1. business and industrial
2. agriculture and forestry
3. crops and seed

Understanding Our
Native Grasslands
agricultural, environmental and indigenous
values and management for the future
This document was commissioned by the Natural Resources Advisory Council (NRAC) for
the community and land managers of NSW. NRAC was established by the NSW Government
in 2004 as a single source of integrated stakeholder advice on high level natural resources
management (NRM) and land use issues. NRAC is chaired by an independent Convenor,
Phyllis Miller OAM, who reports on behalf of NRAC to the Minister for Climate Change
and the Environment.
Natural Resources Advisory Council
Phyllis Miller OAM
Russ Ainley OAM
Jeff Angel OAM
Averil Bones
Pepe Clarke
Mark Dangerfield
Allan Ezzy
Pam Green
Harry Goring
Janet Hayes
Hans Heilpern
Peter Jensen
Mark King
Jock Laurie
Pam Moore OAM
Warren Mundine
Penny Olsen
Marie Russell AM
Stephen Ryan
Chris Scott
Sue-Ern Tan
Col Thomson
Stephen Turner
James Christian
Lisa Corbyn
Sam Haddad
Richard Sheldrake
Warwick Watkins
Convenor
NSW Forest Products Association
Total Environment Centre
World Wide Fund for Nature Australia
Nature Conservation Council of NSW
Scientific Representative
Local Government Association of NSW
Catchment Management Authorities
Unions NSW
Shires Association of NSW
Fisheries Management Sector
Planning Institute of Australia
Catchment Management Authorities
NSW Farmers Association
Country Women’s Association of NSW
NTSCORP NSW
Birds Australia
Livestock Health and Pest Authorities
NSW Aboriginal Land Council
NSW Landcare Committee
NSW Minerals Council
NSW Irrigators’ Council
Unions NSW
Chief Executive Officer, Aboriginal Affairs NSW
Director General, Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
Director General, Department of Planning
Director General, Industry & Investment NSW
Chief Executive Officer, Land and Property Management Authority
Acknowledgements
The original report Native Grasslands of NSW – Environmental, Indigenous and Agricultural Values
and Sustainable Management was prepared on behalf on NRAC by Eco Logical Australia Pty Ltd.
Abridgement of the original document was undertaken by IRP Environmental Consultants Pty Ltd,
with the assistance of Mary Goodacre, David Marsh, Penny Olsen, Robert Irvine and Karen Greenhill
under the management of NRAC’s Sustainable Resource and Conservation Standing Committee,
chaired by Jeff Angel. Thanks also to the Botanic Gardens Trust, John Benson, Jaime Plaza,
Royal Botanic Gardens (Sydney), Lachlan Copeland, Phil Gilmore, Mary Goodacre, Sue Hudson,
Bruce Mullins, Ederic Slater, Tieneke Trotter and Rainer Rehwinkel for their great photographs.
Cover image: Silky Browntop Eulalia aurea (Image: Mary Goodacre)
Opposite page: Bluegrass stand Dicanthium sp. (Image: Mary Goodacre)
Disclaimer
While every reasonable effort has been made to ensure that this document is accurate at the
time of printing, the State of New South Wales, its agents and employees do not assume any
responsibility and shall have no liability, consequential or otherwise, of any kind, arising
from the use of or reliance on any of the information contained in this document.
© State of NSW October 2010
ISBN 978-0-646-54309-3
Contents
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Minister’s Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
What is Native Grassland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
How did Native Grasslands Develop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Native Grasslands in NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Grassland Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Natural Native Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Derived Native Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Change in Extent and Condition of Native Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Threats to Native Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. Protection of Native Grasslands in NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Grassland Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Legislative Protection of Grassland Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Legislative Protection of Threatened Grassland Flora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4. Agricultural Values of Native Grasslands in NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Drought Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Case Study:Native Pastures and Planned Grazing for Managing Drought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Year Round Forage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Low input Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Frost Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Finer Wool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Environmental Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Case Study: Competition between Serrated Tussock and Native Pastures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5. Faunal Values of Native Grasslands in NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Grassland Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Grassland Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Grassland Reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Grassland Frogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Grassland Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6. Aboriginal Values of Native Grasslands in NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Grasslands as a Source of Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Value of Grassland Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Cultural Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7. Sustainable Management of Native Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Best Practice Grazing Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Grazing to Increase Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Better Planning and Partnering: From Properties to Catchments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Case Study: CMAs Partnering with Land Managers to Protect Native Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Case Study: A Community Group Makes a Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Restoration of Native Grasslands and Native Grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Addressing Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Case Study: Research Improves Management of Grazed Grasslands for Threatened Species . . 34
Useful Sources of Information on Native Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
1
Minister’s Foreword
Native grasslands are a precious part of the
natural heritage of NSW. These grasslands are
integral to the ecological integrity of NSW
and an important part of Aboriginal peoples’
cultural heritage. They can also provide the
basis for sustainable agriculture.
The majority of native grasslands in NSW
are located on private land. The sustainable
management of native grasslands can yield
positive results for both conservation and
production in our State.
The range of benefits to the agricultural
industry from changes in land management
practices for native grasslands include a
naturally drought tolerant source of fodder
supply year round, fine higher quality
fleece production and lower inputs by
land managers. Sustainable management
practices also provide environmental
services by supporting increased biodiversity,
sequestration of carbon in soil and improved
water infiltration rates into the soil.
This booklet aims to raise awareness of
the nature, values and condition of the
native grassland ecosystems of NSW, and
by doing so encourage the sustainable
management of this valued natural resource.
The Natural Resources Advisory Council
is to be commended for developing this
booklet and I encourage land managers,
conservationists, government agencies and
the community to work together to better
protect and utilise our native grasslands.
The Hon Frank Sartor MP
Minister for Climate Change and the
Environment
2
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Executive Summary
This booklet is intended as an introduction
to the grasslands of NSW, their agricultural,
environmental and indigenous significance,
the threats they face and the improvements
in management that will help to maintain or
improve their values.
