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O C C A S I O N A L P A P E R N O 1 2 8
Economic Diplomacy Programme
D e c e m b e r 2 012
South African Trade Policy
and the Future Global
Trading Environment
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Lawrence Edwards & Robert Lawrence
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About SAIIA
The South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA) has a long and proud record
as South Africa’s premier research institute on international issues. It is an independent,
non-government think-tank whose key strategic objectives are to make effective input into
public policy, and to encourage wider and more informed debate on international affairs
with particular emphasis on African issues and concerns. It is both a centre for research
excellence and a home for stimulating public engagement. SAIIA’s occasional papers
present topical, incisive analyses, offering a variety of perspectives on key policy issues in
Africa and beyond. Core public policy research themes covered by SAIIA include good
governance and democracy; economic policymaking; international security and peace;
and new global challenges such as food security, global governance reform and the
environment. Please consult our website www.saiia.org.za for further information about
SAIIA’s work.
A b o u t t h e E C O N O M I C D I P L O M A C Y P r o g r amm e
SAIIA’s Economic Diplomacy (EDIP) Programme focuses on the position of Africa in the
global economy, primarily at regional, but also at continental and multilateral levels. Trade
and investment policies are critical for addressing the development challenges of Africa
and achieving sustainable economic growth for the region.
EDIP’s work is broadly divided into three streams. (1) Research on global economic
governance in order to understand the broader impact on the region and identifying options
for Africa in its participation in the international financial system. (2) Issues analysis to unpack
key multilateral (World Trade Organisation), regional and bilateral trade negotiations. It also
considers unilateral trade policy issues lying outside of the reciprocal trade negotiations arena
as well as the implications of regional economic integration in Southern Africa and beyond.
(3) Exploration of linkages between traditional trade policy debates and other sustainable
development issues, such as climate change, investment, energy and food security.
SAIIA gratefully acknowledges the Swedish International Development Cooperation
Agency, the Danish International Development Agency, the UK Department for International
Development and the Swiss Development Corporation, which generously support the EDIP
Programme.
Programme head: Catherine Grant, [email protected]
© SAIIA December 2012
All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilised in any form by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information or
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Opinions expressed are
the responsibility of the individual authors and not of SAIIA.
Please note that all currencies are in US$ unless otherwise indicated.
A b s t r acT
This paper puts forward a strategic view of what South African trade policy should be
doing in relation to the future global trading environment. The future is uncertain, but if the
past is prologue, South African trade policy needs to be positioned for a continuation of
the commodity cycle, and to exploit markets in emerging economies, including Africa, more
fully. Simultaneously, it needs policies to spur labour-intensive services and manufacturing
exports, both because these will be needed if commodity markets are less robust and
because of their employment creating potential. South Africa’s current strategy, however,
is inflexible, heavily focused on domestic concerns and has the danger of placing South
African exporters at a disadvantage in accessing the growing emerging economies. It
also gives rise to an inherent tension between the interests of South Africa and the African
region in trade negotiations. Having as the central tenet of trade policy a commitment
to deal with tariffs on a case-by-case basis will not serve South Africa well in the global
economy that is likely to emerge over the next fifteen years. A simpler tariff structure would
facilitate the conclusion of free trade agreements and actually make industrial policy more
effective.
A BOUT THE A UTHORs
Lawrence Edwards is an Associate Professor at the School of Economics at the University of
Cape Town. His research falls within the field of international trade with a specific focus on
international trade and labour, the determinants of trade flows and economic adjustments
to trade liberalisation.
Robert Z Lawrence is the Albert L Williams Professor of International Trade and Investment; a
Senior Fellow at the Peterson Institute for International Economics; and a Research Associate
at the National Bureau of Economic Research. He currently serves as Faculty Chair of The
Practice of Trade Policy executive programme at Harvard Kennedy School.
ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY PROGRAM ME
A b b r e v ia t i o ns and A c r o nyms
APTA
ASEAN BRIC
BRICS COMESA CU
EAC EFTA FDI FTA
G-20
GDP GSP GSTP
IMF
Mercosur MFN
OECD PSA
RTA
SACU SADC
SSA
TFTA the dti
TPSF TRAINS UNCTAD
WTO
Asia–Pacific Trade Agreement
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Brazil, Russia, India and China
Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
Customs Union
East African Community
European Free Trade Association
foreign direct investment
free trade agreement
Group of Twenty
gross domestic product
Generalised System of Preferences
Global System of Trade Preferences among Developing Countries
International Monetary Fund
Southern Common Market (Mercado Commún del sur)
most favoured nation
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Partial Scope Agreement.
regional trade agreement
South African Customs Union
Southern African Development Community
sub-Saharan Africa
Tripartite Free Trade Agreement
Department of Trade and Industry
Trade Policy and Strategy Framework
Trade Analysis and Information System
UN Conference on Trade and Development
World Trade Organization
S A I I A O C C A S I O N A L PA P E R N U M B E R 12 8
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S A ' s t rade policy and t h e f u t ure global t rading en v ironmen t
I N TRO D U C T I O N
T
rade policy has a key role to play in South Africa’s growth strategy. If it is to meet the
aspirations of its people for higher incomes and increased employment opportunities,
the South African economy needs to expand at an average rate of at least 6% a year.
If this happens, the demand for imports of intermediate inputs, capital equipment and
finished goods is likely to grow at double-digit levels.1 In the short run, increased foreign
borrowing may be able to finance this demand but there are limits to the size of the
resulting current account deficit that can be sustained. Over the long run, therefore, the
growth in exports will have to accelerate.2 Achieving the required export expansion poses
a considerable challenge. Growth in the volume of goods and services exported prior to
the start of the financial crisis in 2008 averaged only 3.9% per year (2000–07), which is
why, despite booming commodity prices, the current account deficit rose strongly over
the period.
Trade is also especially important in creating jobs for unskilled and semi-skilled
workers – the central goal of the South African Economic Development Department’s
New Growth Path policy framework.3 Tradable sectors such as agriculture, mining,
manufacturing and tourism employ such workers more intensively than most services
sectors.4 Growth in the tradable sectors is therefore likely to play an important role in
meeting the New Growth Path’s objective of raising the employment-intensity of output
growth.
In addition to helping meet the external constraint and providing jobs, trade can
also raise living standards and promote growth. South African firms and consumers gain
from imports through lower prices and a greater variety of goods and services. Exporters
achieve economies of scale and the increased competition due to trade can spur innovation
and productivity growth.
At the same time, however, there may be reasons to constrain some imports: trade
protection may be warranted to provide safeguard protection, especially for vulnerable
labour-intensive domestic industries and to provide targeted infant industry protection
for industries to achieve long-run competitiveness. In addition, selective government
procurement might be used to leverage domestic production capabilities.
Given trade’s importance, it is appropriate to consider if South Africa’s current trade
policy strategy is well crafted for the external environment and the domestic economic
challenges it is likely to face. Trade policy has external and internal dimensions that are
interrelated. The external dimension provides opportunities for promoting the market
access of South African exports of goods and services, and the domestic dimension
opportunities for implementing policies that complement domestic industrial and other
policies to promote growth and job creation. Since foreign barriers are often reduced
reciprocally in trade negotiations there are, at times, trade-offs between these dimensions.
One key challenge is to find the correct balance between preserving adequate space for
domestic policy while at the same time obtaining reciprocal market opening. A second is
enhancing export opportunities that can assist in achieving domestic goals – especially, in
South Africa’s case, employment creation.
This paper puts forward a strategic view of what South Africa should be doing in
relation to the trade agenda. The approach followed is to first outline some important
features of the global trading environment and how these may evolve in the future. We
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then consider whether South Africa’s current trade strategy is positioned to take advantage
of the features of this environment and propose alternative strategies.
THE F UTURE G L OB A L TR A D I N G E N V I RO N M E N T
The future is uncertain. It is tempting to assume the past is prologue and to extrapolate
the trends that have dominated the past decade. Indeed, that is precisely what many of
the forecasts by the multilateral institutions are prone to do. But the one thing we can be
sure of is that although these trends are bound to be influential, we will also be surprised.
The ‘consensus’ view of the future suggests an environment for trade policy that has
six distinguishing features.
Global growth divergence
The first feature of the global trading environment has been the shift in the locus of
global growth and the expansion in trade and investment from industrialised to emerging
economies that occurred over the past decade. Whereas in the 1980s and 1990s developing
and industrialised countries on average grew at the same pace, from 2000 developing
economy growth increased strongly, led by the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China)
economies. By contrast, performance of the developed countries from 2000 was quite
tepid – less than 2% per year. Consequently, the share of emerging economies in world
gross domestic product (GDP) on a purchasing power parity basis rose from 20% in 2000
to 35% in 2011 and predictions are that this share will reach close to 60% by 2020.5
Global patterns of investment and trade flows are expected to mimic these shifts
in the composition of global GDP. For example, the BRICs share in global outbound
foreign direct investment (FDI) increased from 1–2% in the late 1990s to over 5% by
the late 2000s.6 The composition of this investment is also changing. Although much of
the outbound FDI has been destined for relatively advanced countries (for example, the
purchase of the UK’s Jaguar by the Indian company, TATA; China’s Lenovo acquisition of
IBM), South–South investment has also increased.
Lesser-developed countries, including Africa, have been among the beneficiaries of
this surge in FDI.7 FDI flows from the BRICs to least-developed countries reached about
$2.2 billion in 2009 (2–3% of total FDI flows from BRICs), with countries from subSaharan Africa (SSA) receiving $0.9 billion (41% of total). Chinese FDI to least-developed
countries rose from 5.7% of its total outbound FDI in 2003 to close to 10% in 2009.8
The share of emerging economies in international trade grew even faster reflecting
the trade-intensive growth path of the dominant emerging economies. In 2000 the BRICs
accounted for 7.2% of world exports. By the third quarter of 2010, this share had risen to
18%.9 These trends are predicted to continue.
Global imbalances
The second feature that will shape the future global trading environment is the unwinding
of global trade imbalances. Global economic growth over the past decade was associated
with the emergence of large and unsustainable trade imbalances. Boosted by buoyant
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equity and property markets, low interest rates, and ‘creative’ financing practices – that
turned out to be disastrous – consumers in the US borrowed and spent more than their
incomes. This led the US to generate very large current account deficits financed heavily
by foreign central banks that accumulated large holdings of dollar reserves. By 2008 the
US deficit on goods and services had reached 4.9% of US GDP (see Table 1). Although the
EU as a whole has been in surplus, similar divisions remain between the surplus countries
such as Germany, the Netherlands and deficit countries mainly in Eastern and Southern
Europe and the UK.
