1. education
2. english as a second language

Agreement: ability to recognize correct sentences, avoiding errors in agreement such
as lack of pronoun-antecedent agreement, lack of subject-verb agreement, and
incorrect verb tense.
pronoun-antecedent agreement
Pronouns and
Pronoun-Antecedent
Agreement
Basic Principle: A pronoun usually refers to something earlier in the text (its antecedent) and
must agree in number — singular/plural — with the thing to which it refers.
The indefinite pronouns anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, no
one, and nobody are always singular. This is sometimes perplexing to writers who feel
that everyone and everybody (especially) are referring to more than one person. The same
is true of either and neither, which are always singular even though they seem to be referring to
two things.
The need for pronoun-antecedent agreement can create gender problems. If one were to
write, for instance, "A student must see his counselor before the end of the semester,"
when there are female students about, nothing but grief will follow. One can pluralize, in
this situation, to avoid the problem:
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Students must see their counselor before the end of the semester.
Or, one could say
A student must see his or her counselor. . . .
Too many his's and her's eventually become annoying, however, and the reader becomes more
aware of the writer trying to be conscious of good form than he or she is of the matter at
hand.
Trying to conform to the above rule (#2) can lead to a great deal of nonsense. It is widely
regarded as being correct (or correct enough), at the beginning of the twenty-first
century, to say
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Somebody has left their bag on the floor.
but many people would object its being written that way because somebody is singular and their
is plural. There is a great deal to be said, however, for using the word their as the gender-nonspecific, singular pronoun. In fact, it's been said already, and you can read all about it at the The
University of Texas, where a web-site has been dedicated to the use of their in this way in the
writings of Jane Austen, William Shakespeare, and other literary greats. At least it's nice to know
you're not alone! Another site dedicated to the "gender-free pronoun" is at Gender-Neutral
Pronoun Frequently Asked Questions.
Remember that when we compound a pronoun with something else, we don't want to
change its form. Following this rule carefully often creates something that "doesn't sound
good." You would write, "This money is for me," so when someone else becomes
involved, don't write, "This money is for Fred and I." Try these:
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This money is for him and me.
This arrangement is between Fred and him.
Those are both good sentences.
One of the most frequently asked questions about grammar is about choosing between
the various forms of the pronoun who: who, whose, whom, whoever, whomever. The
number (singular or plural) of the pronoun (and its accompanying verbs) is determined
by what the pronoun refers to; it can refer to a singular person or a group of people:
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The person who hit my car should have to pay to fix the damages.
The people who have been standing in line the longest should get in first.
It might be useful to compare the forms of who to the forms of the pronouns he and they. Their
forms are similar:
Subject
Form
Possessive
Form
Object
Form
Singular
he
who
his
whose
him
whom
Plural
they
who
their
whose
them
whom
To choose correctly among the forms of who, re-phrase the sentence so you choose between he
and him. If you want him, write whom; if you want he, write who.
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Who do you think is responsible? (Do you think he is responsible?)
Whom shall we ask to the party? (Shall we ask him to the party?)
Give the box to whomever you please. (Give the box to him.)
Give the box to whoever seems to want it most. (He seems to want it most. [And then the
clause "whoever seems to want it most" is the object of the preposition "to."])
Whoever shows up first will win the prize. (He shows up first.)
lack of subject-verb agreement
Subject-Verb
Agreement
Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs. My
brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.
See the section on Plurals for additional help with subject-verb agreement.
The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always
singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.
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Everyone has done his or her homework.
Somebody has left her purse.
Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on what
they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to
accompany such pronouns.
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Some of the beads are missing.
Some of the water is gone.
On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural; it
often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless something else in the
sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think of none as meaning not any and will
choose a plural verb, as in "None of the engines are working," but when something else makes us
regard none as meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")
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None of you claims responsibility for this incident?
None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the word their
precludes the use of the singular verb.
Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome Everyone and everybody
(listed above, also) certainly feel like more than one person and, therefore, students
are sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though. Each is
often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus
confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.
Everyone has finished his or her homework.
You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and nothing
will change that.
Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.
Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always singular —
Each is responsible.
Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The
phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in
this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do).
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The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though
they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.