Grasslands may be either natural native
grasslands, those likely to have occurred
prior to European settlement, or derived
native grasslands, created through clearing
of woodlands and forests. There are
over 60 distinct natural native grassland
communities in NSW. These often occur on
floodplains with fertile soils and, hence, they
have been extensively cleared for cultivation
and cropping. The largest remaining areas
of natural native grasslands occur on the
northern basalt plains around Moree and
Walgett, the Liverpool Plains south-west
of Tamworth, and the Monaro on the
Southern Tablelands. Small, high quality,
examples remain in the travelling
stock route network, road and rail verges,
cemeteries and churchyards. Derived
native grasslands are about ten times
more extensive than natural grasslands.
Values
Native grasslands are a valuable resource in
NSW. They provide fodder for stock, a cultural
resource for Aboriginal people, and habitat
for plants and animals. Healthy grasslands
are important providers of ecological services
such as productive soils, water infiltration
rates into the soil and carbon storage.
Native grasslands underpin the NSW livestock
industry. Many rural communities recognise
the range of values of native grasslands,
which include the provision of palatable
native grasses year-round, drought tolerance,
and the control of soil erosion, salinity and
acidity. Adoption of more sustainable
grazing management practices such as
non-continuous grazing (e.g. rotational
or tactical grazing) has often improved
productivity and increased farm income.
Native grasslands support a range of
specialist flora and fauna species, of
which nearly 100 are listed as either
endangered or vulnerable under state
and/or national legislation. Seven native
grassland communities are themselves
listed as threatened.
Aboriginal people value native grasslands
as part of country, the setting for nomadic
journeys, ceremonial grounds and plants and
animals used for food. Traditional Aboriginal
land management over the past 40,000 to
150,000 years, particularly the frequent use
of low-intensity fire, is likely to have affected
the evolution of native grasslands in NSW.
Extent, condition and
sustainable management
The extent of natural grasslands has
diminished dramatically in the last 150 years,
the condition of most of those remaining is
poor and they are under-represented in the
formal conservation reserve system. Derived
native grasslands, on the other hand, are
widespread in eastern NSW and have recently
been recognised for their ecological value.
Both types of grassland have considerable
potential for restoration to a more
productive and resilient state.
Protection of grasslands relies on action
by governments, industry and individual
land managers. There is a need for targeted
protection of the more endangered grassland
communities. Elsewhere, much can be
achieved by restoration of grasslands and
extension of specific grassland management
practices, such as appropriate alternative
grazing regimes and strategic use of low
intensity fire, already employed by some
managers of private lands and reserves.
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
3
1.
Introduction
Native grasses and grasslands have long been
a cornerstone of the ecology and economy of
NSW. They provide critical habitat for native
flora and fauna and country for Aboriginal
people. They underpin the pastoral industry
and contribute to our state and national
economies. The extent of pre-European
grasslands has diminished greatly, and most
grasslands have deteriorated in condition,
with consequences for production and nature
conservation. Yet, many grasslands are
resilient systems with considerable capacity
for recovery. Better knowledge and changing
attitudes to their management offer great
potential for their improvement over time.
This booklet aims to promote awareness,
understanding and improved management
of the native grasslands of NSW. It presents
basic information on the identification of
grasslands, their values, protection and
sustainable management.
What is Native Grassland
Grasslands are defined as plant communities
where grass species are the dominant or
tallest layer of vegetation and woody species
(trees and shrubs) are sparse or absent.
An area can be described as native grassland
if more than 50% of the vegetative ground
cover is native grass and herb species. Exotic
species are often present. Where trees or
large shrubs exist, they are separated on
average by at least 20 crown widths (the
average width of the canopy of the trees).
Low ground cover may occur during drought,
or after fire or heavy grazing. At these times,
native species can persist in the soil seed
bank. In good seasons grasslands can exhibit
a dense cover of up to 100%.
Native grasslands are dynamic ecosystems
that are generally stimulated and maintained
by disturbances such as fire and grazing. They
usually comprise a mix of long-lived perennial
grasses and herbs, and a variety of shortlived annual or biannual species. The mix can
vary markedly with climate, season, weather
conditions and grazing intensity.
Native grassland can be either:
●●
Natural native grassland, which is likely
to have existed at the time of European
settlement; or
●●
Derived native grassland, which has been
created by clearing of trees and drainage
of wetlands.
Native grasslands often integrate with
other vegetation types, most notably grassy
woodland, which has a grassy understorey
but greater tree cover, and pasture and crops,
which are dominated by exotic species.
Areas where native grassland plants are
present but more then 50% of species or 50%
of grass cover is exotic, or both, are often
referred to as native pastures and are not
covered in this booklet.
4
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
How did Native Grasslands Develop
Four main stages in grassland evolution in NSW have been identified.
They provide important background for understanding the current state of
NSW grasslands and their conservation and management requirements.
1. Pre-Aboriginal Expansion
3. Colonial Reduction
Grasses (species in the family Poaceae) first
occur in the Australian fossil record about 70
million years ago. Their appearance can be
attributed to the continent’s slow migration
north into drier latitudes.
Temperate grasslands and grassy woodlands,
with their fertile soils, were the first
vegetation types to experience agricultural
transformation by European settlers. At the
same time, large areas of derived grasslands
were created mainly by the removal of
woodland and forest.
2. Aboriginal Expansion
Aboriginal people arrived as long ago as
150,000 years. Their activities, particularly the
use of low-intensity fire for food gathering,
have influenced grassland evolution and
expansion.
4. Contemporary Modification
and Conservation
Since the 1970s, improved understanding of
grassland values and services has resulted
in active conservation of native grasslands.
Local conservation initiatives are improving
the condition of remnant grasslands, and
assisting their return in parts of their former
distribution.
Various native grasslands on the Monaro Plains (Image: Rainer Rehwinkel)
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
5
2.
Native Grasslands in NSW
Native grassland in NSW will generally belong to one of four major grassland
types: the tussock, hummock, maritime and temperate grasslands.
Nested within these broader categories are the 67 native grassland
communities currently recognised in NSW.
Grassland Types – The four major types of grasslands in NSW are:
6
Inland tussock grassland with Neverfail
(Eragrostis setifolia)
(Image: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney)
Hummock grassland with Porcupine Grass
(Triodia scariosa)
(Image: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney)
Inland tussock grasslands
Hummock grasslands
occur in central and western NSW.