Table 1: External balance on goods and services (% of GDP)
1980
1990
2000
2008
High income: OECD a
-1.3
-0.6
-0.8
-1.3
US
-0.5
-1.3
-3.9
-4.9
EU
-2.3
-0.5
0.3
0.7
Japan
-0.9
0.9
1.5
0.1
Low & middle income
-2.2
-0.3
1.5
1.1
Brazil
-2.3
1.2
-1.8
0.2
China
-0.4
3.0
2.4
7.7
India
-3.1
-1.4
-0.9
-5.4
0.2
20.0
9.2
External balance goods & services
Russian Federation
South Africa
8.0
5.5
3.0
-3.0
sub-Saharan Africa (developing only)
1.2
0.9
1.6
-2.8
a OECD denotes Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.
Source: World Bank, ‘World Development Indicators’, http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/worlddevelopment-indicators, accessed 18 January 2011.
Developing countries in Asia and elsewhere represented the other side of the coin. Asians
kept their exchange rates weak and accumulated reserves. In China, extremely high
domestic saving rates by both households and corporations supported investment and
an export-led dynamic that featured high profit shares, and declining shares of wages and
consumption in GDP. The outcome was rapid growth in exports of goods and services as
a share of GDP (16% to 35% from 1990–2008), combined with slower growth in imports
(13% to 27% of GDP from 1990–2008) and a rising trade surplus that reached 7.7% of its
GDP in 2008 (from 3% in 1990).10
The rebalancing of global trade flows will require shifts in global production and
expenditure by both developed and emerging economies. In the medium term the need
for fiscal consolidation in numerous developed countries will constrain both public and
private expenditures. This implies that the advanced economies are unlikely to provide
markets for developing countries that are expanding as rapidly as they did in the past. This
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will represent a major change from the experience of the past decade in which developing
country growth, especially in Asia, was based on servicing developed country markets.
These markets will still be large, but developing countries that seek to increase their
exports to developed countries will have to do so by displacing other importers rather
than domestic firms. By contrast, population growth, urbanisation and income growth
in emerging markets will generate a growing number of middle-class consumers with
substantial aggregate buying power.
On the production side, the focus of global competition in manufacturing will shift in
Asian markets from production to serve consumers in advanced economies to production
for supplying the growing middle class in their own economies and in other emerging
economies. The re-orientation in the largest player, China, from export and investment
led growth to domestic consumption led growth, should be eased by a gradual real
appreciation of the Chinese yuan and rising wages.11
The composition of Chinese GDP is also expected to change, leading to new
opportunities and challenges for other emerging economies such as South Africa. As
Chinese consumption increases and savings fall, investment expenditure will decline
relative to consumption expenditure. Chinese consumption patterns are far more
oriented towards agricultural and food products (21% of consumption) and services
(63% including government services), whereas investment expenditure is made up
predominantly of construction (53%) and machinery and equipment, including electrical
machinery (27%).12 Consequently, increases in the consumption-intensity of Chinese expenditure can be
expected to raise relative demand for services (health, education, government services),
agriculture, and food and beverages and reduce the relative demand for construction,
machinery and equipment, and various mining- and resource-intensive products including
basic metals, fabricated metal products and non-metallic minerals. These structural shifts
are illustrated in Figure 1, which shows estimated changes in Chinese output (final and
intermediate demand including imports) by sector, arising from a re-orientation of current
final expenditure from investment towards consumption. The simulation assumes a
ZAR13 120 billion increase in domestic consumption (just under a 10% increase) combined
with an equivalent reduction in investment expenditure – total GDP therefore does not
change. The re-orientation of export production towards supplying the domestic market is
also expected to have profound effects on the composition of Chinese production. The
export and import profiles are far more oriented towards heavy industry than household
consumption patterns. Re-orientation of the export sector towards supplying the domestic
market can therefore be expected to reduce the industry-intensity of Chinese GDP.
The re-orientation of the Chinese economy towards increased domestic consumption
is also expected to have an impact on commodity prices and the geographic location of
manufacturing production.
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Figure 1: Structural shifts in output associated with re-orientation of Chinese demand
towards domestic consumption
% Change in gross output
% Change output (LHS)
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
Construction
Instruments
Machinery
Rubber and plastics
Non-metallic minerals
Basic metals
Fabricated metals
Vehicles
Electrical machinery
Office equipment
Other transport equipment
Mining
Wood
Other manufacturing
R&D
Coke, refined petrol
Radio & TV equipment
Electricity
Wholesale & retail
Transport & storage
Telecom service
Chemicals
Pulp & paper
Other business service
Real estate service
Textiles & clothing
Finance services
Agriculture
Hotels & restaurants
Other community services
Food & beverages
Health services
Eductation
Government services
Mining-intensity (RHS)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
Mining-intensity (direct and indirect effect)
Note: The percent change in demand includes direct and indirect effects as well as imports.
Source: Authors’ own calculations using Input–Output for China (late 2000s) obtained from OECD,
‘Structural Analysis Database’, http://www.oecd.org/sti/industryandglobalisation/stanstructuralanalysisdatabase.htm.
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Commodity prices
The third feature deals with future growth in commodity prices. Emerging economy
growth is highly commodity-intensive.14 The effect of high investment rates and
industry-intensive production, both of which are commodity- and energy-intensive,
in developing countries can been seen in their voracious demand for metals and other
primary commodities. China, for example, contributed one-third of global growth over
the past few years, but accounted for almost 60% of the increased demand for metals
and other primary commodities and 20-40% of the increase in oil.15 The consequence of
this increased demand was strong increases in the price of commodities from 2000–07:
threefold increases in metal prices, a doubling of food and beverage prices and increases in
coal prices and iron-ore prices, both major South African exports, by multiples of five to
seven.16 Commodity prices plummeted during the financial crisis of 2008, but prices have
recovered and in many cases now exceed pre-crisis levels. The increases in iron-ore prices,
for example, have been exceptional: nearly a threefold increase from 2008 to March 2011.
Looking to the future, supply constraints will contribute towards sustained price
pressure. The challenge of supply meeting demand for some commodities is a result of the
depletion of current reserves at a time when replenishment is becoming increasingly difficult.
For most commodities, primary reserves are not located in the same places that generate
most of the demand. Additionally, many known reserves slated for future exploration are
located in developing regions where the political climate may be unstable and a lack of
infrastructure may pose challenges for extraction, processing and transportation.
On the demand side, continued high economic growth together with the increased
population growth, urbanisation and industrialisation of emerging economies is expected
to sustain high levels of demand for commodities. Chinese growth, for example, is
expected to decline moderately from the very high levels of the mid-2000s, but is still
predicted to remain above 8% in the near future, which will sustain demand pressures
on commodities. In the long run, however, the demand for commodities will attenuate
as Chinese growth moderates further and the commodity-intensity of its growth path
declines as it pursues a more consumption-intensive growth path. For example, our
estimates in Figure 1 suggest that a 10% re-orientation of Chinese final expenditure from
investment towards consumption reduces the mining intensity of GDP by 4%.17 Demand
for other mining- and resource-intensive products (basic metals, fabricated metal products
and non-metallic minerals) also decline substantially. Finally, emerging countries are
increasingly seeking to retain more commodity value-addition at home, which will further
reduce the industrial and pollution intensity of Chinese growth.
Global supply chains
The fourth feature is the centrality in manufacturing trade of global supply chains in which
developed and developing countries occupy different parts of the production process.
Lower transport costs, rapid improvements in information and communication technology
and the proliferation of trade agreements have enabled the splitting up of industry’s
value chains into smaller components that can be performed by foreign subsidiaries or
independent suppliers located in different countries across the globe. Multinational firms
and their FDIs have been central to the emergence of these production networks.18 China’s
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S A ' s t rade policy and t h e f u t ure global t rading en v ironmen t
exports provide a vivid example: The most dynamic component of their exports consists
of the processing and assembly of imported components by foreign-owned firms in export
processing zones – these firms account for almost 60% of Chinese exports. The import
content of these exports typically ranges from 40–50%, but exceeds 80% for the hightechnology electronic products.19
An iconic example of this is the iPod.20 Although the full value is counted as an import
from China, only $4 of the landed US price of $180 is attributed to China where the
assembly takes place (by a Taiwanese-owned firm). The hard drive, display assembly and
battery pack are sourced from Japan, the SDRAM from Korea and the video processor,
flash memory and controller chip from the US. The emergence of production networks
therefore enables firms to specialise in a limited part of the production chain.
Technological change combined with increased global integration has also increased
the scope for product differentiation in global markets, even in the same detailed product
categories. This has enabled firms from both developed and developing countries to
differentiate their products and occupy different market niches.21 The scope for product
differentiation is actually greatest in the so-called sophisticated or higher value-added
products.22 This helps explain the phenomenal emerging economy growth in exports of
these ‘traditionally’ developed-country products – emerging economies specialised in the
export of low-priced, low-quality varieties.
These developments in manufacturing have two important implications for trade and
industrial policy. Firstly, the target for intervention is no longer the product – it is the
production process or stage of the value chain. Secondly, differences in the scope for
quality variation, production techniques including technology requirements, and market
demand characteristics are often greater for varieties within a particular product (or
sector) category than between products (or sectors). These developments pose challenges
to policymakers who wish to engage in sectoral-level targeting of policy.
The global fragmentation of production is set to continue and affect new products.
For example, lower transport costs and improvements in telecommunications have
opened up the traditionally ‘non-traded’ services sector to international trade in the form
of outsourcing. India epitomises this development with its rapid growth in exports of
services.23 The low end has seen the explosion of business process outsourcing services
such as call centres and data entry. At the high end, India has become increasingly
involved in software. By 2008 ICT services exports made up slightly over 50% of all India’s
services exports.24
Further, the rebalancing of global trade discussed earlier will require a re-orientation
of Asian supply from export markets towards supplying the local market. An important
component of the shift towards increasing domestic consumption involves reversing the
astounding decline in wages. For example, in the 2011–15 five-year plan issued by the
National People’s Congress of China in 2011 it was announced that minimum wages would
increase by 13% yearly. Chinese wages have already been rising quite rapidly – the average
hourly wage in manufacturing more than doubled in the four years from 2006 from $0.9
per hour to $1.9 per hour (see Figure 2). Indian manufacturing wages have also increased
dramatically over the past decade. These trends are expected to continue – the Economist
Intelligence Unit, for example, predicts that Chinese and Indian manufacturing wages will
double further to over $4 per hour by 2015. These expected increases far exceed those in
developed countries (the US) as well as in Brazil and South Africa (Figure 2).
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Figure 2: Comparison of hourly wages in manufacturing, including forecasts to 2015
Hourly wages in manufacturing ($)
12
US dollars
10
8
6
4
2
Brazil
South Africa
India
2015*
2014*
2013*
2012*
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
0
China
10
8
6
4
2
Brazil/US
South Africa/US
India/US
2015*
2014*
2013*
2012*
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
0
1996
South African wages/foreign wages
Hourly wages in manufacturing relative to US
12
China/US
Source: Economist Intelligence Unit, http://www.eiu.com, accessed 18 January 2011.