•
• Neither of the two traffic lights is working.
Which shirt do you want for Christmas?
Either is fine with me.
In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns are
followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of interrogative
constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are either of you taking
this seriously?" Burchfield calls this "a clash between notional and actual agreement."*
The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the subject
closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes
before or after the verb doesn't matter; the proximity determines the number.
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Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.
Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.
Are either my brothers or my father responsible?
Is either my father or my brothers responsible?
Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house" sounds
peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb whenever that is
possible.
The words there and here are never subjects.
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There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.
There is no reason for this.
Here are two apples.
With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the verb but still
determines the number of the verb.
Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything
those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings.
He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .
Sometimes modifiers will get betwen a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must
not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.
The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of
various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally
going to jail.
Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when
they're really singular and vice-versa. Consult the section on the Plural Forms of
Nouns and the section on Collective Nouns for additional help. Words such as
glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're
preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).
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My glasses were on the bed.
My pants were torn.
A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.
Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require
singular verbs.
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The news from the front is bad.
Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural and
require a plural verb.
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My assets were wiped out in the depression.
The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.
The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb: the Miami Heat have
been looking … , The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent … . See the section on plurals
for help with this problem.
Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are
sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is
true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some act as subjects.) Sums and
products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular
verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb: "More than one
student has tried this."
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Some of the voters are still angry.
A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
Two and two is four.
Four times four divided by two is eight.
If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the
other singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.
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The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on
Valentine's Day.
It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.
incorrect verb tense.
Sequence of
Verb Tenses
Although the various shades of time and sequence are usually conveyed adequately in informal
speech and writing, especially by native speakers and writers, they can create havoc in academic
writing and they sometimes are troublesome among students for whom English is a second
language. This difficulty is especially evident in complex sentences when there is a difference
between the time expressed in an independent clause and the time expressed in a dependent
clause. Another difficulty arises with the use of infinitives and participles, modals
which also convey a sense of time. We hope the tables below will provide the order
necessary to help writers sort out tense sequences.
As long as the main clause's verb is in neither the past nor the past perfect tense,
the verb of the subordinate clause can be in any tense that conveys meaning accurately. When
the main clause verb is in the past or past perfect, however, the verb in the subordinate clause
must be in the past or past perfect. The exception to this rule is when the subordinate clause
expresses what is commonly known as a general truth:
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In the 1950s, English teachers still believed that a background in Latin is essential for an
understanding of English.
Columbus somehow knew that the world is round.
Slaveowners widely understood that literacy among oppressed people is a dangerous
thing.
The tables below demonstrate the correct relationship of tenses between clauses where time is of
the essence (i.e., within sentences used to convey ideas about actions or conditions that take
place over time).
Click HERE for a table describing the various tenses of the active voice.
Click HERE for a table describing tense sequences of infinitives and participles.
Tense in
Purpose of Dependent
Independent Clause/
Clause
Tense in Dependent Clause
Simple
Present
Example(s)
To show same-time action, use the
present tense
I am eager to go to the concert
because I love the Wallflowers.
To show earlier action, use past
I know that I made the right choice.
tense
To show a period of time extending
from some point in the past to the
They believe that they have elected
present, use the present perfect
the right candidate.
tense.
Simple
Past
To show action to come, use the
future tense.
The President says that he will veto
the bill.
To show another completed past
action, use the past tense.
I wanted to go home because I
missed my parents.
To show an earlier action, use the
past perfect tense.
She knew she had made the right
choice.
To state a general truth, use the
present tense.
The Deists believed that the
universe is like a giant clock.
For any purpose, use the past tense.
She has grown a foot since she
turned nine.
The crowd had turned nasty before
the sheriff returned.
To show action happening at the
same time, use the present tense.
I will be so happy if they fix my car
today.
To show an earlier action, use the
past tense.
You will surely pass this exam if
you studied hard.
To show future action earlier than
the action of the independent
clause, use the present perfect
tense.
The college will probably close its
doors next summer if enrollments
have not increased.
For any purpose, use the present
tense or present perfect tense.
Most students will have taken sixty
credits by the time they graduate.
Most students will have taken sixty
Present
Perfect
or
Past
Perfect
Future
Future
Perfect
credits by the time they have
graduated.