Mitchell grasses (Astrebla), lovegrasses
(Eragrostis) and wiregrasses (Aristida)
are the dominant grasses.
occur mainly in western NSW and
are characterised by spinifex grasses
(various species of Triodia).
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Maritime grassland with coastal Kangaroo Grass
(Themeda australis)
(Image: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney)
Temperate grassland with Plains Grass
(Austrostipa aristiglumis)
(Image: John Benson, Botanic Gardens Trust)
Maritime grasslands
Temperate grasslands
are largely confined to coastal headlands,
particularly in northern NSW.
Various species of couch (Sporobolus)
are the dominant grasses.
are the most extensive grasslands in NSW,
being widespread across the tablelands,
slopes and plains. They are tussock grasslands
characterised by Kangaroo Grass (Themeda),
wallaby grasses (Stipa), and tussock and
snowgrasses (Poa).
Another significant but less extensive group
of grasslands occupy the margins of inland
wetlands and watercourses. They are broadly
described as swamp grasslands. Examples
of swamp grassland are the Water Couch
(Paspalum distichum) marsh grassland of
flooded inland watercourses and the
artesian mound springs community, the
latter listed as Endangered in NSW.
Water Couch (Paspalum distichum) grassland,
an example of swamp grassland
(Image: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney)
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
7
Data on this map is
copyright and supplied
by: Department of
Environment Climate
Change and Water.
© Eco Logical Australia Pty. Ltd. This map is not guaranteed to be free from error or omission. Eco Logical Australia Pty. Ltd. and its employees disclaim liability for any act
done on the information in the map and any consequences of such acts or omissions.
The estimated overall distribution of each of the main types of natural native grasslands in NSW.
Examples of the various grassland types occur within the range indicated by the appropriate colour,
but they do not occur continuously over all the coloured zone.
Natural Native Grasslands
Natural native grasslands are grasslands
that had sparse or no trees or shrubs at
the time of European settlement. Natural
grasslands are primarily located on the major
floodplains of NSW. Hence, over the last 150
years these relatively flat and fertile lands
have been turned to agricultural production
and their original extent is difficult to
ascertain. Cultivation and cropping have had
a major impact on these communities, which
are now uncommon and fragmented.
Natural grasslands can also occur on
undulating basalt landscapes of the cooltemperate and alpine parts of the tablelands;
these landscapes are particularly found in
southern NSW.
8
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Data on this map is
copyright and supplied
by: Department of
Environment Climate
Change and Water.
© Eco Logical Australia Pty. Ltd. This map is not guaranteed to be free from error or omission. Eco Logical Australia Pty. Ltd. and its employees disclaim liability for any act
done on the information in the map and any consequences of such acts or omissions.
The estimated overall distribution of derived native grasslands in NSW according to region.
Examples of derived native grasslands occur within the range indicated by the appropriate colour,
but they do not occur continuously over the coloured zone.
Derived Native Grasslands
Derived native grasslands have been created
where forests, woodlands, or arid shrublands
have been cleared or largely cleared of woody
cover, or where wetlands have been drained.
Derived native grassland communities are
widespread and common in eastern NSW,
dominating the undulating tablelands,
slopes and plains of the sheep-wheat belt.
The total area of derived grasslands is over
10 times that of the remaining area of
natural native grasslands.
Derived grasslands are increasingly being
recognised for their ecological value and
potential for restoration. For example, the
“White Box - Yellow Box - Blakely’s Red
Gum Grassy Woodland and Derived Native
Grassland” community is listed nationally
as Critically Endangered.
Derived grassland (Bothricochola decipens) on basalt
hills on the mid slopes of the western Liverpool Range
(Image: Jaime Plaza, Botanic Gardens Trust)
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
9
Change in Extent and Condition
of Native Grasslands
Grassy ecosystems were once a major
feature in the landscape of NSW. In western
NSW, natural native grassland once covered
more than 3.7 million hectares, almost half
of which has been removed or replaced
since European settlement. Elsewhere in
NSW, natural native grasslands are now
uncommon, and historical changes in their
extent are poorly documented.
Few of the lowland native grasslands (i.e.
non-alpine grasslands) of central and
western NSW remain in original condition
and they rank among Australia’s most
threatened ecosystems. Indeed, less than 1%
of temperate native grasslands remaining
in eastern Australia are considered to be in
an unmodified condition. The less modified
areas are in small parcels of public land such
as road and railway easements, travelling
stock routes and cemeteries.
Derived native grasslands have increased
in extent but they too have declined in
condition. Loss of condition means that the
relative productivity of native grasslands has
declined, and the grasslands have reduced
capacity to recover from drought and
other stresses. Research indicates that the
carrying capacity of grazing lands in southern
Australia is estimated to have reduced by
almost 50% between 1970 and 1984 alone.
Over the past four decades more than
one-third of farms in livestock production
have become unprofitable. The return on
pasture intensification has also diminished.
At the same time, biodiversity is in decline,
as evidenced by the growing number of
threatened grassland species.
10
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Example of a monthly habitat assessment quadrat
(see Case Study p. 34; Image: Bruce Mullins)
NRAC grasslands field trip (Image: NRAC)
Threats to Native Grasslands
Despite structural, climatic and geographical differences between native
grassland types, there are several major threats that are common to all.
Weeds
The greatest cause of loss of grassland
condition is replacement of native
grassland species by exotic plant species,
including weeds. Ploughing and associated
fertiliser application, and overgrazing,
can provide exotic species with a
competitive advantage over native plants.
Proliferation of invasive weeds, such as
African Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula),
Chilean Needlegrass (Nassella neesiana)
and Serrated Tussock (Nassella trichotoma)
on the Southern Tablelands, and Coolatai
Grass (Hyparrhenia hirta) on the northwest slopes, is reducing the native plant
biodiversity and productivity of NSW
grasslands, and presents a major challenge
to native grassland conservation.
Coolatai Grass, Hyparrhenia hirta, a highly
invasive weed on the north-west slopes of NSW
(Image: Phil Gilmour)
Pasture intensification
Large-scale soil disturbance and fertiliser
application can lead to the replacement of
native grasses by exotic species including
weeds. Activities including tree clearing,
cultivation, sowing exotic pastures,
fertiliser application and irrigation can
have detrimental effect on the structure
and function of native grasslands. Despite
an initial increase in pasture yields
following pasture intensification in higher
rainfall areas of south-eastern Australia,
there has since been a decline in yields
(according to recent stocking trends) in
response to reduced pasture condition
through over-use.