If China can reduce domestic saving, it will be in a better position to allow the yuan to
strengthen without causing unemployment and/or deflation. Thus in addition to higher
wages in terms of domestic currency, additional changes in global competitiveness will
occur as a result of currency appreciation. Those firms that seek to remain in China will
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S A ' s t rade policy and t h e f u t ure global t rading en v ironmen t
have to respond by increasing production for the domestic market and/or by upgrading
and moving into higher-unit value products. This will create new opportunities for other
countries to enter into the assembly stage of global supply chains. The upgrading of
products, however, will also increase competitive pressures in medium-tech manufactured
goods.
Global trading system
The fifth feature of the consensus view is that the multilateral trading system will remain
open, but regional and bilateral arrangements will play a major role in driving trade
flows. Economic growth has changed the global balance of power in trade negotiations.
At Cancun in 2003, it became clear that the developed countries (the US and the EU)
could no longer dictate the terms of the agreement – indeed the World Trade Organization
(WTO) has been at the frontier of multipolar governance later apparent by the Group of
Twenty (G-20). This has given rise to two important developments: an impasse in Doha,
and the rise of regionalism.
The impasse in the Doha Round is, in part, because the negotiations were overtaken by
the events described above. The Round’s focus has been on establishing a system that better
meets the needs of developing countries, especially in agriculture. Yet high food prices and
shortages heightened concerns about food security and made liberalisation more difficult.
Developing countries such as India have placed a special emphasis on safeguards. The
climate for liberalisation soured especially in the US, in which polls revealed a widespread
scepticism about the benefits of trade agreements that the US had signed in the past.25 At
the multilateral level, the dispute settlement system has nonetheless flourished and has
been used increasingly to deal with disputes by developing countries, both between one
another and with developed countries.
Yet regionalism has flourished (see Box 1). As countries have competed to attract the
foreign investors that will integrate them into global supply chains, they have sought to
improve market access for their goods and services by obtaining better than most favoured
nation (MFN) treatment through free trade agreements (FTAs). Consequently, regional
trade agreements (RTAs) have proliferated since the Uruguay Round was concluded,
rising from around 10 in 1992 to over 200 by 2009 (120 agreements covering goods, one
agreement covering services and 81 agreements covering goods and services).26
Box 1: Regional Trade Agreements
China and India have been active participants in concluding FTAs. India has been
a tough negotiator in the Doha Round, holding up agreement to preserve special
safeguards in agriculture, for example. But it has been moving decisively to reduce
its tariffs unilaterally far below their WTO bound rates as well as signing extensive
FTAs with Korea, Japan, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),
all of which will remove 90% of all tariffs on goods within 10 years (Table 2).27
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Table 2: RTAs for BRICS
List of notified RTAs
in force
Details of agreement
Type of
agreement
List of RTAs for
which an early
announcement
has been made
China
ASEANa–China
Goods (January 2005),
Services (July 2007)
PSAb
Costa Rica–
China
Asia–Pacific Trade
Agreement (APTA)
Goods (June 1976)
PSA
Australia–China
APTA–Accession of China
Goods (January 2002)
PSA
China–Norway
Chile–China
Goods (October 2006),
Services (August 2010)
FTA
China–Hong Kong, China
Goods & Services
(1 January 2004)
FTA
China–Macau, China
Goods & Services
(1 January 2004)
FTA
China–New Zealand
Goods & Services
(1 October 2008 )
FTA
China–Singapore
Goods & Services
(1 January 2009)
FTA
Pakistan–China
Goods (1 July 2007),
Services (10 October 2009)
FTA
Peru–China
Goods & Services
(1 March 2010)
FTA
India
Date of entry into force
ASEAN–India
Goods (1 January 2010)
FTA
BIMSTEC c
APTA
Goods (17 June 1976)
PSA
EC–India
PSA
EFTAd–India
APTA–Accession of China
Chile–India
Goods (17 August 2007)
PSA
India–SACU
Global System of Trade
Preferences among
Developing Countries
(GSTP)
Goods (19 April 1989)
PSA
Japan–India
India–Afghanistan
Goods (13 May 2003)
PSA
India–Bhutan
Goods (29 July 2006)
FTA
India–Nepal
Goods (27 October 2009)
PSA
India–Singapore
Goods & Services
(1 August 2005)
FTA
India–Sri Lanka
Goods (15 December 2001)
FTA
Korea–Republic of India
Goods & Services
(1 January 2010)
FTA
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List of notified RTAs
in force
Details of agreement
Type of
agreement
Southern Common
Market (Mercosur) –India
Goods (1 June 2009)
PSA
South Asian FTA
Goods (1 January 2006)
FTA
South Asian Preferential
Trade Arrangement
Goods (7 December 1995)
PSA
GSTP
Goods (19 April 1989)
PSA
Latin American
Integration Association
Goods (18 March 1981)
PSA
Mercosur–India
Goods (1 June 2009)
PSA
Protocol on Trade
Negotiations
Goods (11 February 1973)
PSA
Mercosur
Goods (29 November 1991),
Services (7 December 2005)
CU e
EC–South Africa
Goods (1 January 2000)
FTA
EFTA–SACU
Goods (1 May 2008)
FTA
List of RTAs for
which an early
announcement
has been made
Brazil
South Africa
Southern African
Customs Union (SACU)
Southern African
Development
Community (SADC)
India–SACU
CU
Goods (1 September 2000)
FTA
a ASEAN includes Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the
Philippines, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam. b PSA denotes Partial Scope Agreement.
c BIMSTEC: Bay of Bengal Initiative on Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation.
d EFTA denotes European Free Trade Association.
e CU denotes Customs Union.
Source: Author’s own construction using data obtained from WTO, http://www.wto.org, accessed
8 February 2011. China’s approach to FTAs has been very pragmatic. It has shown a willingness
to negotiate with countries individually and in groups (eg ASEAN and recent
discussions between South Korea, China and Japan) with developed (New Zealand
and Australia) and developing countries and with those that are heavily specialised
in agriculture (New Zealand and Australia), manufactured goods (ASEAN and South
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Korea) and services (Hong Kong). It has been focused on East Asia but also quite
willing to deal with countries in Latin America, South Asia, and Africa. It has sought
to signal that its interests are global.
Chinese agreements have not followed a single template. Some have included
goods, services, investment and co-operation (eg Hong Kong, Macau); others cover
only goods (eg Chile); while some have started with goods liberalisation, adding
services later (eg FTA with ASEAN on goods in January 2005 and services in July
2007). The deepest agreements thus far are with Hong Kong and Macau, although
even these do not cover issues that are part and parcel of agreements that are typically
signed by the US (eg intellectual property, labour and environment, government
procurement, dispute settlement by panels) or the EU (eg competition policy).
Brazil has generally not followed the same FTA approach as its two Asian BRIC
counterparts. With major concerns about farm subsidies they have been especially
interested in a successful Doha Round, but their regional agreements and those
they have concluded thus far with India have tended to follow a more selective
approach.28 They have tended to be more aspirational and political. Brazil’s trade
agreements with China are similar and are aimed at boosting trade and energy
co-operation between the two states. Typically these agreements are confined to
sectors in which each side feels comfortable, combined with expressions of goodwill
and pledges of enhanced co-operation rather than extensive liberalisation. Brazil’s
agreement with China, for example, includes a pact to build a Chinese steel plant
in Brazil.29
Asian economies are using trade agreements to eliminate regional barriers and
enhance production networks. A strategic priority of Asian economies has been
the elimination of trade and other barriers between them. The objective of these
agreements is to facilitate the development of regional production networks, but also
improve market access into those countries that impose relatively high tariff barriers
compared with developed economies.
Singapore, for example, is intent on becoming a hub that can provide firms that
locate there with preferential access to almost every global market and hence has
negotiated an extensive range of trade agreements across the globe. In the recently
enacted FTA between China and ASEAN (which came into force on 1 January
2010), the six richest ASEAN members (Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand) eliminated remaining tariffs and barriers
to investment on 90% of products. The poorest four ASEAN members, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar, will not need to cut tariffs to the same levels till
2015. By 2015 duties must also be cut to no more than 50% on the hitherto ‘highly
sensitive’ items, including ambulances in Brunei, popcorn in Indonesia, snowboard
boots in Thailand and toilet paper in China.30
Japan, a major source of FDI into the region, was a latecomer to this process,
but has been signing FTAs with abandon.31 It has concluded separate agreements
with Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Mexico,
Chile and Switzerland and is currently negotiating agreements with the Republic of
Korea, Australia and India. With the noteworthy exception of agriculture in which
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Japan still protects its rice farmers, these agreements are also typically deep, covering
investment and services.
There is no question that these agreements have many exceptions. In addition
they do not necessarily take care effectively of numerous non-tariff barriers, but they
are a striking reflection of the major efforts that governments in Asia are taking to
eliminate the trade barriers between them.
Given the length of time the current Doha negotiations have taken, it seems certain that
any agreement will set the rules of the game for the multilateral system for the foreseeable
future. If concluded, this agreement is likely to achieve significant reductions in developed
country farm subsidies and market barriers. It will also require some reductions in the
current applied rates of developing countries because the use of the Swiss formula could
eliminate ‘water’ – ie limit the leeway between the applied tariff rates and the bound or
maximum tariff rates negotiated under the WTO – in some peak rates.32
Developing countries have over time found their domestic policy space increasingly
constrained as a condition for improved access to developed country markets. In particular,
they have been required to adopt intellectual property protection, and to eliminate export
subsidies and requirements to use domestic products rather than imported products.
Further, they have had to accept disciplines and restrictions on trade-related investment
measures. However, they have not signed the Government Procurement Agreement, and
thus remain free to use this as an industrial policy tool. In addition, they retain discretion
on a range of tariffs and some water in their tariffs, and as long as industrial subsidies
are not trade distorting, they could be used provided they do not cause injury or ‘serious
prejudice’ in foreign markets or nullify concessions made in other agreements. This
suggests considerable scope for domestic policies will remain. Africa
The final distinguishing feature of particular relevance for South Africa is the continued
growth in Africa. The past decade has been especially favourable for African economies
and the continent has experienced a renaissance. Driven by rising commodity prices and
domestic reforms, Africa became the world’s third-fastest growing region from 2000.33
Africa’s collective GDP ($1.6 trillion in 2008) is now roughly equal to that of Brazil or
Russia.
The future environment provides great opportunities for Africa. Strong commodity
demand encourages foreign investment in mining and minerals and the necessary
complementary infrastructure. African countries have opportunities to use their leverage
to increasingly participate in beneficiation of resources. Increased demand for food
products provides opportunities for enhanced agricultural production and exports from
African agricultural producers. This in turn brings improvements to rural areas and raises
rural purchasing power.