Authority for this section: Quick Access: Reference for Writers by Lynn Quitman Troyka. Simon
& Schuster: New York. 1995. Used with permission. Examples and format our own.
Note:
Unless logic dictates otherwise, when discussing a work of literature, use the present tense:
"Robert Frost describes the action of snow on the birch trees." "This line suggests the burden of
the ice." "The use of the present tense in Carver's stories creates a sense of immediacy."
Sequence of Tenses
With Infinitives and Participles
Like verbs, infinitives and participles are capable of conveying the idea of action in time;
therefore, it is important that we observe the appropriate tense sequence when using these
modals.
INFINITIVES
Tense of
Infinitive
Present
Infinitive
(to see)
Perfect
Infinitive
(to have
seen)
Role of Infinitive
To show same-time action or
action later than the verb
To show action earlier than the
verb
Example(s)
Coach Espinoza is eager to try out
her new drills. [The eagerness is
now; the trying out will happen
later.]
She would have liked to see more
veterans returning. [The present
infinitive to see is in the same time
as the past would have liked.]
The fans would like to have seen
some improvement this year.
["Would like" describes a present
condition; "to have seen" describes
something prior to that time.]
They consider the team to have
been coached very well. [The
perfect infinitive to have been
coached indicates a time prior to
the verb consider.]
PARTICIPLES
Tense of
Participle
Present
Participl
e
(seeing)
Role of Participle
Example(s)
To show action occurring at the
same time as that of the verb
Working on the fundamentals, the
team slowly began to improve.
[The action expressed by began
happened in the past, at the same
time the working happened.]
Prepared by last year's experience,
the coach knows not to expect too
much. [The action expressed by
knows is in the present; prepared
expresses a time prior to that time.]
Past
Participl
e
or
Present
Perfect
Participl
e
To show action occurring earlier
than that of the verb
Having experimented with several
game plans, the coaching staff
devised a master strategy. [The
present perfect participle having
experimented indicates a time prior
to the past tense verb, devised.]
Modifiers: ability to recognize correct sentences, avoiding errors in modification such
as misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.
misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers
Modifier Placement
Basic Principle: Modifiers are like teenagers: they fall in love with whatever they're next to.
Make sure they're next to something they ought to modify!
MISPLACED MODIFIER: Some modifiers, especially simple modifiers — only, just,
nearly, barely — have a bad habit of slipping into the wrong place in a sentence. (In the
sentence below, what does it mean to "barely kick" something?)
Confusion
He barely kicked that ball twenty yards.
Repair Work He kicked that ball barely twenty yards.
The issue of the proper placement of "only" has long been argued among grammarians. Many
careful writers will insist that "only" be placed immediately before the word or phrase it
modifies. Thus "I only gave him three dollars" would be rewritten as "I gave him only three
dollars." Some grammarians, however, have argued that such precision is not really necessary,
that there is no danger of misreading "I only gave him three dollars" and that "only" can safely
and naturally be placed between the subject and the verb. The argument has been going on for
two hundred years.
DANGLING MODIFIER: When we begin a sentence with a modifying word, phrase,
or clause, we must make sure the next thing that comes along can, in fact, be modified by
that modifier. When a modifier improperly modifies something, it is called a "dangling
modifier." This often happens with beginning participial phrases, making "dangling participles"
an all too common phenomenon. In the sentence below, we can't have a car changing its own oil.
Confusion
Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, the car
seemed to run better.
Repair Work Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, Fred
found he could get much better gas mileage.
A participial phrase followed by an Expletive Construction will often be a dangling participle
— but the expletive construction is probably not a good idea anyway. This faulty sentence can be
remedied by changing the participial phrase into a full-fledged clause with a subject and verb.
Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, there is
an easy way to keep your car running
smoothly.
Repair Work If we change the oil every 3,000 miles, we
can keep our car running smoothly.
Confusion
A participial phrase followed by a Passive Verb is also apt to be a dangler because the real actor
of the sentence will be disguised.
Confusion
Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, the car
was kept in excellent condition.
Repair Work Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, we kept
the car in excellent condition.
An infinitive phrase can also "dangle." The infinitive phrase below should probably modify the
person(s) who set up the exercise program.