Removal and fragmentation
for cropping
Many natural native grasslands occur
on deep, rich alluvial soils associated
with floodplains. These areas are highly
prized for their agricultural productivity
and have been intensively cultivated and
cropped since the mid 1800s resulting
in fragmenting grasslands. Isolation of
remnant native grasslands affects seed
dispersal and movements of species. In
both plants and animals this can lead to
inbreeding, loss of local genetic diversity,
loss of population viability and poor
recovery after major disturbances.
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
11
Sheep in an overgrazed paddock
in the southern tablelands
(Image: Mary Goodacre)
Overgrazed Mitchell Grass grassland on the Culgoa River floodplain north-west of Walgett
(Image: John Benson, Botanic Gardens Trust)
Grazing intensity
Heavy grazing of grasslands can result in
decreased species diversity and destruction
of grasslands.
Changed water use
Changed patterns of water use can result
in rising water tables, soil salinity and soil
acidity which are detrimental to native
grasslands. Up to 17 million hectares of
Australia’s more valuable cropland and
grassland are predicted to be at risk from
salinity by 2050.
Lack of fire
Frequent use of fire by Aboriginal people
maintained a high diversity of species
in native grasslands and controlled
regeneration of some woody species.
Fire frequency has decreased under
European land management.
Lack of recognition of
natural native grasslands
Accurate identification and mapping
of native grasslands will assist future
management and conservation planning
decisions.
Grazing by exotic and native fauna
Feral herbivores (goats and rabbits) and
native herbivores (kangaroos and wallabies)
can add to stock grazing pressure on
grasslands, particularly during drought.
Hobby farming and
residential development
The expansion of intense land uses on rural
land has resulted in loss of native grassland.
Climate change
The greatest effect of climate change on
grassland is anticipated to be the increase
in drought conditions across the state.
Direct ecological impacts are likely to
be most acute for natural grassland
communities with a restricted range and for
derived grasslands with a high proportion of
shallow rooted annual species.
12
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Sorghum crop on previous Liverpool Plains grassland
(Image: John Benson, Botanic Gardens Trust)
3. Protection of Native Grasslands in NSW
Grassland Reserves
Overall, the conservation status of most
natural native grassland types in NSW is poor
and few are protected in reserves. In western
NSW, 11% (218,700 ha) of the remaining area
of natural native grassland is protected in the
formal reserve system (mainly National Parks
and Nature Reserves). That represents only
about 5% of the original area of grassland
and most of it is one community, the Mitchell
Grass-Saltbush community of far northwest NSW. Ten other western grassland
communities have 1% or less of their current
distribution in the reserve system.
The conservation status of other natural
native grassland communities, such as those
situated on the Monaro Plains and Australian
Alps, is also relatively poor. However, a
number of coastal headlands supporting
Themeda grassland are now protected within
coastal reserves such as Hat Head National
Park and Moonee Nature Reserve.
Legislative Protection of
Grassland Communities
Grasslands have legislative protection
against damage and degradation through
the Native Vegetation Act 2003 (NVA), the
Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (TSC)
and the national Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC).
The NVA protects grasslands by requiring
approval to clear remnant native vegetation
and protected regrowth and encouraging the
preparation of Property Vegetation Plans.
Land managers are advised to seek guidance
from their local Catchment Management
Authority (CMA) prior to clearing native
vegetation.
The threatened status of seven grassland
communities in NSW has been formally
recognised through listings as Endangered
Ecological Communities (EEC) under the
NSW TSC Act, or Threatened Ecological
Communities (TEC) under the national EPBC
Act. These Acts have provisions intended to
reduce threats to EECs and to actively assist
their recovery and long-term survival.
Threatened grassland communities in NSW and their conservation status
under state and national legislation
Community
Status
Legislation
Artesian Springs Ecological Community
Endangered
TSC
Bluegrass (Dichanthium spp.) dominant grasslands of the
Brigalow Belt Bioregions (North and South)
Endangered
EPBC
Box-Gum Woodland1
Endangered
TSC
Native Vegetation on Cracking Clay Soils of the Liverpool Plains
Endangered
TSC
Endangered
EPBC
Endangered
TSC
Critically
Endangered
EPBC
Natural Temperate Grassland of the Southern Tablelands of NSW
and the Australian Capital Territory
Themeda Grassland on seacliffs and coastal headlands in
the NSW North Coast, Sydney Basin and South East Corner
bioregions
White Box-Yellow Box-Blakely’s Red Gum Grassy Woodland and
Derived Native Grassland1
These two woodland communities are included in this table as they contain derived grasslands which contributed
to their determination as threatened.
1
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
13
Examples of grasslands that are recognised as Endangered Ecological Communities: Artesian Springs (left) and
Liverpool Plains Grasslands (right) (Images: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney)
Legislative Protection of
Threatened Grassland Flora
A number of threatened flora species occur
in native grasslands. Currently, 47 individual
plant species are listed under the TSC Act
as Critically Endangered, Endangered or
Vulnerable, according to the likelihood of
extinction in the near future. They include
various daisies, orchids, peas and grasses.
For a full list of threatened grassland plants,
their distribution and threatened status see
http://www.nrac.nsw.gov.au/.
A threatened grassland plant: Yass Daisy, Ammobium
craspedioides, listed as Vulnerable (Image: Eco Logical)
Annual Buttons, Leptorhynchos orientalis,
an Endangered plant in NSW (Image: Bruce Mullins)
14
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
4. Agricultural Values of Native Grasslands in NSW
Sheep grazing dry, deep-rooted native grasses, which provide year-round fodder even in drought
(Image: Mary Goodacre)
Well-managed native grasslands provide
a range of benefits to the agricultural
industries of NSW. These include the
provision of high quality feed for livestock;
a reduced need for supplementary feeding;
low production costs; and production of
finer, high tensile wool from sheep. Native
grasslands also provide environmental
services such as increased biodiversity,
storage of carbon, nutrient cycling and
regulation of water flow in the landscape.