This optimism is reflected in the various growth forecasts. According to the 2010
International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Economic Outlook, the share of SSA, excluding
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South Africa, in world GDP is expected to rise to 1.2% by 2015; double its share in the first
half of the 2000s.34 Other estimates place Africa’s (including South Africa) share of world
income at 3.5% by 2020.35 Future growth in Africa will clearly be influenced by what
happens to commodity prices, but improvements in the macroeconomic environments
within these countries and various regulatory improvements suggest that growth will
continue even if the resource boom moderates.
The future may also bring opportunities for Africa to integrate into global supply
chains.36 The migration of foreign investors with assembly operations is based on wages,
which are relatively low in Africa. Rising wages in China will provide further impetus
for the relocation of assembly operations. Poor productivity levels and high trade costs
impede the emergence of African-based production networks, but positive moves have
been made in reducing these costs. The East African Community (EAC), for example, has
made good progress in negotiating a simplified common external tariff, reducing transit
costs and developing telecommunications networks that cover the region.
These developments are particularly important for South Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa
plays a disproportionate role in South Africa’s trade flows relative to its contribution in
world income. For example, exports to SSA currently make up close to 20% of South
Africa’s total merchandise exports (excluding gold). These exports make up a very high
share of total imports within many of the SSA countries – 50% of Zimbabwe imports, 41%
of Mozambique imports and between 20–30% of total imports in Zambia, Malawi and
the Democratic Republic of Congo. South Africa is also an important export destination
for many African countries – 28% of Zimbabwean exports and between 6% and 10% of
exports from Malawi, Zambia, Botswana and Namibia are destined for South Africa. 37
The complementarity between South African exports and the rest of SSA imports
is arguably greatest in services. South African services trade is very poorly measured.38
Nevertheless, anecdotal evidence indicates extensive involvement by South African retail,
communications, construction, financial and tourism sectors in trade with the region. An
important determinant of South African manufacturing firms’ comparative advantage in
selling to the region is that they also provide services related to the assembly, maintenance
and repair of facilities.
There are also strong African–Asian trade complementarities that have important spillover effects for South Africa. The last decade has seen a boom in trade between Africa
and Asian countries. For example, exports from Africa to Asia grew at 20% per year from
2000–05.39 South Africa’s linkages with the rest of Africa therefore provide it with an
opportunity to benefit from the strong economic growth in the Asian economies.
Finally, the region is an important destination for South African FDI, particularly the
neighbouring countries. Compared with investment from outside of Africa, where the
deals are concentrated in the primary sector, intra-African investment (mainly from South
Africa) is relatively oriented towards services and manufacturing.40
F UTURE U N C ERT A I N
None of the outcomes in the consensus view is assured. Growth in developed countries
is already expected to be sluggish, but it could be even slower than expected if fiscal
difficulties in the US and financial problems in Europe are not overcome. Growth in
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emerging economies could also prove slower than is now expected, especially if China
confronts economic problems in shifting its demand patterns in a new direction and if
it experiences political upheavals. Oil price fluctuations in particular have the ability to
destabilise growth, and the Middle East too is a highly unstable region. In response to
unexpectedly slow demand, commodity markets could experience gluts and instability.
Indeed, if China is successful in moving to a domestically oriented growth path, its
growth will become much less commodity-intensive. African growth could also stall
if the environment deteriorates. Finally, if the Doha Round fails, and unemployment
rates remain high in developed countries, the global trading system could also face new
protectionist measures. Another threat could be ‘eco-protectionism’ if developed countries
impose climate ‘border adjustment taxes’ on imports from countries they deem to have
inadequate climate change policies.
As with most risky decisions that have the potential for high pay-offs, the correct
response to these opportunities and risks is to diversify. A multi-pronged trade strategy is
thus required. This entails trade policies that have both global and regional dimensions
and promote a range of exports (commodities, manufactured goods and services). In the
following section we consider whether South Africa’s current trade strategy is positioned to
take full advantage of the changing global trading environment. We also offer suggestions
for changes in that strategy that offer the promise of better results.
I M P L I C A T I O N S F OR S OUTH A F R I C A N TR A D E P O L I C I E S
The implications entailed by the risks in the consensus forecast point to the importance
of a diversification strategy that is multi-pronged. South Africa needs to be positioned for
a continuation of the commodity cycle, and to exploit emerging economies more fully.
But simultaneously it needs policies to spur labour-intensive services and manufacturing
exports, both because these will be needed if commodity markets are less robust and
because of their employment-creating potential.
This discussion of the economic outlook therefore suggests that South Africa’s trade
policies should prioritise four key goals.
• Capitalise on the growth in emerging economies by improving market access for South
African exports.
• Increase South Africa’s participation in global manufacturing supply chains to increase
exports of goods and services to both developed and emerging countries.
• Capitalise on the strong global markets for primary commodities through enhancing
minerals development by domestic and foreign investors and, where appropriate,
moving higher along the value chain.
• Take advantage of Africa’s improved growth prospects by (a) increasing exports of
goods and services to the region; (b) deepening African integration; (c) positioning
South Africa as a hub for African regional and global engagement; and (d) leading
Africa in negotiations to reduce barriers to African exports in developed and
developing markets.
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Before exploring whether South Africa’s current trade policy is appropriate for
achieving these goals, we should emphasise that these goals cannot be achieved
through trade policies, narrowly construed. Complementary measures to facilitate trade
both domestically and regionally need to be undertaken (eg improved transportation,
regulation, customs, etc.) In addition, as well recognised in the New Growth Path, a
multi-faceted complementary approach which allies other microeconomic (industrial)
and macroeconomic (real exchange rate) policies will be required. In particular,
macroeconomic policy has an important role to play in keeping the economy diversified.
This requires preventing excessive appreciation of the rand to maintain a healthy industrial
base and accumulating fiscal surpluses during good times, in order to be able to tide the
economy over when times are bad.
In what follows these issues are dealt with in turn. Our aim is to discuss whether
the current trade policy strategy is well positioned to take advantage of these four goals.
We begin with an appraisal of South African tariff policies, and argue that the current
strategy is heavily focused on domestic concerns and has the danger of placing South
Africa at a disadvantage as its exporters seek access to the growing emerging economies.
We then offer some suggestions for alternative approaches that might assist in entering
manufacturing export supply chains. We then briefly discuss policies towards developing
minerals and beneficiation, emphasising the need for an improved regulatory regime and
providing some caveats about an approach emphasising commodities. Finally, we turn to
regional policies and emphasise the inherent tensions between South Africa’s desire for
domestic policy space in the setting of tariffs and the need to operate within the proposed
SADC CU with a common external tariff.
Trade policy to enhance market access into emerging economies
The New Growth Path states that ‘South Africa’s trade policy should become more
focussed, identifying opportunities for exports in external markets and using trade
agreements and facilitation to achieve these.’41 Our assessment is that the current approach
as outlined in the Trade Policy and Strategy Framework (TPSF) by the Department of Trade
and Industry (the dti) does not really provide a convincing strategy for increasing South
Africa’s entry into emerging economies or enhancing participation in global supply chains.
This is evident both in South Africa’s position in the Doha Round, as well as its neglect of
bilateral and regional FTAs.
In the Doha Round, aside from what are surely justifiable demands for reductions in
developed country agricultural subsidies and protection, South Africa’s approach is heavily
defensive. South Africa’s explicit negotiating objectives in the WTO are given as:42
i) enhance market access to developed countries; ii) eliminate industrial countries’
subsidies and support to agriculture; iii) re-negotiate rules that perpetuate imbalances in the
international trade regime; and iv) ensure appropriate policy space for developing countries
to pursue developmental objectives through meaningful implementation of the principle of
special and differential treatment.
Conspicuous by its absence in this statement of goals is the objective of improving market
access to developing countries, particularly the dynamic fast-growing economies. South
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Africa has strong interests in lower tariffs in the large emerging economies, yet it has
avoided asking for these in Doha. It has essentially viewed the negotiations in North–
South terms and positioned itself strongly on the side of the South. Yet South Africa’s
interests are not necessarily aligned with those of other developing countries in all cases.
During the Uruguay Round, South Africa participated as a developed country and was
required to make more extensive cuts in its maximum (bound) tariff rates than other
emerging economies (although tariff protection in many developing economies fell
substantially through unilateral liberalisation).
Tariff barriers on South African exports to developing countries far exceed those
to developed countries. This is clearly illustrated in Figure 3, which presents the 2008
average applied tariff rate on South African exports to Brazil, India, China, Japan, the
US and the EU. The average applied tariff imposed on South African exports to BRICs
(excluding Russia which only joined the WTO in 2012) ranges from 8.37% in China to
12.4% in Brazil. In contrast, the average applied tariff rate by developed economies is
substantially lower: 0.26% by EU countries, 1.66% by the US and 3.62% by Japan.
Figure 3: Simple average applied tariff rates on South African exports, 2008
45
Avergae tariff rate (percent)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Brazil
China
All products
India
SSA
Agricultural products
EU25
Japan
US
Non-agricultural products
Source: Author’s own calculations using UNCTAD (UN Conference on Trade and Development),
TRAINS (Trade Analysis and Information System), database, http://wits.worldbank.org/wits.
The tariff barriers on South African exports to emerging economies are particularly high
on agricultural goods: 41.7% in India, 14.7% in China and 12.4% in Brazil. Japan also has
a highly protected agricultural market with average applied rates of 15%. The agricultural
sector is prioritised for development in Pretoria’s TPSF, yet South Africa has not focused
on the lowering of these market barriers.
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South Africa’s emphasis on enhancing market access into developed country markets,
for all developing countries in all products, is also not necessarily in its interest.
Analytically, the key issue is whether South African exports to developed countries
compete more strongly with domestic producers in these markets (eg against US producers
when selling in the US market) – in which case lower MFN tariffs are in its interest, or
with other countries, (eg Brazilian producers selling in the US) in which case preferential
access could be better. Through its FTAs with the EU and EFTA, the US African Growth
and Opportunity Act preferences and the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) (used
to export to Japan), South Africa actually has preferential access into the developed
economies. As shown in Table 3, South Africa’s preference margins on average tariff
rates applied by developed economies range from 3 percentage points (into EU) to 0.4
percentage points (into Japan). Reductions in developed economy barriers will erode these
preference margins. In contrast, South Africa faces negative preference margins into the
BRICs as a consequence of the various regional trade agreements entered into by these
economies.
