A need was felt in the latter half of the 20th century
to provide for the establishment of an effective system
for the protection of plant varieties, farmer’s rights
and plant breeders, in order to encourage the
development of new varieties of plants.53 The
Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer’s Rights Act,
2001 was enacted by India under the obligation
created by the TRIPS Agreement it had ratified in
1994.55 India through the Protection of Plant Varieties
and Farmer’s Rights Act, 2001 implemented a
sui generic 56 system of protection.57 It is essentially
[but loosely] modelled on the Union for the Protection
of new Varieties of Plants, 1978.53
Assignment agreements are permissible under the
Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001. A plant
breeder may through an assignment agreement
transfer his right of ownership upon the plant strain he
created to another person in return for pecuniary gain.
Section 16(1)(c) of the Plant Varieties and Farmers
Rights Act, 2001 acknowledges the legal validity of
assignment agreements by stating that any person
being the assignee of the breeder of the variety in
respect of the rights to make such application, can
apply for registration under Section 14(a) of such
genera and species as specified under Section 29(2) or
an extant variety or a farmers’ variety.
The Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001
provides some safeguards to ascertain the legitimacy
of the assignment in the form of Section 18(3). The
Section states that in case an application for
registration is made by virtue of an assignment of
the right to apply for registration, there shall be
furnished at the time of making application, or within
such period after making the application as may be
prescribed, a proof of the rights to make the
application. Thus the validity of the transfer of the
intellectual property is gauged at the time of
registration itself.
Assignment of Biological Resources
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was created in
a bid to conserve, use sustainably and equitably
distribute benefits accruing from use of biological
resources and the traditional and contemporary
knowledge associated therewith.58 It prevents anyone
claiming an intellectual property right (IPR), such
as a patent, over biodiversity or related knowledge,
520
J INTELLEC PROP RIGHTS, NOVEMBER 2009
without permission of the Indian Government.
It contains measures for sharing of benefits from
the use of biodiversity, including transfer of
technology, monetary returns; joint R&D and joint
IPR ownership.59
Section 4 of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002
states that the previous approval of the National
Biodiversity Authority is necessary to transfer the
results of any research relating to any biological
resources occurring in, or obtained from, India for
monetary consideration or otherwise to any person
who is not a citizen of India, or is a non-resident 60
or a body corporate or organization which is not
registered or incorporated in India or which has
any non-Indian participation in its share capital or
management. Collaborative research efforts and
papers for the dissemination of knowledge are made
exceptions to this definition of transfer.61
There is no specific provision in the Biological
Diversity Act, 2002, dealing with Assignment
Agreement. Assignment is also a form of transfer
which under specific circumstances is permitted.
It can be inferred that assignment agreements are not
per se prohibited by the Biological Diversity Act,
2002 provided the assignment does not contravene
any other rules of the Act.
Recordal Procedure with respect to Transfer of
Trademark under Madrid System
Recordal or recordation62 refers to the process or
action of recording of any transfer.63 The term came
to the fore in the international forum with respect to
trademarks after the advent of the Madrid Agreement.
The Madrid Agreement was signed in 1891, yet it was
only after the creation of the Madrid Protocol in 2004
that the concept of international registration became
plausible. The Madrid Agreement and the Madrid
Protocol jointly form the Madrid System that provides
a centrally administered system of obtaining a bundle
of single jurisdiction trademark registrations based
on an 'international registration', and therefore
provides a mechanism for obtaining trademark
protection in many countries around the world.64
The Madrid System amongst other innovations
suggested that the recordal of assignment agreements
in an international register. India is in process of
making amendments to its trademark law regime to
streamline its trademark law and to make it consistent
with evolving international trademark law regime and
is also contemplating accession to the Madrid System.
The applicant for an international registration is
required to file only one application, pay one fee in
local currency, and is not required at least initially,
to submit foreign powers of attorney. Renewals,
assignment recordals, changes of name and/or address
of an international registration may be effected by
filing one document with the International Bureau.65
The Trademarks (Amendment) Bill, 2007
incorporates the changes necessitated by the Madrid
Protocol.66 Section 36F of this Bill states that from the
date of the international registration of a trademark
where India has been designated or the date of the
recordal in the register of the International Bureau
about the extension of the protection resulting from an
international registration of a trademark to India, the
protection of the trademark in India shall be the same
as if the trademark had been registered in India.