Drought Tolerance
Native grasslands are naturally drought
tolerant. They can be comprised of 30 or
40 native species, many of which are deep
rooted. The combination of summer and
winter perennial and annual grass and herb
species affords a range of responses to
changes in rainfall and seasonality, greatly
increasing the likelihood of maintaining a
fodder supply year round, even in dry times.
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
15
Case Study:
Native Pastures and Planned Grazing for Managing Drought
Border Rivers-Gwydir Catchment Management Authority
Pastures and grazing systems in Australia
are regularly put under stress during
drought. Pasture production is commonly
low in dry times, which can result in
stress to livestock and, if grazing pressure
continues, a reduction in ground cover.
A management system that considers
before, during and after drought periods
can ensure the survival and productivity
of the pasture system. Native pasture
composition is the key to maintaining a
productive grazing system throughout
drought times.
The owners and managers of ‘Magnet’,
a property south of Delungra on the
slopes of the Gwydir Catchment, have
developed a system to cope with drought
and dry times. They have sown areas of
old cultivated land to perennial tropical
pastures, with some clover. In the existing
native pastures, which consist of wallaby
grasses (Austrodanthonia), red grasses
(Bothriochloa) and Queensland Blue Grass
(Dicanthium sericeum), they applied single
superphosphate.
The paddocks are divided into 20 to 40
hectare lots, which are strategically
grazed using a flexible rotational grazing
system. No more than one quarter of the
property is used for grazing at any time,
which allows the ungrazed pastures to
regenerate before the next grazing. The
native perennials that are retained are
the most persistent during drought times
and contribute to a higher proportion of
ground cover, a reduction in erosion and
improved pasture productivity.
Resowing and fostering native pastures
on ‘Magnet’ has significantly improved
the productivity and sustainability of
the property despite a number of poor
seasons. The property is supporting a
30% increase in stock numbers and the
stock are in better condition than before
the improvements to native pasture
management.
A fact sheet on ground cover maintenance
and drought is available at: http://brg.cma.
nsw.gov.au/uploads///Fact%20sheet%20
7%20printer.pdf
Cattle and sheep grazing native pasture (Image: Mary Goodacre)
16
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Year Round Forage
Frost Tolerance
Native grasslands have a high number of
species, with a diversity of seasonal growth
patterns, which increases the potential
for green feed throughout the year. Native
perennial species, in particular, provide a
year round source of fodder and will respond
rapidly to rainfall, providing nutritious green
feed to livestock.
Native pastures containing C3 grasses
(temperate grasses) are frost tolerant and
can produce green foliage in winter. Native
pastures provide good quality feed for
livestock and feed values may increase with a
light application of fertiliser.
Low Input Production
In NSW, native pastures are an integral part
of fine wool production. Although wool cuts
and sheep live weight gains may be higher on
improved, sown or fertilised pastures, fleece
produced on native pastures can be finer and
often has a higher tensile strength due to the
more even feed quality all year round.
Native pastures require less input from the
land manager, particularly fertilisers. Low
input native pastures, which are diverse in
species composition, are a lower risk and
lower cost to land managers than exotic
pastures.
Finer Wool
Cattle grazing on native pasture, eastern Riverina, where sustainable levels of grazing, with intermittent stock
exclusion, has maintained the pasture in good condition despite below average rainfall (Image: Bruce Mullins)
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
17
Sheep grazed on native grasses, here Red Grass (Bothriochloa decipiens), often produce wool that is fine and of high
tensile strength (Image: Mary Goodacre)
Environmental Services
Carbon storage
Research suggests that grasslands may be
able to store significant amounts of soil
carbon (although these amounts are modest
compared with woody ecosystems across
the bulk of the continent). Practices that
conserve soil, increase vegetation cover and
promote perennial native grasses enhance
carbon storage.
Water
A diversity of deep-rooted perennial native
grasses offers an effective mechanism
to access sub-surface water for forage
production. The deep-rooted plants also
improve water infiltration into the soil,
further increasing the amount of rainfall
available for primary production and
reducing run-off.
18
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Soil erosion control
Deep-rooted native perennial grasses are
able to persist during drought, providing
soils with protection against erosion. These
long-lived native grasses are also particularly
useful for soil stability on hillsides.
Salinity control
Summer active, native perennial grasses are
efficient users of soil water. This results in
less water moving through the soil profile
and entering the water table, reducing the
incidence of dryland salinity and soil acidity.
Weed control
Well managed native pastures can provide
effective weed control, by providing good
ground cover and litter which prevents
spread of unpalatable weeds. Native grasses
have been demonstrated to be capable
of excluding Serrated Tussock (Nassella
trichotoma), a highly invasive weed.
Case Study:
Competition between Serrated Tussock and Native Pastures
Project conducted by W. Badgery, D. Kemp, D. Michalk and W. King
Serrated Tussock has invaded a native grassland (left); a management regime that maintained a good ground
cover of native plants was effective in excluding the unpalatable weed (right) (Images: Tieneke Trotter)
Serrated Tussock is one of Australia’s
worst perennial grass weeds, invading
native and improved pastures throughout
south-eastern Australia. It is unpalatable
to livestock, has low nutritive value, and
can rapidly exclude most other grassland
plants in pastures that are degraded due to
excessive grazing.
It was found that native grasslands that
could maintain dry matter greater than
2 t/ha and 100% ground cover could
successfully prevent survival of Serrated
Tussock seedling. Even relatively low levels
of perennial grass pasture (greater than 0.5
t/ha) resulted in death of Serrated Tussock
seedlings up to 12 months old.
At Trunkey Creek on the Central Tablelands
of NSW a variety of herbicide, fertiliser
and grazing treatments were trialled
to determine the interactions between
Serrated Tussock and native grassland
species, simulating a variety of control and
management strategies recommended in
the area.
Adult plants survived, but the native
grasses prevented them from increasing
in size, both when the pasture was
rotationally grazed and when grazing was
absent and fertilisers were withheld.
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
19
5. Faunal Values of Native Grasslands in NSW
Native grasslands support a wide diversity
of interdependent species, from fungi and
lichen to grasses and herbs and a variety of
animals. This section focuses on the animals:
both vertebrates—mammals, birds, reptiles
and frogs—and invertebrates.