Table 3: Comparison of average tariffs and preference margins on South African exports
to selected destinations, (simple average), 2008
Brazil
China
India
SSA
EU25
Japan
US
12.48
8.37
11.06
4.40
0.26
3.62
1.66
-1.31
-0.42
-0.19
4.12
3.17
0.40
0.95
Applied rate
12.42
14.67
41.72
4.95
3.38
15.30
1.17
Preference over applied
-3.94
-1.13
-0.46
3.87
2.50
0.17
1.26
12.49
7.77
8.46
4.31
0.00
0.63
1.72
-1.12
-0.35
-0.16
4.17
3.04
0.46
0.92
All products
Applied rate
Preference over applied
Agricultural products
Non-agricultural products
Applied rate
Preference over applied
Note: The HS6-digit tariffs for SSA are weighted averages. South Africa gets preferential
access to Japan under the GSP. In calculations including the Mercosur–SACU agreement,
the SACU MFN preference margin is estimated at 0.4%, the SACU Applied preference
margin equals -0.4% (calculated using South African exports to Brazil in 2007 and 2008).
Source: Author’s own calculations using trade and tariff data at the 6-digit level of the Harmonized
System obtained from UNCTAD, TRAINS, database, http://wits.worldbank.org/wits. Rates only cover
products exported by South Africa to that region in 2008.
Therefore, in addition to defending its legitimate needs for policy space, South Africa’s
goals in the Doha Round should in part be about reducing these disadvantages in accessing
the growing emerging economies.
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South Africa’s position in the Doha Round would not be problematic if, as both
China and India have done, it complemented its hard-nosed position in the Doha Round
with an active pursuit of FTAs with emerging economies. But with the exception of the
SACU–EFTA agreement, South Africa has not been an active participant in the global
trend towards FTAs after 2000. The co-operation agreements that have been signed – for
example, with India, China and Brazil – have had a high symbolic and hortatory character
emphasising desires to increase trade and investment rather than establishing systems
based on binding rules and tariff preferences. The same applies to the India–Brazil–South
Africa Forum (established in 2003) and the SACU Trade, Investment and Development
Cooperation Agreement (in 2008) with the US that was the final outcome of the failed
negotiations of a SACU–US FTA.
South Africa did (as part of SACU) conclude a preferential trade agreement with
Mercosur in 2008, and a similar agreement is in prospect with India. In addition, there is
a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership Agreement with China (Partnership for Growth
and Development).43 These agreements have been justified as useful but they do not give
South Africa the same access benefits as those given to countries that have signed more
comprehensive FTAs.
The future objective, as outlined in the TPSF, is not to engage in deep and
comprehensive FTAs, but rather more focused preferential trade agreements that allow for
a more strategic integration process. The intention is to simultaneously ensure that policy
space is preserved to ‘pursue national objectives’ while (at the same time) ‘leveraging
the benefits of more integrated regional and global markets’.44 Partial trade agreements,
however, have limitations with regard to promoting trade. They do not necessarily give
South Africa the market access it desires – ‘you get what you give.’45 High preference
margins tend to be granted on products with low tariff rates. ‘Preferential access’ may be
less valuable because tariff reductions are given on products where preferential access has
already been granted to other countries.
The SACU–Mercosur agreement has gone the furthest in the direction of a binding
agreement and it demonstrates the inherent problems associated with partial trade
agreements. Figure 4 presents a scatter plot of the relationship between the tariff preference
margins granted by Mercosur countries on products exported by SACU members (on
the vertical axis) and the average tariff rate applied by Brazil (a Mercosur member) on
imports of these products from other countries (horizontal axis). The preference margin
reflects the percentage reduction in the MFN tariff rate applied by the importing country,
ie a value of 100 indicates that the product can be imported duty free under the trade
agreement. The size of the circle in the scatter plot is made proportional to the value of
the product in total SACU exports to Brazil.
Three key features are evident in the agreement. Firstly, only one-sixth of all product
lines are covered, reflecting the narrow scope of the agreement. Secondly, high preference
margins tend to be granted on products facing relatively low applied rates: for example,
duty-free access (a 100% preference margin) has been granted on coal and unsaturated
acyclic hydrocarbons. These are important export products for SACU, but the MFN tariff
rate applied by Brazil on these products is 2% or less.
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Figure 4: SACU applied preference margins on exports to Brazil
SACU preference margins (%)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
Brazil's tariff rate applied to most favoured nation countries (%)
Note: The figure is constructed using export and tariff data at the 6-digit level of the
Harmonized System. On the vertical axis, a value of 100 implies that SACU exports can
enter the Brazilian market without paying tariff duty. A value of zero implies that no
preference is granted, and the full MFN tariff rate is applied. The horizontal axis denotes
the MFN tariff rate applied by Brazil on imports from all countries with which it has no
preferential trade agreement.
Source: The tariff and trade data are obtained from UNCTAD, TRAINS, database, http://wits.
worldbank.org/wits. The SACU preferences are obtained from Annex 1 of the Preferential Trade
Agreement between Mercosur and SACU, http://www.sice.oas.org/tpd/mer_sacu/negotiations/viiround_annexi_e.xls.
Finally, very low preference margins were granted on the products that made up a large
share of South African exports – see the large circles along the bottom axis denoting
large export products with no preference margins. For example, no preferences have been
granted on the two most important products exported by South Africa (ferro-manganese
and spark-ignition engines over 1 000 cc), yet these products face tariff rates of between
6% and 18%.46
There is little evidence, therefore, that the partial trade agreements emphasised by the
South African government will be effective in enhancing access into the growing emerging
economies.
To be fair, the SACU–Mercosur agreement has established a legal framework
for negotiating future tariff reductions. However, unless the focus is on negotiating
comprehensive trade agreements that match those signed by other developing countries,
South African exporters will remain relatively disadvantaged in these markets.
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The justification for South Africa’s defensive stance in these trade negotiations is
that it is necessary to provide the maximum leeway for domestic industrial policy.47
The trade strategy is designed to follow industrial policy imperatives. This involves a
detailed sector-by-sector approach which seeks to upgrade South Africa’s industrial
base and to encourage the production and export of more sophisticated value-added
products, ‘through purposeful intervention in the industrial economy aimed at achieving
dynamic competitive advantages’.48 Although South Africa may have engagements both
multilaterally and bilaterally, the central desire is to retain the maximum policy space to
implement its approaches unilaterally.
This approach does have the advantage of providing the maximum room for ‘domestic
policy space’, but not only does it result in an excessively complex tariff structure, it also
places South Africa in a disadvantageous position when seeking market access for its
exporters.49 It is ironic that the current policy is justified as avoiding the consequences of
specialisation along the lines of ‘static comparative advantage,’ but in fact by considering
only the requirements of each sector and keeping tariffs high for all sectors that seem
at all vulnerable, the policy actually leads to resource allocation along the lines of static
comparative disadvantage. In making decisions to retain resources on a sector-by-sector
basis, the policy neglects the opportunity costs of putting resources to alternative uses.
An alternative approach would be to simplify the tariff structure with much fewer
tariff rates, but still maintain barriers in a few sectors – both to preserve jobs and nurture
infant industries. In addition, more emphasis would be given to offensive interests by
seeking greater multilateral liberalisation from the large emerging economies and/or by
negotiating more comprehensive bilateral agreements in which greater liberalisation is
exchanged by granting preferential market access while still retaining some protection for
sensitive sectors.
Enhance labour-intensive manufacturing exports
Part of the reason for this cautious and defensive approach to trade policy is that, with
a few exceptions, South Africa has not yet developed manufacturing exports that can
realistically be expected to compete in and with emerging markets. With a few exceptions,
South Africa has also not been able to participate effectively in global supply chains that
export manufactured goods to the developed countries – especially when the rand stands
at below eight to the dollar. Thus, in addition to striving for better market access for
exports, trade policy needs to be complemented by other policies that enhance export
diversification by fostering competitive manufactured exports.
The New Growth Path recognises this not only by outlining a set of microeconomic
policies but also an approach that involves reducing costs through a more competitive
real exchange rate achieved through combining fiscal restraint with an incomes restraint
policy. A real rand that is 20% weaker is equivalent to a 20% tariff on all imports and
a 20% subsidy for all exports. One benefit from successfully implementing this New
Growth Path approach is that it would create more room for a less defensive trade strategy.
Indeed, with a real rand closer to nine to the dollar, a much broader range of South African
manufacturing exports would become competitive. Contrary to the negative impressions
given in some of the official trade policy strategy documents, South African non-resource
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manufacturing firms have in the past generated impressive export growth in response to
a competitive rand.50 A complementary industrial policy strategy to this macroeconomic policy might
involve a co-ordinated approach to attracting local and foreign investors to attractive
special export zones in an explicit effort to become part of the global supply chains
that are likely to move out of China over the next 15 years. Ideally, these would provide
additional employment opportunities that would complement rather than compete with
the domestic labour market.
The question remains as to how realistic a goal this is. A common critique is that South
Africa cannot compete on the basis of labour costs. To evaluate this view, we compare
labour costs across various countries in 2010. Table 4 presents hourly manufacturing
wages as well as unit labour costs (relative to the US) where wages are adjusted for
productivity differences. These are average wages and do not take into account the wage
distribution or differences in skills. Nevertheless, the table provides some useful insights.
Table 4: Comparison of labour cost competitiveness in manufacturing, 2010
Unit labour costs (US = 100)
Hourly wages ($)
South Africa
105
7.1
India
118
3
China
85
1.9 (was 0.9 in 2006)
Brazil
95
8.2
Peru
84
4.5
US
100
33.7
Note: The unit labour costs are based on wage and productivity data for the overall
economy. However, the relative wages for the overall economy are very similar to those
for manufacturing alone.
Source: Economist Intelligence Unit, Website, http:///www.eiu.com, accessed 18 January 2011.
Firstly, South Africa generally cannot compete against China and other emerging
economies on the basis of average current manufacturing wages. South African firms face a
wage cost disadvantage relative to China and India, but not Brazil. Average manufacturing
wages in South Africa, for example (at $7.1 an hour in 2010) were over three times those
in China. Secondly, South Africa’s labour cost competitiveness is far closer to that of China
and India once productivity differences are accounted for.51 Thirdly, higher wage costs
can also be offset through a real depreciation of the currency. According to the table, a
real depreciation of 20% would be sufficient to improve South Africa’s average labour cost
competitiveness to a level close to that in China. Finally, China’s average unit labour costs
are expected to rise in response to the 13% per year increase in wages planned over the
next five years.
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S A ' s t rade policy and t h e f u t ure global t rading en v ironmen t
Thus taking a five-year time horizon – even with its current labour costs, with a
rand that is 20% lower – many South African manufacturers could be competitive in
export markets. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that South African exports are
highly responsive to labour cost competitiveness, which can be achieved through real
depreciation, wage moderation and/or productivity improvements.52
In fact, the average manufacturing wage is a poor measure of what the average worker
earns in the South African economy. This is illustrated most strikingly in the data given in
the New Growth Path. It reports that half of all employed people in 2008 earned less than
ZAR 2,500 a month ($2.1/hour). A third earned under ZAR 1,000 a month ($0.8/hour).53
Most of these workers are found in the informal, agricultural and domestic work sectors.