To keep the young recruits interested in
getting in shape, an exercise program was set
up for the summer months.
Repair Work To keep the young recruits interested in
getting in shape, the coaching staff set up an
exercise program for the summer months.
Confusion
SQUINTING MODIFIER: A third problem in modifier placement is described as a
"squinting modifier." This is an unfortunate result of an adverb's ability to pop up almost
anywhere in a sentence; structurally, the adverb may function fine, but its meaning can be
obscure or ambiguous. For instance, in the sentence below, do the students seek advice
frequently or can they frequently improve their grades by seeking advice? You can't tell from
that sentence because the adverb often is "squinting" (you can't tell which way it's looking). Let's
try placing the adverb elsewhere.
Confusion
Students who seek their instructors' advice
often can improve their grades.
Repair Work Student who often seek their instructors'
advice can improve their grades.
Repair Work Students who seek their instructors' advice
can often improve their grades.
Diction/Logic: ability to recognize correct sentences in written English, avoiding errors
in diction and logic such as inappropriate conjunctions that create illogical sentences.
inappropriate conjunctions that create illogical sentences
Conjunctions
Definition
Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the
box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're
out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help
themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.
Coordinating Conjunctions
The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click on the words
to see specific descriptions of each one):
Coordinating Conjunctions
and
but
or
yet
for
nor
so
(It may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than four
letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So. Be careful of
the words then and now; neither is a coordinating conjunction, so what we say about
coordinating conjunctions' roles in a sentence and punctuation does not apply to those two
words.)
When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent
clauses, it is often (but not always) accompanied by a comma:
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Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble
meeting the academic requirements.
When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating
conjunction are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the
comma:
•
Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.
The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent
clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. See Punctuation
Between Two Independent Clauses for further help.
A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a
serial list, although many writers (especially in newspapers) will
omit that final comma:
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Click on "Conjunction
Junction" to read and hear
Bob Dorough's "Conjunction
Junction" (from Scholastic
Rock, 1973).
Schoolhouse Rock® and its
characters and other
elements are
trademarks and service
marks of American
Broadcasting Companies,
Inc. Used with permission.
Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.
When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma is not
used:
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Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in
Oklahoma.
A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:
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This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.
In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is),
coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma.
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Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the between-the-wars
era.
Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American notions of
male identity.
It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting cultural icon of
his day.
Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of women
and for his glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find some sympathetic, even
heroic, female figures in his novels and short stories.
Beginning a Sentence with And or But
A frequently asked question about conjunctions is whether and or but can be used
at the beginning of a sentence. This is what R.W. Burchfield has to say about this
use of and:
There is a persistent belief that it is improper to begin a sentence with And, but
this prohibition has been cheerfully ignored by standard authors from AngloSaxon times onwards. An initial And is a useful aid to writers as the narrative
continues.
from The New Fowler's Modern English Usage
edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996.
Used with the permission of Oxford University Press.
The same is true with the conjunction but. A sentence beginning with and or but
will tend to draw attention to itself and its transitional function. Writers should
examine such sentences with two questions in mind: (1) would the sentence and
paragraph function just as well without the initial conjunction? (2) should the
sentence in question be connected to the previous sentence? If the initial
conjunction still seems appropriate, use it.
Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but, and or. It
might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples below by no means
exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.
AN D
a. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda sent in her
applications and waited by the phone for a response."
b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather report and
promptly boarded up his house."
c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this
usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
d. To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is
a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
e. To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first
clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find
yourself deep in debt."
f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became addicted to
gambling — and that surprised no one who knew him."
BUT
a. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in
the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."
b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative
way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never invested foolishly, but
used the services of a sage investment counselor."
c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second
word takes over as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is trying out for the team."
OR
a. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can
study hard for this exam or you can fail."
b. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill
tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
c. To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's
college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College alumnae."
d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no
rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
e. To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim
"Live free or die."
f. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of and
above): "They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him
mayor."
Authority used for this section on the uses of and, but, and or: A University Grammar of English
by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with
permission. Examples our own.
The Others . . .
The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions,
so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common
use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):
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He is neither sane nor brilliant.