Forty-nine vertebrate species in NSW rely on
grasslands as their primary habitat. These
are often referred to as grassland specialists.
A further 342 species, grassland generalists,
use grasslands but their primary habitat is
elsewhere.
Over 40% of the grassland specialists and
20% of grassland generalists are listed under
the NSW Threatened Species Conservation
Act or the national Environment Protection
and Biodiversity Act, which make provisions
to reduce threats to the species themselves
and to their habitats, and to actively assist
recovery. A list of the birds, mammals,
reptiles and frogs grassland specialists, and
their conservation status, is available at
http://www.nrac.nsw.gov.au.
It is important that grasslands are connected
to other habitats such as shrublands,
woodlands, open forests and rocky areas, as
many animals need these areas for shelter
and breeding. Echidnas, Rufous Bettongs,
bandicoots, wallabies, pademelons and rockwallabies are not classic grassland species
but they can often be found feeding in
grasslands, provided adequate cover is close
by. Similarly, many birds and bats that forage
over open grassy areas require tree hollows
for shelter and as breeding sites.
Grassland Mammals
Many specialist grassland mammals such as
bettongs, bilbies and bandicoots, were once
widespread but have now disappeared from
the NSW grasslands. Their loss is unfortunate
from an ecological viewpoint. Bandicoots and
rat-kangaroos, for example, are important
agents of soil disturbance. Soil disturbance
facilitates rainfall infiltration into the soil,
decomposition of leaf litter, nutrient cycling,
herbaceous plant growth rates and the
overall maintenance of loose and friable soils.
Over half the surviving grassland mammals
(generalist and specialist) are listed as
threatened.
Despite the extinction of many of their
mammal species, important grassland
habitats for mammals include the tussock
and hummock grasslands. A significant array
of small mammals persists in some tussock
grasslands, such as the grass downs, that
have been less affected by the impacts of
heavy grazing by stock and feral herbivores
(rabbits, goats), and introduced predators
(cats, foxes). Tiny carnivorous marsupials like
the Kultarr, Narrow-nosed Planigale and Fattailed Dunnart are afforded shelter amongst
the Mitchell Grass and other tussocks and in
the deep cracks of the drying clay soils that
characterise these grasslands.
Hummock grasslands are renowned as
important habitats for small ground
mammals. Spinifex hummocks form almost
impenetrable fortresses that provide shelter
for small ground mammals, such as Bolam’s
Mouse and the Mallee Ningaui, and habitat
for the insects and small lizards on which
they feed.
The Fat-tailed Dunnart lives in lightly grazed tussock
grassland (Image: Eco Logical)
20
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Hardy Kangaroos
The Red Kangaroo of the open plains
grasslands of the semi-arid and arid zones
is one of the few grassland specialists that
still inhabit most of their former range,
despite many parts being highly modified.
Other large kangaroos such as the Western
Grey Kangaroo, the Eastern Grey Kangaroo
and the Common Wallaroo have been
advantaged by the provision of water for
stock. In some situations their numbers
need to be managed such that the combined
impact of grazing by kangaroos and stock
does not damage native grasslands.
Grassland-dependent macropods, Swamp Wallaby
(right) and Western Red Kangaroo (above)
(Images: Eco Logical)
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
21
Grassland Birds
The Stubble Quail, a grassland specialist.
NSW grasslands support a variety of bird
types. Twenty-one species, such as the
Plains-wanderer, rely on grasslands as their
primary habitat. A further 126 bird species
use grasslands as a part of their habitat and
a food resource. Examples include the Bush
Stone-curlew, a threatened species that nests
and shelters in woodlands and forages out
into grasslands. The Intermediate Egret feeds
in grassy pastureland, but nests in dense
trees near wetlands. Maritime grasslands
support seabird colonies.
Nearly 30% of the grassland specialist bird
species have undergone marked contractions
in range and reductions in population and are
listed as threatened. By contrast, although
15% of generalists are threatened, some
The Bush Stone-curlew, a woodland species that also
uses grassland.
generalists such as Galahs and Australian
Magpies have increased in abundance and
range with the creation of derived grasslands.
The greatest conservation challenges for
grassland birds are in the lowland native
grasslands of central and western NSW,
which are among the most depleted
ecosystems in NSW.
The Plains-Wanderer:
A Grassland Specialist
The Intermediate
Egret, a wetland
species that feeds
in grasslands.
(Images: Eco Logical)
22
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
One of the most specialised of the grassland
birds of NSW, and of Australia, is the Plainswanderer. The Plains-wanderer lives in sparse
native grasslands, usually on hard, red-brown
earths. It needs large tracts of native grassland
to support breeding populations. The Plainswanderer was once much more widespread
across the western half of the state and into
neighbouring states. The Riverina Plains of
NSW are its current stronghold. Preservation
and management of its sparsely grassed
habitats in south-western NSW are crucial
to its survival. Cultivation, dense grasses and
weeds, and overgrazed grasslands render
habitat unsuitable for the species.
Grassland Reptiles
The threatened Grassland Earless Dragon (above) is dependent on grasslands, whereas the Sand Goanna can use
other habitats, such as woodland (Images: Eco Logical)
Reptiles are the most diverse animal
component of NSW grasslands. Members of
all the major lizard and snake groups occur in
grasslands across NSW. About 16 species are
grassland specialists and 127 are generalists
that are partially dependent on grasslands
to forage or complete their life-cycle. Over
one half of the specialists and 16% of the
generalists are listed as threatened.
Turtles, including maritime turtles in coastal
areas, are occasionally found in grasslands.
The tussock grasslands support a large suite
of reptiles including the Sand Monitor, Bluebellied Black-snake and Kinghorn’s Skink.
Hummock grasslands also provide habitat
for a great diversity of reptiles, such as the
Spinifex Snake-lizard, Centralian Blue-tongued
Lizard and Southern Blind Snake.
The Striped Legless Lizard, Jewelled Gecko
and Grassland Earless Dragon are examples
of threatened grassland specialists. The
Fat-tailed Gecko, Dubious Gecko, Prickly
Gecko, the Pale-headed Snake and Bearded
Dragon, are found in grasslands but generally
where shrubs and trees also provide habitat
resources.