If we combine these shares with the fact that one-quarter of South African workers are
unemployed, we conclude that 48% of all potential workers in South Africa earn less than
$0.80 an hour and 60% less than $2 an hour.
South Africa, therefore, has the potential to compete on the basis of wage costs. The
realisation of this potential will require complementary policies including development
of trade infrastructure and a more flexible approach to labour legislation and the wage
bargaining process. Yet infrastructure development is constrained by the budget and
wholesale reform of labour legislation is regarded as not politically feasible.
One approach is to reform at the margin. This could be through the establishment of a
new set of duty-free processing zones that would concentrate on manufacturing for export
markets. The aim would be to provide additional employment opportunities that would
complement rather than compete with the domestic labour market. If duty-free zones
in rural and coastal areas could combine competitive wages with tax incentives, highquality infrastructure and preferential market access to both developed and developing
markets, they could provide an environment in which manufacturing activities could
thrive. Particular consideration could be placed on creating opportunities for workers in
former Bantustan areas where unemployment is high and incomes are low.54 These zones
should be close to ports, offer excellent shipping and customs-clearance facilities and
provide duty-free access to intermediate inputs.
A key part of the strategy is attracting the right types of investors. This requires a
sophisticated investment promotion agency that would identify and target the major
players in global supply chains and seek to attract them to South Africa. Exporters and
players in global supply chains are large and concentrated. These investors should be
actively pursued and given the highest priority, indeed one-stop shopping with respect to
obtaining the necessary permits and visas to set up their operations. A special emphasis
could be placed on the electronics sector – a labour-intensive activity in which South
African exports are conspicuous by their absence. Policymakers should also leverage off
co-operative agreements (with BRIC countries) to facilitate investment in manufactures
and not just in the beneficiation of raw materials.
Riding the commodity super-cycle
Although foreign market barriers are not high in minerals, the sector clearly deserves
emphasis in both trade and foreign investment policies. The challenge lies in improving
on the disappointing performance in the regulatory and infrastructure areas that have
hindered exports over the past decade. Incredibly, as shown in Figure 5, the share of
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minerals in South African output has stagnated for the past three decades. In real terms,
mining value added was actually no different in 2009 to what it what it was in 1975. In
contrast, real mining value added in Australia increased more than three fold. In Malaysia
real mining value added rose by a factor of 2.5 over the period 1980 to 2009 – although
this growth also reflects its discovery and production of oil and gas in the 1970s.
Figure 5: Index of real gross value added in mining, selected countries (1980=100)
South Africa and comparator countries
400
350
1980 = 100
300
250
200
150
100
50
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
0
South Africa: Total mining & quarring
South Africa: Coal
South Africa: Gold & uranium
Australia: Total mining
South Africa: Other mining
Malaysia: Total mining
Source: Quantec Research (Pty) Ltd, http://www.quantec.co.za/, accessed 19 January 2011;
Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Australian National Accounts: National Income, Expenditure and
Product’, 2011, http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS, accessed 8 February 2011; Malaysia, Department
of Statistics, http://www.statistics.gov.my, accessed 8 February 2011.
The importance of rejuvenating mineral exports is broadly accepted and well recognised in
policy circles. More contentious is the emphasis by government on the beneficiation of raw
materials, which is also reflected in government’s approach to international agreements.
For example, an aim of the co-operative agreement with China – the Partnership for
Growth and Development – is to ‘promote value-added South African exports to China
and increase inward investment by China in projects around mineral beneficiation’.55
There is scope for South Africa to increase its value-added activities in commodities,
but we would caution against the presumption made by many that because South
Africa is a producer of raw materials it is automatically likely to be competitive in most
beneficiation activities. There is little international evidence in support of the view that
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production of raw materials automatically gives a country a competitive advantage in
beneficiation activities.56 South Africa, for example, faces significant disadvantages in the
beneficiation of iron ore: It does not have sufficient local demand for scale, is not close to
major foreign demand centres, the location of mills are not on the coast; and profitability
is adversely affected by high costs of significant factors (capital, labour and energy) and
high cost of imported pellets and coking coal.57
Providing costly incentives for beneficiation could also draw on scarce resources that
may be better used elsewhere. Our estimates (see Box 2) suggest that mineral beneficiation
is often immensely capital-intensive, creates fewer jobs (particularly semiskilled and
unskilled jobs) per dollar of output, has heavy demands for energy and is often highly
polluting.
Box 2: Beneficiation
Mineral beneficiation is often immensely capital-intensive, creates fewer jobs
(particularly semiskilled and unskilled jobs) per dollar of output, has heavy demands
for energy and generates high levels of emissions. To illustrate the employment tradeoffs, we estimate the net employment intensity of output growth for various industries
in South Africa using input–output tables. The results are presented in Figure 6
and Table 5. These values are net values, as they exclude the employment creation
associated with the upstream increases in production of primary commodities used as
intermediate inputs. The reason is that with beneficiation the primary commodity is
no longer exported directly, but is redirected for use in the downstream industry. The
sectors are ranked according to net employment creation (from highest to lowest).
According to our estimates, the net employment intensity of output growth
is lowest in the resource-intensive manufactured sectors where much of the
beneficiation is occurring (net jobs per ZAR 1 million increase in domestic
production in brackets):
•
•
•
•
•
coke & refined petroleum (1.2),
basic non-ferrous metals (1.6),
beverages and tobacco (2.3),
iron & steel (2.4) and
chemicals (2.9).
Roughly half of these jobs are of semi- and unskilled labour. The greatest
employment effects are found in:
•
•
•
•
wearing apparel (18.6),
wood & wood products (10.1),
furniture (9.9) and
electrical machinery (8).
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Semi & unskilled labour make up a relatively high share of these jobs – between 60
and 80%. Similar trade-offs with respect to the use of scarce electricity also need to
be considered.
Figure 6: Net employment per ZAR million increase in output (ranked according to
primary commodity intensity)
Most commodity intensive
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18 20
Food
Coke & petrol
Basic iron & steel
Other manufacturing
Wood products
Beverages & tobacco
Non-metallic minerals
Basic non-ferrous metals
Paper & paper products
Rubber products
Basic chemicals
Glass & glass products
Textiles
Furniture
Footwear
Least commodity intensive
Other chemicals
Motor vehicles
Metal products
Plastic products
Electrical machinery
Machinery & equipment
Leather products
Prof & scientific equipment
Other transport equipment
Printing & publishing
Wearing apparel
Radio, TV & comm equipment
Note: Commodity intensity is measured as share of primary commodities in
total costs. Jobs per million output reflect the direct and indirect employment
opportunities associated with a ZAR 1 million increase (2 000 prices) in production.
These values exclude the employment opportunities associated with the primary
sector multipliers, as these products could be exported directly. This reduces the size
of the multipliers, as primary sector production does not feed back into the system.
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Source: Author’s own calculations using Statistics South Africa, ‘2000 Supply-Use table’, http://
www.statssa.gov.za/ and employment data from Quantec Research (Pty), http://www.quantec.
co.za, accessed 18 January 2011.
Table 6: Net employment creation from beneficiation
Net employment creation
from beneficiation (jobs per
ZAR million output)
Share
Semi & Skilled
Total
Semi &
unskilled
employment unskilled
Manufacturing
Wearing apparel [313–
315]
rank/27
Primary
resource
intensity
(Primary
resource
cost share)
rank/27
14.9
3.7
18.6
1
0.80
0.00
26
Wood and wood
products [321–322]
6.1
4.0
10.1
2
0.61
0.26
5
Furniture [391]
6.6
3.3
9.9
3
0.66
0.03
14
Electrical machinery and
apparatus [361–366]
4.7
3.3
8.0
4
0.59
0.01
20
Footwear [317]
6.2
1.3
7.5
5
0.83
0.02
15
Leather and leather
products [316]
5.3
2.0
7.2
6
0.73
0.00
22
Plastic products [338]
4.6
2.4
7.0
7
0.66
0.01
19
Textiles [311–312]
5.1
1.9
7.0
8
0.73
0.07
13
Printing, publishing and
recorded media
[324–326]
2.1
4.4
6.6
9
0.33
0.00
25
Metal products excluding
machinery [353–355]
3.4
2.2
5.6
10
0.61
0.01
18
Glass and glass products
[341]
3.7
1.8
5.5
11
0.67
0.08
12
Professional and scientific
equipment [374–376]
3.1
2.3
5.4
12
0.58
0.00
23
Machinery and
equipment [356–359]
2.5
2.4
4.9
13
0.51
0.01
21
TV, radio &
communication
equipment [371–373]
2.9
2.0
4.9
14
0.59
0.00
27
Other chemicals and
man-madefibres
[335–336]
2.3
2.3
4.6
15
0.49
0.02
16
Rubber products [337]
2.9
1.7
4.6
16
0.63
0.10
10
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Net employment creation
from beneficiation (jobs per
ZAR million output)
Share
Semi & Skilled
Total
Semi &
unskilled
employment unskilled
Primary
resource
intensity
(Primary
resource
cost share)
Non-metallic minerals
[342]
3.0
1.5
4.5
17
0.66
0.18
7
Other manufacturing
[392–393]
2.3
2.2
4.5
18
0.52
0.31
4
Paper and paper
products [323]
2.3
1.6
3.9
19
0.59
0.10
9
Other transport
equipment [384–387]
2.0
1.8
3.9
20
0.52
0.00
24
Food [301–304]
2.0
1.6
3.6
21
0.55
0.40
1
Motor vehicles, parts and
accessories [381–383]
1.8
1.4
3.2
22
0.56
0.02
17
Basic chemicals [334]
1.5
1.4
2.9
23
0.52
0.09
11
Basic iron and steel
[351]
1.3
1.1
2.4
24
0.53
0.33
3
Beverages and tobacco
[305, 306]
1.3
1.0
2.3
25
0.56
0.21
6
Basic non-ferrous metals
[352]
0.8
0.8
1.6
26
0.51
0.11
8
Coke & refined
petroleum products
[331–333]
0.6
0.6
1.2
27
0.48
0.40
2
Average manufacturing
3.5
2.1
5.6
–
0.59
–
– Note: See notes to Figure 6.
Source: Author’s own calculations using Statistics South Africa, ‘2000 Supply-Use table’, http://
www.statssa.gov.za/; Employment data from Quantec Research (Pty), http://www.quantec.co.za,
accessed 18 January 2011.
Nonetheless, in some cases, beneficiation could make sense and trade policies can play a
role in encouraging these activities. In the face of booming markets, projects that refine
and smelt minerals can contribute to foreign exchange earnings and employment growth.
A strategic use of export taxes (as advocated in the New Growth Path plan) could in
principle encourage beneficiation, although there are delicate trade-offs, especially
since such measures could actually reduce the attractiveness of more labour-intensive
mining. Attention should also be focused on the tariff escalation present in South African
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trading partners that have the impact of protecting value-addition in these partners and
discouraging these activities in South Africa and other African countries.