That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
>It can be used with other negative expressions:
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That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of
guilt.
It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an extent,
rather stuffy:
•
George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven
untrustworthy.
The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet
another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he
is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It
also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The
word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.
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•
John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in
this case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also
disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see
and yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.
The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare
occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather
highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a
sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea, except when you're singing "For
he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequential implications and in its use the order of
thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the
reason for the preceding clause:
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•
John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's
board of trustees.
Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long,
dusty journey on the train.
Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with
a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,
•
Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle
Chet.
where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon
between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minorleague "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
•
Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids
crowds of his adoring fans.
Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or
transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:
•
So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
The Case of Then and Than
In some parts of the United States, we are told, then and
than not only look alike, they sound alike. Like a teacher
with twins in her classroom, you need to be able to
distinguish between these two words; otherwise, they'll
become mischievous. They are often used and they should
be used for the right purposes.
Than is used to make comparisons. In the sentence "Piggy
would rather be rescued then stay on the island," we have
employed the wrong word because a comparison is being made between Piggy's
two choices; we need than instead. In the sentence, "Other than Pincher Martin,
Golding did not write another popular novel," the adverbial construction "other
than" helps us make an implied comparison; this usage is perfectly acceptable in
the United States but careful writers in the UK try to avoid it (Burchfield).
Generally, the only question about than arises when we have to decide whether
the word is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's a preposition
(and Merriam-Webster's dictionary provides for this usage), then the word that
follows it should be in the object form.
•
•
He's taller and somewhat more handsome than me.
Just because you look like him doesn't mean you can play better than him.
Most careful writers, however, will insist that than be used as a conjunction; it's
as if part of the clause introduced by than has been left out:
•
•
He's taller and somewhat more handsome than I [am handsome].
You can play better than he [can play].
In formal, academic text, you should probably use than as a conjunction and
follow it with the subject form of a pronoun (where a pronoun is appropriate).
Then is a conjunction, but it is not one of the little conjunctions listed at the top of
this page. We can use the FANBOYS conjunctions to connect two independent
clauses; usually, they will be accompanied (preceded) by a comma. Too many
students think that then works the same way: "Caesar invaded Gaul, then he
turned his attention to England." You can tell the difference between then and a
coordinating conjunction by trying to move the word around in the sentence. We
can write "he then turned his attention to England"; "he turned his attention, then,
to England"; he turned his attention to England then." The word can move around
within the clause. Try that with a conjunction, and you will quickly see that the
conjunction cannot move around. "Caesar invaded Gaul, and then he turned his
attention to England." The word and is stuck exactly there and cannot move like
then, which is more like an adverbial conjunction (or conjunctive adverb — see
below) than a coordinating conjunction. Our original sentence in this paragraph
— "Caesar invaded Gaul, then he turned his attention to England" — is a comma
splice, a faulty sentence construction in which a comma tries to hold together two
independent clauses all by itself: the comma needs a coordinating conjunction to
help out, and the word then simply doesn't work that way.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at
the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between
the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that
depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
•
•
•
He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since —
are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to
subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the sentence.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
after
although
as
as if
as long as
as though
because
before
even if
even though
if
if only
in order that
now that
once
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
while
The Case of Like and As
Strictly speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can,
therefore, be used to introduce a prepositional phrase ("My brother is tall like my
father"), but it should not be used to introduce a clause ("My brother can't play the
piano like as he did before the accident" or "It looks like as if basketball is quickly
overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To introduce a clause, it's a
good idea to use as, as though, or as if, instead.
•
•
•
Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon.
Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone
waiting for him.
In formal, academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for situations in
which similarities are being pointed out:
•
This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.
However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably
more suitable:
•
The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark
Twain House, St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and
the UConn Law School.
Omitting That
The word that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a
preceding verb. In this construction that is sometimes called the "expletive that."
Indeed, the word is often omitted to good effect, but the very fact of easy
omission causes some editors to take out the red pen and strike out the
conjunction that wherever it appears. In the following sentences, we can happily
omit the that (or keep it, depending on how the sentence sounds to us):
•
•
•
Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired.
She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported her.
I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.