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
23
Sudell’s Frog is widespread on and west of the Great Dividing Range. A burrower, it sometimes occurs in grasslands
near dams, pools, clay pans and ditches (Image: Eco Logical)
Grassland Frogs
Five frog species in NSW depend on
grasslands as their primary habitat and
50 species use grasslands as part of their
habitat. About one-quarter of the 55 species
are threatened, these include the Crucifix
Frog, Southern Toadlet and Eastern Signbearing Froglet.
Frogs can survive in a range of habitats.
Many frogs use grasslands that are in close
proximity to wet habitats, or grasslands that
become wet habitats after heavy rain (i.e.
swamp grasslands). In these habitats frogs
use burrows and cracks in the soil, logs, rocks
and thick grass for shelter.
In semi-arid and arid grasslands frogs survive
in depressions and billabongs on floodplains,
24
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
in claypans and even in cracks in the clay
soils. Some of these frogs spend considerable
periods in an inactive state and emerge only
after heavy rainfall in order to breed and
disperse across the landscape.
Some frogs are still common in grasslands
associated with wetlands and riparian
vegetation along streams and rivers. In
contrast, frogs of the alpine districts of northeast and south-east NSW, such as the Alpine
Tree Frog, have suffered drastic reductions in
range and abundance.
Threats to grassland frogs include drying
of wetlands and trampling of wetland
vegetation by stock.
The Golden Sun Moth (female above and male below), a grassland specialist and threatened species
(Images: Ederic Slater)
Grassland Invertebrates
The Golden Sun Moth:
A Grassland Specialist
Invertebrates, which include grasshoppers,
moths, beetles, ants, spiders and worms, are
the dominant faunal element in grasslands.
They are critical to the overall functioning of
grassland ecosystems and are involved in most
ecological processes from aerating soil to
providing food for small mammals and birds.
The Golden Sun Moth is a day-flying moth
that is found in alpine temperate grasslands
of the Southern Tablelands. The distribution
of the Golden Sun Moth parallels the
distribution of native grasslands dominated
by Wallaby Grass (Austrodanthonia). These
native grasslands originally extended
from the Yass Plains in New South Wales,
through Victoria to Bordertown in South
Australia. They also covered large areas of
the Australian Capital Territory. Today the
Golden Sun Moth occurs only in unploughed
native grasslands at a few small sites near
Canberra, Yass and central and western
Victoria. Threats include the continued loss
and modification of the moth’s habitat, the
isolated nature of remaining habitat patches,
inappropriate burning and weed invasion.
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
25
6. Aboriginal Values of Native Grasslands in NSW
Grindstone (millstone) with centre worn through
(Image: Sue Hudson)
Hard seed and tuber pounding stone –
Lightning Ridge (Image: Sue Hudson)
Grasslands provide value to Aboriginal people as a source of food, a sense of place or habitat,
and as landscapes of cultural and historical significance. Protection of Aboriginal cultural
heritage is provided under Part 6 of the National Parks and Wild Life Act 1974 (NPW Act).
Grasslands, with their important values and distinctly Aboriginal relics, can also provide insight
for non-Aboriginal people that can help mutual understanding.
Grasslands as a Source of Food
Value of Grassland Species
Aboriginal people sourced all food and
tools from the land. Men hunted animals
in grasslands that were often managed for
this purpose. Women and children collected
vegetables such as leaves and tubers as
dietary staples. Insects were generally easy to
find and eaten by all members of the group.
When grasshoppers were in profusion, they
were the main dietary component.
Individual plant species were important for
ceremonies, decorations, making fire, food,
habitat, implements, medicinal purposes,
seasonal indicators, shelter, spiritual
associations, women’s uses, and ‘exceptional
value’. The leaves and roots of grasses were
processed for medicinal purposes; their stems
were used for binding and basket weaving.
Plants of ‘exceptional value’ are considered
by Aboriginal Elders to be extremely
important for defining their people within
the landscape. Species of ‘exceptional value’
include Canegrass (Eragrostis australasica),
Curly Mitchell Grass (Astrebla lappacea),
Kangaroo Grass (Themeda australis), Neverfail
Grass (Eragrostis setifolia), nut grasses
(Cyperus), Spinifex (Triodia mitchellii) and
Nardoo (Marsilea drummondii).
Grasses were the most common source
of food for Aboriginal people along major
floodplains and watercourses such as the
Darling River. Grass seeds were processed for
wet-milled flour.
Seed grinding was an essential part of
Aboriginal settlement in the drier western
zones of NSW. For example, the seed/tuber
pounding stone (pictured) was found in
association with a wetland that contained
grass species, reeds, bulrushes and Acacia
species, all of which would have been used
as food resources.
26
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Scarred tree in a grassy woodland near Uralla, NSW
(Image: Sue Hudson)
Hearth site near Narran Lake, NSW
(Image: Sue Hudson)
Cultural Significance
Aboriginal association with natural
grasslands was interwoven with a social and
cultural fabric evolved over tens of thousands
of years. Native grasslands provide a
reminder to Aboriginal people of a time when
the women and children gathered plants to
be used for food, medicine or tools, and in
some cases still do. The expertise needed
forgathering and processing these plants was
obtained over thousands of years and passed
on by grandmothers, mothers and aunts to
the young girls.
Native grasslands provide an historical
context for Aboriginal relics. The preservation
in their natural habitat of grassland trees
that are scarred by Aboriginal use for wooden
utensils such as spears, woomeras (throwing
sticks), coolamons (carry bowls), canoes and
shields, provides an important opportunity
for education and reconciliation. These
trees provide an historical aesthetic for
those interested in Aboriginal culture and
a poignant reminder for Aboriginal people.
Carved trees were used to mark special places
including burial sites, male secret places and
other ceremonial sites. Women, children and
uninitiated males were never allowed to see
these places.
Other Aboriginal relics seen in grasslands are
patches of black staining of the soil surface
caused by charcoal breakdown, particularly
in the arid zone of western NSW. These sites
are hearths where Aboriginal people camped.