Taking care of the neighbourhood
South Africa’s regional trade engagement is extremely important, especially in regard to
its diversification strategy, since these are major export markets for its non-commodity
manufactured goods and its services. SACU and the SADC Free Trade Area and the
proposed new Tripartite FTA (TFTA) between the EAC, the Common Market for SADC
all reflect this vital strategic interest.
South Africa has a strong interest in these groups for several reasons. First, to enable
local firms to export goods and services; second, to assist in South Africa’s role as a hub
for foreign firms seeking to enter African markets; and third, deeper African integration
can help Africans compete more effectively in global markets in ways that could provide
opportunities for South Africans. Separately, many countries are still too small to realistically achieve the scale economies
required to develop the capacity to make significant contributions to value added in global
supply chains. Standing alone, for example, even Lesotho, Africa’s largest clothing exporter
to the US, is too small to support a textiles industry that produces the variety of fabrics
it requires. But by combining forces, these countries can more easily offset their scale
deficiencies. In addition, as the Asian experience has indicated, there is immense scope
for firms from countries at different incomes levels (eg China and Hong Kong) to combine
forces with each contributing the value added in which they have comparative advantage.
For South Africa an expansion of African supply chains would offer opportunities not
only to engage directly by providing inputs and equipment but also indirectly through
providing services such as finance, transportation, and logistical co-ordination and so on.
Similarly, African minerals development, and infrastructure and construction projects to
support their exports, offer opportunities for South African service providers. But the challenges involve the specific nature of the co-operation. There are inherent
tensions between South Africa’s desire to make its entire tariff structure subservient to
its industrial policy and the need to operate that tariff structure within the proposed
SADC CU with a common external tariff. Structuring CU agreements around regional
industrial policy objectives adds further complexity. This would require members with
vastly different development needs to not only agree on the common external tariff,
but also to co-ordinate their industrial policies. It is difficult enough to determine an
interventionist industrial policy strategy at the national level. It is even more difficult to
operate at the regional level and determine such a policy by consensus. It is not impossible
– the Europeans have responded to these tensions by banning state aids at the national
level and carrying out the industrial policies at the European level. However, this involves
giving up a degree of national sovereignty and control over crucial policy areas that the
diverse set of African countries are unlikely to be ready for.
There is recognition of these tensions and South Africa has tried to shift attention
from the schemes for grand CUs and emphasised the many other actions that need to be
undertaken to deal with the non-tariff barriers, such as standards and technical barriers
that impede regional integration. In addition, the trade policy documents have correctly
emphasised working on trade facilitation that can deepen integration. We also believe that
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the adoption of a common, simple, African rule of origin should be developed and adopted
in all African FTAs.58 This would allow for cumulation across countries and would ideally
be used in the preferences granted to African countries by the rest of the world. And
finally, South Africa has a strong interest in including services in these agreements.59
Services are a key input in determining the competitiveness of firms and are already an
integral part of South Africa’s trade with the region.60 Entering into rule-based agreements
on services can enhance South Africa’s integration in the region.
CONCLUSION
In this paper we identify some major patterns of the future global trading environment
that serve as the context for trade policy. We highlight continued shifts in global growth
from developed to developing economies, the growing share of emerging markets in
trade and investment and the continued upward pressure these are expected to place
on commodity prices. We also note the shifts in consumption and production patterns
required for the unwinding of global current account imbalances and how these may give
rise to a re-orientation of global supply chains, facilitated through use of regional trade
arrangements. Finally, we describe Africa’s strong growth performance and how this has
been driven by commodity prices and domestic reforms.
None of these outcomes is assured. Fiscal difficulties in the US and financial problems
in Europe may constrain global growth. Growth in China may slow, especially if it
confronts economic and political problems in re-orienting its economy from export and
investment led growth to domestic consumption led growth. Instability in the Middle
East has the potential to destabilise global growth through its impact on oil prices.
Unexpectedly slow demand could depress commodity markets, which would slow
African growth. Finally, if the Doha Round fails, and unemployment rates remain high in
developed countries, the global trading system could also face new protectionist measures.
The implications entailed by the risks to the future global trading environment point to
the importance of a diversification strategy that is multi-pronged.
South Africa’s current trade strategy, however, does not position the economy to take
full advantage of the features of the future global trading environment. South African tariff
policies are heavily focused on domestic concerns and run the risk of placing South Africa
at a disadvantage as its exporters seek access to the growing emerging economies. We offer
some suggestions for alternative approaches that might assist in entering manufacturing
export supply chains. In particular, we promote the idea of establishing duty-free export
zones where exporters are able to compete in low-wage manufacturing industries.
The paper has discussed policies towards developing minerals and beneficiation,
emphasising the need for an improved regulatory regime and providing some caveats
about the current government approach that emphasises the beneficiation of commodities.
Finally, we have emphasised the inherent tensions between South Africa’s desire for
domestic policy space in the setting of tariffs and the need to operate within the proposed
SADC CU with a common external tariff.
In this paper we have accentuated our differences with the current trade policy to
stimulate discussion. Our differences should not be couched as a debate between free trade
versus protection. There is a role for industrial policies and indeed, in some instances,
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S A ' s t rade policy and t h e f u t ure global t rading en v ironmen t
trade policy needs to be subordinate to industrial policy. However, we do not believe that
industrial policy should prevent comprehensive improvements in the tariff regime or the
conclusion of FTAs when these will be beneficial to South Africa.
Having as the central tenet of trade policy a commitment to deal with tariffs on a
case-by-case basis will not serve South Africa well in the global economy that is likely to
emerge over the next 15 years. A simpler tariff structure would facilitate the conclusion
of FTAs and actually make industrial policy more effective. In our view, you cannot have
exceptions for industrial policy if you do not have rules.
E N D N OTE S
1
These values are based on import and export equations for the South African economy
estimated by Edwards L & R Lawrence, ‘South African Trade Policy Matters: Trade Performance
& Trade Policy’, Economics of Transition, 16, 4, 2008, pp. 585–­608.
2
South African history is replete with examples of collapses in growth in response to the lack
of foreign exchange. For example, the economic stagnation of the 1980s – with annual growth
at just 1.5% – was in no small measure due to an externally imposed constraint that also made
clear the degree to which the economy depended on trade. For a detailed review of the external
constraint on South Africa’s growth see Bell T, Farrell G & R Cassim, ‘Competitiveness,
International Trade and Finance in a Minerals-Rich Economy: The Case of South Africa,’ in
Fanelli JM & R Medhora (eds), Finance and Competitiveness in Developing Countries. London:
Routledge, 2002, pp. 181­–221.
3
South Africa, Department of Economic Development, The New Growth Path: The Framework.
Pretoria: Government Printers, 2010.
4
See Rodrik D, ‘Understanding South Africa’s economic puzzles’, The Economics of Transition,
The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 16, 4, 2008, pp. 769–97.
5
See The Conference Board, ‘Global Economic Outlook 2011’, 2010, http://www.conferenceboard.org/data/globaloutlookresults.cfm. See also the IMF (International Monetary Fund),
‘World Economic Outlook’, October 2010, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/02/
pdf/text.pdf.
6
The share of exports of FDI originating from non-OECD countries increased from about 20%
to 25% from 2003–07, with the BRIC countries accounting for about a half of this growth.
See Mattoo A & A Subramanian, ‘Criss-crossing globalization: uphill flows of skill-intensive
goods and foreign direct investment’, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 5047.
Washington: Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2009. Lesser-developed countries,
including Africa, have been amongst the beneficiaries of this surge in FDI. FDI flows from
the BRICs to least-developed countries reached about $2.2 billion in 2009 (2–3% of total FDI
flows from the BRICS), with SSA countries receiving 0.9% (41% of total). Chinese FDI to leastdeveloped countries rose from 5.7% of its total outbound FDI in 2003 to close to 10% in 2009.
See Broadman HG, Africa’s Silk Road: China and India’s New Economic Frontier.’ Washington:
World Bank, 2008; IMF, New Growth Drivers for Low-Income Countries: The Role of BRICs.
Washington: IMF, 2011.
7
South–South investment in Africa has been driven mostly by state-owned companies
and has been destined for natural resource industries (including oil). Over time, however,
South–South investment is spreading to agriculture, manufacturing, and service industries
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ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY PROGRAM ME
(eg telecommunications). The type of investor has also changed, at least in the case of Chinese
investment in SSA where small and medium sized, predominantly private-sector, enterprises
are emerging as important investors. See Kaplinksy R & M Morris, ‘Do the Asian Drivers
Undermine Export-Oriented Industrialisation in SSA?’, World Development, 36, 2, 2008,
pp. 254­–73.
8
Broadman HG, op. cit. and IMF, op. cit.
9
The BRIC share of world imports rose by equivalent amounts (5.8–16%). Values are drawn
from the UN Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.
10 Authors’ own calculations using World Bank ‘World Development Indicators’, http://data.
worldbank.org/indicator, accessed 8 February 2011.
11 These trends are already reflected in the gradual appreciation of the yuan as well as strong wage
growth in manufacturing. The goal of shifting the economy towards a more consumption-led
growth path is also reflected in the objectives of the Twelfth Five-Year Guideline approved by
National People’s Congress in 2011.
12 Authors’ own calculations using Input–Output for China (late 2000s) obtained from OECD
(Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development), ‘STAN Structural Analysis
Database’, http://www.oecd.org/sti/industryandglobalisation/stanstructuralanalysisdatabase.
htm, accessed 8 February 2011.
13 ZAR is the three-letter currency code for the South African Rand.
14 Economies that grow at 7%, will generally invest around 30% of their output. In China, the
investment share of GDP reached close to 50% in 2009. Investment expenditure is concentrated
on infrastructure, construction and equipment, all of which are metals and minerals intensive.
Industrial production is also commodity and energy (and pollution) intensive. On average,
industrial production makes up 37% of GDP in emerging economies compared with 25%
in high-income OECD countries. In China, the share of industrial production in GDP is
exceptionally large – 47% of GDP in 2008. World Bank ‘World Development Indicators’, http://
data.worldbank.org/indicator, accessed 8 February 2011.
15 The metals intensity of China’s GDP is far higher than comparable developing countries. For
example, China’s copper and aluminium intensity was 1.8 and 4.1 kilograms per $1,000 of real
GDP for 2007–09, compared with world averages of 0.4 and 0.7 kilograms, respectively. World
Bank, ‘Global Economic Prospects’, January 2011, p. 58.
16 Data sourced from IMF ‘IMF Primary Commodity Prices’, database, http://www.imf.org/
external/np/res/commod/index.aspx, accessed 8 February 2011.
17 GDP remains constant in the simulation. Hence, a 4% decline in mining output implies a 4%
decline in the mining-intensity of GDP.