Sometimes omitting the that creates a break in the flow of a sentence, a break that
can be adequately bridged with the use of a comma:
•
•
The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.
Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she started working
here.
As a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good without the that, if no
ambiguity results from its omission, if the sentence is more efficient or elegant
without it, then we can safely omit the that. Theodore Bernstein lists three
conditions in which we should maintain the conjunction that:
•
•
•
When a time element intervenes between the verb and the clause: "The
boss said yesterday that production in this department was down fifty
percent." (Notice the position of "yesterday.")
When the verb of the clause is long delayed: "Our annual report revealed
that some losses sustained by this department in the third quarter of last
year were worse than previously thought." (Notice the distance between
the subject "losses" and its verb, "were.")
When a second that can clear up who said or did what: "The CEO said that
Isabel's department was slacking off and that production dropped
precipitously in the fourth quarter." (Did the CEO say that production
dropped or was the drop a result of what he said about Isabel's
department? The second that makes the sentence clear.)
Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by Theodore
Bernstein. Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217. Examples our own.
Beginning a Sentence with Because
Somehow, the notion that one should not begin a sentence with the subordinating
conjunction because retains a mysterious grip on people's sense of writing
proprieties. This might come about because a sentence that begins with because
could well end up a fragment if one is not careful to follow up the "because
clause" with an independent clause.
•
Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications
industry.
When the "because clause" is properly subordinated to another idea (regardless of
the position of the clause in the sentence), there is absolutely nothing wrong with
it:
•
Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications
industry, the postal service would very much like to see it taxed in some
manner.
Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions.
They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as
grammatically equal.
•
•
•
She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for help with
those problems. Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.
both . . . and
not only . . . but also
not . . . but
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
whether . . . or
as . . . as
Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are
used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on Coherence:
Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs categorized according to
their various uses and for some advice on their application within sentences (including
punctuation issues).
Sentence Structure: ability to recognize correct sentences, avoiding errors in sentence
structure such as sentence fragments, faulty subordination/coordination, and lack of
parallelism.
sentence fragments
Sentence Fragments
Definition
A SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself. It
does not contain even one independent clause. There are several reasons why a group of words
may seem to act like a sentence but not have the wherewithal to make it as a complete
thought.
It may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of
such phrases, but it's still lacking a proper subject-verb relationship within an independent
clause:
In Japan, during the last war and just before the armistice.
This sentence accomplishes a great deal in terms of placing the reader in time and place, but
there is no subject, no verb.
It describes something, but there is no subject-verb relationship:
Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat.
This is a verbal phrase that wants to modify something, the real subject of the sentence (about to
come up), probably the she who was working so hard.
It may have most of the makings of a sentence but still be missing an important part
of a verb string:
Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory last semester.
Remember that an -ing verb form without an auxiliary form to accompany it can never be
a verb.
It may even have a subject-verb relationship, but it has been subordinated to
another idea by a dependent word and so cannot stand by itself:
Even though he had the better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker.
This sentence fragment has a subject, he, and two verbs, had and was, but it cannot stand by
itself because of the dependent word (subordinating conjunction) even though. We need an
independent clause to follow up this dependent clause: . . . the more powerful speaker, he lost the
case because he didn't understand the jury.
•
faulty subordination/coordination
The Principles of Coordination and
Subordination
Introduction
Coordination: linking together words, groups of words (clauses), or sentences of equal type and
importance, to put energy into writing. Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, nor, for, but, so, yet,
either/or, and neither/nor.
a. Two principles to keep in mind:
By combining words and groups of words, you avoid repetition that steals energy from
what you write; and
b. By combining whole sentences, you reveal the relationships between the thoughts.
Example: Over the past decade many African American students have chosen to complete their
formal education at Southern colleges and now in the city of Atlanta there is a major educational
center built expressly to accomodate this upsurge of interest in the New South. (Two main
clauses are given equal emphasis and connected by the coordinating conjunction and )
Subordination: clearly empashizes which words, groups of words (clauses), or sentences are the
most important in the writing.
Subordinate Conjunctions: Takes into account five (5) factors -- (1) Time: when, after, as
soon as, whenever, while, before; (2) Place: where, wherever; (3) Cause: because, since, in order
that, so that; (4) Contrast/Concession: although, as if, though, while; and (5) Condition: if,
unless, provided, since,as long as.