The bill is yet to be presented before the Lok Sabha
and has no legal binding-ness as of now. However,
there is a lot to suggest that the recordal system
put forth by the Madrid Protocol will be implemented
in India in the near future, thus the process
for recordal of change of ownership [including
assignment] has been analysed as follows:
Rule 25 of the Common regulations of the Madrid
Agreement and Protocol explains the means by which
transfer of ownership can take place.67 First of all, a
request for change in ownership through request for
recording shall be presented to the International
Bureau on the relevant official form, in one
copy, where the request relates to a change in the
ownership of the international registration [including
assignment] in respect of all or some of the goods and
services and all or some of the designated Contracting
Parties. The request for the recording of a change in
ownership may be presented through the Office of the
Contracting Party, or of one of the Contracting
Parties, this must comply with conditions of Article 2
of the Madrid Protocol68 as Section 2(a)(iv) of rule 25
reiterates. The contents of the request must include
the number of registration, the name of the holder, the
name of the new holder their addresses and other
specifications given in Rule 25 Section 2 of the
Common Regulations of Madrid Protocol.67
As per Article 9 of the Madrid Protocol, the
International Bureau shall record in the International
Register any change in the ownership of that
registration, in respect of all or some of the
contracting parties in whose territories the said
registration has effect and in respect of all or some of
CHAKRAVARTY: IMPORTANCE OF ASSIGNMENT AGREEMENTS UNDER IP LAWS IN INDIA
the goods and services listed in the registration,
provided that the new holder is a person who,
under Article 2(1), is entitled to file international
applications.
Article 9sexies (1) also states that where, with
regard to a given international application or a given
international registration, the Office of origin is the
Office of a State that is party to both this Protocol and
the Madrid (Stockholm) Agreement, the provisions of
this Protocol shall have no effect in the territory of
any other State that is also party to both this Protocol
and the Madrid (Stockholm) Agreement.
Conclusion
Assignment agreements are of considerable
importance in IPR since they allow the intellectual
property owners to transfer their intellectual property
for commercial returns, ensuring that the intellectual
property can be used for monetary gain. Intellectual
property that is created is utilized and exploited by
the Assignment Agreement, where the purchaser or
assignee takes benefit of the assignment rights that are
created. These assignment agreements give rise to
legal and equitable rights in law and purport many
issues if they are not carefully constructed as required
by law.
Issues relating to ownership of IPR must be
carefully considered where employees may be
creating IPR outside the scope, time and available
resources of the company that they work for.
Companies who own valuable IP rights should
execute non-disclosure agreements with their
employees, agents, or other third parties and make
sure to define the term ‘confidentiality’ and the
obligations of the parties not to disclose it. It is
prudent to include Assignment Agreement clauses
which address issues relating to governing law,
jurisdiction, Alternative Dispute Resolution [ADR] to
seek speedy resolution of disputes. Intellectual
Property Assignment Agreement is a legal contract
and required to be in compliance with existing Laws.
It is important, in the field of intellectual property,
to define transparent criteria for terms and conditions
under which the institution/organization would be the
owner of the IPRs and the situation in which the
inventor or creator would have the right or privilege
to be the owners of the IPRs that they created.69
The enforceability of assignment agreements act
as an incentive to these individuals to create
new inventions which ultimately benefits society.
521
It is also essential to define the ownership of created
intellectual property with relation to employeremployee agreements and contract for service to
encourage innovation.
IPR legislations in India provide specific rules,
regulations and procedure when dealing with
assignment agreements. The Rules/Acts make
provisions for registering the assignment agreements
and their respective schedules also provide for forms
through which parties can register their assignment
agreements. In order for an assignment agreement to
be valid and enforceable it is essential that the
assignment agreement be recorded as prescribed by
the Acts and relevant Rules.
In addition to abiding by the Rules, to avoid
ambiguity it is essential to ensure that the agreement
clearly defines which person the ownership rests with.
The assignment must be concrete and also clarify the
tenure for which the individual would be the owner
of the intellectual property. This would provide a
precaution in case of a potential dispute on the
ownership of the intellectual property.
The position of an Assignment Agreement in the
intellectual property law of India is one of great
consequence despite being a private transaction
between the assignor and the assignee. One of the
reasons for this is that the law is required to protect
the owner of the intellectual property from being
defrauded. It must be noted, however, that though the
law does provide certain safeguards, the onus of
creating a suitable assignment agreement is upon the
parties concerned. A valid assignment agreement and
one that benefits all parties involved can only come
into being if the fundamental issues, some of which
have been discussed above, are addressed.
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