18 Bordo M, Eichengreen B & D Irwin, ‘Is Globalization Today Really Different from Globalization
a Hundred Years Ago?’, in Rodrik D & S Collins (eds), Brookings Trade Forum: 1999.
Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1999, p. 1­50.
19 The domestic content of selected Chinese electronic exports is 4.6% for computers and
accessories, 14.9% for telecommunications equipment, 19.7% for other computer peripheral
equipment and 22% for electronic element and devices. See Koopman R, Wang Z & SJ Wei,
‘How Much of Chinese Exports is Really Made In China? Assessing Domestic Value-Added
When Processing Trade is Pervasive’, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper,
14109. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2008.
20 See Linden G, Kraemer KL & J Dedrick, ‘Who Captures Value in a Global Innovation Network?
The Case of Apple’s iPod,’ Communications of the ACM, 52, 3, 2009, pp. 140­–44.
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21 The niche, however, mostly reflects a country’s endowments and income level. In general, the
price or quality of the product reflects the productivity and income of the country – richer
countries export higher-priced varieties. See Schott PK, ‘Across-product Versus Withinproduct Specialization in International Trade’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119, 2, 2004,
pp. 646–677.
22 Edwards L & RZ Lawrence, ‘Do Developed and Developing Countries Compete Head to Head
in High-tech?’ National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, 16105. Cambridge, MA:
National Bureau of Economic Research, 2010.
23 Improvements in information and communication technology have led to an even finer degree
of fragmentation. International competition increasingly plays out at the level of individual
tasks and not only at the level of the firm or industry. See Grossman G & E Rossi-Hansberg,
‘Trading Tasks: A Simple Theory of Offshoring,’ American Economic Review, 98, 5, 2008,
pp. 1978–­97.
24 Authors’ own calculations using World Bank ‘World Development Indicators’, http://data.
worldbank.org/indicator, accessed 8 February 2011.
25 A January 2008 poll by Fortune magazine found that 63% of US respondents indicated that
‘trade had made matters worse for the United States as a whole.’ In turn, 78% felt it ‘made
things worse for US workers’ and 55% felt it ‘made things worse for US business.’
26 WTO, ‘Regional trade agreements: facts and figures’, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/
region_e/regfac_e.htm.
27 The ASEAN–India FTA will see tariff liberalisation of over 90% of products traded between the
two regions, including the so-called ‘special products’, such as palm oil (crude and refined),
coffee, black tea and pepper. Tariffs on over 4 000 product lines will be eliminated by 2016.
28 The PTA offer list of Mercosur for tariff concessions for India contains 452 products. The PTA
offer list of India for tariff concessions for Mercosur’s exports to India contains 450 products
(obtained from the WTO).
29 BBC News, ‘China and Brazil sign trade deals at Bric summit’, 15 April 2010, http://news.bbc.
co.uk/2/hi/business/8624052.stm.
30 Kate DT, ‘China–Asean Trade Pact Takes Hold, Spares, Popcorn, Toilet Paper,’ Bloomberg,
31 December 2009, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aYYX6TL
e2mjg.
31 Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs is explicit in its recognition of the strategic importance
of creating trade agreements with its Asian partners to overcome high tariff barriers and
enhance the development of regional production networks. ‘FTAs with East Asia will produce
the greatest additional benefits through further liberalization. As is apparent from the simple
average figures for tariff rates […] East Asia, the region where Japanese products account for
the highest percentage of trade, has the highest tariffs. Liberalization of trade with East Asia
will help facilitate the activities of Japanese businesses, which are facing competition from
ASEAN and China and which, in many cases, have shifted their production bases to locations
in East Asia.’ (Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs ‘Japan’s FTA Strategy (Summary)’, 2002,
http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/economy/fta/strategy0210.html).
32 The Swiss formula is a mathematical formula designed to reduce and harmonise tariff rates.
The formula narrows the gap between high and low tariffs and sets a maximum tariff,
irrespective of how high the original tariff was.
33 McKinsey Global Institute, Lions on the Move: The Progress and Potential of African Economies.
Chicago: McKinsey Global Institute, 2010.
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34 IMF, 2010, op.cit.
35 The Conference Board, ‘Global Economic Outlook 2011 – Key Results’, http://www.conferenceboard.org/data/globaloutlookresults.cfm.
36 See Broadman HG, op. cit.
37 South Africa, the dti (Department of Trade and Industry), ‘Economic Database’, http://www.
thedti.gov.za/econdb/raportt/SATradeinWorld.html, accessed 25 January 2011.
38 ‘South Africa’s trade in services data is inadequate for the purpose of monitoring trade in
services. It comprises only 3 components: travel, transport and “other” and is not decomposed
either by country of origin or destination or by mode of trade. In addition, mode 3 trade
(commercial presence) is not captured and most mode 4 trade (temporary movement of natural
persons) is either not captured or conflated with “travel”’. See Mayer M, Trade in Services:
Synthesis of Research Findings. Johannesburg: Human Science Research Council, 2005, p. 10.
39 Broadman HG, op. cit.
40 UNCTAD, Economic Development in Africa Report 2009: Strengthening Regional Integration for
Africa’s Development. Geneva: UNCTAD, 2009.
41 South Africa, Department of Economic Development, op. cit., p. 24.
42 South Africa, the dti, A South African Trade Policy and Strategy Framework. Pretoria:
Government Printers, May 2010, p. 42.
43 The aim, the co-operative agreement with China – the Partnership for Growth and
Development – is to ‘promote value-added South African exports to China and increase inward
investment by China in projects around mineral beneficiation’. See South Africa, the dti,
op. cit., p. 40.
44 Ibid., p. 12.
45 This is clearly reflected in the failure of South Africa to obtain duty-free access into China
during discussions as part of the South Africa–China Partnership for Growth and Development.
See South Africa, the dti, ‘China Country Briefing, Part 1 and Part 2’, http://www.dti.gov.za/
parlimentary/052610_Briefing_2_china.pdf, accessed 1 May 2011.
46 A bizarre outcome for South Africa is that 43 of the 196 lines granted 100% preference margins
face zero MFN rates. A simple regression explaining the preference margin reveals a highly
significant and negative coefficient on the Brazil applied rate (ie high preferences granted on
goods with low protection rates) and insignificant coefficients on the size of South African
exports (no relationship between size of South African exports and preference margin) and
the preference margin for the rest of the world (ie it does not appear that Brazil granted high
preference margins to South Africa on products that already faced high preference margins).
47 South Africa’s industrial policy objectives are outlined in South Africa, the dti, National
Industrial Policy Framework. Pretoria: Government Printers, 2007.
48 Ibid., p. 11.
49 For a critique of the current tariff structure see Edwards L & R Lawrence, ‘SACU Tariff Policies:
Where should they go from here?’ Centre for International Development, Working Paper, 169.
Boston, MA: Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 2007.
50 See Alves P & L Edwards, ‘South Africa’s export performance: Determinants of export supply’,
South African Journal of Economics, 74, 3, 2006, pp. 473­–500.
51 Productivity levels are on average greater in South Africa than in these countries and this
offsets some of the wage cost disadvantage. South Africa’s productivity adjusted wages (unit
labour costs) are only 24% greater than those in China. Unit labour costs in South Africa are
actually lower than in India reflecting that economy’s low productivity rates. In contrast, South
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Africa faces a productivity disadvantage with respect to Brazil that more than offsets the relative
wage advantage of South African workers.
52 Sector-level estimates for South Africa reveal that a 1% improvement in South African labourcost competitiveness is associated with a 2.7% increase in labour-intensive manufacturing
exports in the long run. The export response in other sectors is lower (1.29% for resourceintensive manufacturing, 1.5% for machinery and metal products), but still highly responsive.
See Edwards L & S Golub, ‘South Africa’s International Cost Competitiveness and Productivity
in Manufacturing’, World Development, 32, 8, 2004, pp. 1323­–39.
53 At ZAR 7.5 to the dollar, and a 40-hour work week, ZAR 1,000 a month is ZAR 6 per hour or
80 US cents.
54 Bantustans were the homelands (territories) set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa as
part of the policy of apartheid.
55 See South Africa, the dti, 2010, op. cit., p. 40.
56 See Hausmann R, Klinger B & R Lawrence, ‘Examining Beneficiation’, Centre for International
Development Working Paper, 162. Boston, MA: Harvard University, 2008. This view is
supported by the final recommendations of the International Growth Advisory Panel that
advised South Africa on economic growth policies: ‘Greater processing of natural resource
exports does not constitute an easy or natural next step in the process of structural
transformation, especially in South Africa […] Privileging beneficiation is unwarranted and it
takes Government’s attention from other opportunities that may have more potential to create
export jobs in South Africa.’ See Hausmann R, ‘Final Recommendations of the International
Panel on ASGISA’, Centre for International Development Working Paper, 161. Boston, MA:
Harvard University, May 2008.
57 Anglo American Kumba Iron Ore, Creating a Growing and Sustainable Iron & Steel Value Chain
in South Africa. Johannesburg: Anglo American, 2011.
58 SADC has the most complex rules of origin of the TFTA group. It uses a line-by-line approach
and uses a combination of specific processing requirements, changes in tariff classification
and material content percentage tests. COMESA and the EAC follow an across-the-board basis
for determining origin. See Naumann R, ‘Tripartite FTA State of Play on Preferential Rules of
Origin’, Tralac (Trade Law Centre for Southern Africa) Trade Brief. Stellenbosch: Tralac, March
2011.
59 For example, cabotage laws segment and distort the market for transport services by preventing
transporters from operating outside the country in which they are registered. A Namibian
registered truck with a shipment for Gaborone (Botswana) cannot pick up a load in Gaborone
to take to Durban (South Africa). Similarly, a South African truck delivering goods to Oshkati
(Namibia) cannot accept a consignment for delivery in Windhoek (Namibia). This is an area
where services agreements are required for further integration. COMESA, for example, has
a ‘common carriers licence which registers transporters in all COMESA countries, allowing
carriers to carry backloads and thus significantly reducing the costs of transport.’ See
Charalambides N, ‘The Private Sector’s Perspective, Priorities and Role in Regional Integration
and Implications for Regional Trade Arrangements’, European Centre for Development Policy
Management Discussion Paper, 66. Maastricht: European Centre for Development Policy
Management, 2005.
60 The need to liberalise trade in services is already recognised in SADC Trade Protocol (Article
23) and a draft Protocol on Trade and Services was developed in 2007. This covered the
communication, construction, energy, financial, tourism and transport sectors. This protocol
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was adopted in August 2012. See Cronjé JB, ‘Trade in services and the regional integration
process in southern Africa,’ in McCarthy C et al. (eds), Supporting Regional Integration in East
and Southern Africa: Review of Select Issues. Pretoria: Tralac, Stellenbosch and the Royal Danish
Embassy (Danida), 2010.
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