Example: Because CSUN is located in the San Fernando Valley, the university has become very
attractive to students living in the inner city who want to stay close to home and yet not face the
pressures of city life. (Dependent clause introduced by the subordinating conjunction because;
independent or main clause begins with the university)
Caveat: One wants to avoid faulty or excessive coordination.
Faulty coordination: gives equal emphasis to unequal or unrelated clauses.
Example: The African American playwright August Wilson has won two Pulitzer Prizes for
drama, and he now lives in Seattle, Washington.
The clause he now lives in Seattle, Washington has little or no connection to The African
American playwright August Wilson has won two Pulitzer Prizes for drama. Therefore, the
clauses should not be coordinated. But you, writer, may want to include this information in the
paragraph because it is interesting and perhaps even important, even though it does not pertain
directly to the main idea of the paragraph. Placing he now lives in Seattle, Washington might
detract from the paragraph's unity.
We can revise faulty coordination by putting part of the sentence in a dependent clause,
modifying phrase, or appositive phrase (an appositive is a noun or pronoun -- often with
modifiers -- placed near another noun or pronoun to explain, describe, or identify it).
1. CSUN's Square, a hangout for its African American student community, has been quiet
of late. (A hangout for its African American student community describes CSUN's
Square); or
2. My sister Tiyifa lives in Colorado Springs. (Tiyifa identifies sister )
Typically, an appositive follows the word it refers to, but it may also precede the word:
1. A very inspirational tale of courage and honor, Glory is based on actual accounts of the
all-black 54th Regiment during the American Civil War. (A very inspirational tale of
courage and honor describes Glory)
Resuming with means of correcting faulty or excessive coordination, we note the following
examples:
1. The African American playwright August Wilson, who now lives in Seattle, Washington,
has won two Pulitzer Prizes for drama. (Dependent Clause)
2. The African American playwright August Wilson, now Seattle-based, has won two
Pultizer Prizes for drama (modifying phrase)
3. The African American August Wilson, a Seattle playwright, has won two Pulitzer Prizes
for drama (An appositive phrase).
We can go further by noting that when a single sentence contains more than one clause, the
clauses may be given equal or unequal emphasis. Clauses given equal emphasis in one sentence
are coordinate and should be connected by a cooordinating word or punctuation. Clauses given
less emphasis in a sentence are dependent, or subordinate, and should be introduced by a
subordinating word (conjunction).
Rules to Remember Concerning Faulty Subordination: There are three (3) rules to
keep in mind with respect to faulty or excessive subordination in writing:
1. Faulty subordination occurs when the more important clause is placed in a subordinate
position in the sentence or when the expected relation between clauses is reversed.
Example: Japanese-made cars are popular with American consumers although their
import poses at least a short-term threat to the livelihood of some American workers (In
an essay or composition about he problems of the American worker this sentence would
take attention away from the worker and incorrectly emphasize Japanese-made cars.)
2. Correct faulty subordination by changing the position of the subordinating word or
phrase;
Example: Although Japanese-made cars are popular with American consumers, their
import poses at least a short-term threat to the livelihood of some American workers.
3. Keep in mind that excessive subordination occurs when a sentence contains a series of
cluses, each subordinate to an earlier one. To correct excessive subordination, break the
sentence into two or more sentences or change some of the dependent clauses to
modifying phrases or appositives.
Example: LaTosha Robinson, who was a San Francisco-native who lived in the
University Park Apartments, enjoyed those special moments when a group of students
who also came from Northern California visited her dorm, which was lonely for most of
the school year.
This sentence is very confusing for the reader. The writer seems to have added information as it
came to mind. To correct excessive subordination, note the following:
LaTosha Robinson, a San Francisco-native, lived in the University Park Apartments. Because
her dorm was lonely most of the school year, she enjoyed those special moments when a group
of students who also were from Northern California would visit.
One dependent clause, who was a San Francisco-native, has been changed to an appositive. A
second dependent clause, who lived in the University Park Apartments, is now the predicate of
the first sentence. These changes make the sentence more direct. The subordinator of the third
dependent clause has been changed from which (identification) to because (cause) to show
clearly the connection between the loneliness of the dormitory and LaTosha's enjoyment of those
special visits.
lack of parallelism
Parallel Form
Most of the descriptions and examples in this section are taken from William Strunk's venerable
Elements of Style, which is maintained online by the Bartleby Project at Columbia University:
This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and
function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more
readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten
Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.
Students should also visit the section on Sentence Variety, which has material on the
repetition of phrases and structures. Click HERE to visit a page containing the biblical
passages mentioned above. Also in this Guide is a definition of the idea of a college, a lovely
example of parallel form. Students are also familiar with Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg
Address, which abounds with examples of parallel form. Clicking on the title above will allow
you to read this famous speech and view a brief "slide-show" demonstration of the parallel
structures within Lincoln's famous text. (The Library of Congress maintains a site at which
you can inspect two different drafts of the Gettysburg Address in Lincoln's own handwriting.)
Unskillful writers often violate this principle, from a mistaken belief that they should constantly
vary the form of their expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it
writers may have need to vary its form. But apart from this, writers should follow carefully the
principle of parallel construction.
Faulty Parallelism
Corrected Version
Formerly, science was taught by
the textbook method, while now
the laboratory method is
employed.
Formerly, science was taught by
the textbook method; now it is
taught by the laboratory method.
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable
or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the
writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either
be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.
Faulty Parallelism
Corrected Version
The French, the Italians,
Spanish, and Portuguese
The French, the Italians, the
Spanish, and the Portuguese
In spring, summer, or in winter
In spring, summer, or winter (In
spring, in summer, or in winter)
Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or; first, second, third;
and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this
rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence.
Faulty Parallelism
Corrected Version
It was both a long ceremony and The ceremony was both long
very tedious.
and tedious.
A time not for words, but action
A time not for words, but for
action
Either you must grant his request You must either grant his
or incur his ill will.
request or incur his ill will.
My objections are, first, the
My objections are, first, that the
injustice of the measure; second, measure is unjust; second, that it
that it is unconstitutional.
is unconstitutional.
When making comparisons, the things you compare should be couched in parallel structures
whenever that is possible and appropriate.
Faulty Parallelism
Corrected Version
My income is smaller than my
wife.
My income is smaller than my
wife's.
Sentence Boundaries: ability to recognize correct sentences in written English,
avoiding errors in sentence boundaries such as comma splices and run-on sentences.
comma splices and run-on sentences
Run-on Sentences,
Comma Splices
A RUN-ON SENTENCE (sometimes called a "fused sentence") has at least two parts, either
one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts
have been smooshed together instead of being properly connected. Review, also, the section
which describes Things That Can Happen Between Two Independent Clauses.
It is important to realize that the length of a sentence really has nothing to do with whether a
sentence is a run-on or not; being a run-on is a structural flaw that can plague even a very short
sentence:
The sun is high, put on some sunblock.
An extremely long sentence, on the other hand, might be a "run-off-at-the-mouth" sentence, but
it can be otherwise sound, structurally. Click here to see a 239-word sentence that is a perfectly
fine sentence (structurally)
When two independent clauses are connected by only a comma, they constitute a run-on sentence
that is called a comma-splice. The example just above (about the sunscreen) is a comma-splice.
When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a little
conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so).
The sun is high, so put on some sunscreen.
Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances*:
a. When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was said in
the prior independent clause:
This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you should start studying right
away.
(We could put a period where that comma is and start a new sentence. A semicolon might
also work there.)
b. When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression
(conjunctive adverb) such as however, moreover, nevertheless.
Mr. Nguyen has sent his four children to ivy-league colleges, however, he has sacrificed
his health working day and night in that dusty bakery.
(Again, where that first comma appears, we could have used either a period — and
started a new sentence — or a semicolon.)
c. When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that connects it to
the first independent clause.
This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual.
(Although these two clauses are quite brief, and the ideas are closely related, this is a runon sentence. We need a period where that comma now stands.)
Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken already, this
proves my point about American computer manufacturers.
Again, two nicely related clauses, incorrectly connected — a run-on. Use a period to cure
this sentence.
Online Resource:
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm
Interactive Quizzes:
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quiz_list.htm