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
27
Country
Country is an essential component of
Aboriginal life and spirituality. For Aboriginal
people to be together, look after the land
and pass on to younger generations the
ability to care for country, they need access
to a variety of traditional lands. Developing
an understanding of the traditional lifestyle
requires that Aboriginal people have access
to:
28
Aboriginal Uses for Grassland Animals
in the Gunnedah Region
Examples of Aboriginal uses for grassland
animals in the Gunnedah region include:
●●
Emu eggshells are said to cure some
kinds of cancer;
●●
Gall bladders and kidney fat of goannas
were used as a hair tonic, for keeping
skin supple, and as a liniment for aches
and pains;
●●
grassland plants used for seeds,
medicines and other materials;
●●
a wide range of native grassland animals,
birds and insects for hunting;
●●
Echidna quills were used as needles and
body ornamentation; and
●●
areas where fire can be used;
●●
●●
open sites for camps and ceremony;
Fur of kangaroo and possum was used as
cloaks or clothing in cold weather.
●●
places of cultural significance and other
bush-tucker areas (e.g. wetlands) across
the landscape; and
●●
part of country, and thus part of storytelling and dreamtime.
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
According to Elders, grassland animals that
are no longer found in the Gunnedah area,
some of which had great value to Aboriginal
people, include: Australian Bustard (plentiful
in 1915); goannas; Frill-necked and Bluetongued Lizards; Bush Stone-curlews (gone
for 60+ years); native bees; Australasian
Pipits; Budgerigars; Dingoes and swamp
frogs. Animals increasing in numbers in the
Gunnedah area include: Echidnas; koalas
(moving out of hills towards river flats);
feral cats; foxes; and plovers.
7. Sustainable Management of Native Grasslands
A healthy stand of Blue Grass having a spell from grazing while it seeds (Image: Mary Goodacre)
Native grasslands provide an economical
grazing alternative to improved pastures.
They can provide a diverse and nutritious
feed for stock with less input required to
maintain plant growth and field health.
High yielding improved pastures, on the
other hand, require a time and financial cost
to create and maintain.
In addition to their agricultural value, native
grasslands are recognised as culturally and
ecologically important systems. Management
solutions are being developed and adapted to
satisfy these multiple objectives. Efforts are
being made to re-introduce perennial native
grass cover to improve pasture productivity
and reduce the environmental impacts of
human activities. Restoration of grassy
landscapes is occurring through independent
initiatives, uptake of Catchment Management
Authority incentives and through government
regulation.
Section 24 of the Native Vegetation Act, 2003,
provides regulatory control of grazing of
native grasslands. While existing grazing
activities are permitted to continue, the
Act only permits new grazing practices that
are not likely to result in the substantial
long-term decline in the structure and
composition of native vegetation. Advice
on the need for approval for new grazing
practices and clearing of native grasslands
can be sought from CMA offices and through
the Native Vegetation Information Sheets
(http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/
vegetation/infosheets.htm).
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
29
Best Practice Grazing Management
Awareness of the integrated values of native
grasslands has increased over recent decades.
A key aim of best practice management is to
maintain a diversity of native species. Noncontinuous grazing, when properly applied
and with knowledge of species behaviour, can
be used to maintain and enhance grassland
composition by resting paddocks when
desirable species are recovering from a major
stress event such as fire or drought, or when
they are flowering and dispersing seed.
Some general best practice concepts for
native grassland management include:
●●
maintain appropriate stocking rates, that
is, matching available feed with livestock
requirements;
●●
employ non-continuous grazing (e.g.
rotational or tactical grazing) rather than
continuous grazing;
●●
ensure fertiliser use does not
disadvantage native species; and
●●
avoid immediate and dramatic changes to
existing management at high quality sites.
Grazing to Increase Diversity
Research has shown that grasslands require
some form of disturbance to maintain
species richness and health. Prior to
European settlement, use of fire by Aboriginal
people was the disturbance mechanism
that stimulated diversity in grasslands.
Fire is not often a practical modern day
management tool, particularly on actively
grazed land. Research has demonstrated that
stock grazing can achieve similar diversity,
but sometimes a different species mix, if
undertaken appropriately. Mowing and
slashing can occasionally be effective.
Spelling grazed paddocks to allow plants to
germinate, grow, flower and set seed assists
maintenance of species diversity, especially
favouring the desirable, tall, long lived, deeprooted perennial species. Understanding
when local species are at various stages
of their lifecycle, and how they respond to
rainfall, is important in determining when
and when not to graze.
30
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Better Planning and Partnering:
From Properties to Catchments
Effective management of native grasslands
requires planning at both property and
catchment scales. Knowledge of individual
plant species, the plant communities and
their requirements for maintenance or
improvement is essential.
An increasing number of land managers
prepare property plans and seek to
enhance the value of native grasslands on
their property. Some land managers have
delineated their property into productivity
zones. Once the farm is mapped into
productivity or management zones, the
spatial arrangement of land-use intensity can
be optimised to maintain or increase diversity
across the property. Low intensity pastoral
use (i.e. negligible fertilisers, no cultivation,
intermittent or light grazing, and minimal
earthworks) can be continued on appropriate
parts of the landscape to maintain native
species richness at a local scale.
If best practice management is adopted
across whole catchments or landscapes,
linked networks of native grassland can
improve grassland function, enable grassland
organisms to move through the landscape for
breeding and dispersal (including dispersal
of seeds and cross-pollination of plants), and
assist weed management.
The most efficient means to integrate
catchment and property planning is to first
establish the catchment or regional plan.
A regional plan can identify areas of high,
moderate and low conservation significance
and areas in need of restoration. This will
provide a framework for the objectives of
individual property plans, allowing land
managers to see the contribution of their
proposed actions to the common goal.
Case Study:
CMAs Partnering with Land Managers to Protect Native Grasslands
Southern Rivers Catchment Management Authority
The Monaro Plains in the Snowy
Mountains appear to be a barren
landscape. However, the wet and dry
tussock grasslands and alpine grasslands
contain a diversity of flora and fauna
adapted to the region. The Southern
Rivers Catchment Management Authority
(CMA) is working with private landowners
to develop a network of members to
highlight and protect the biological
significance of these areas.
On the Monaro Plains, high and
medium conservation grasslands occur
on private land in areas of higher
productivity. The project aims to assist
and promote grassland conservation
through sustainable farm management.
Landowners who have signed management
agreements with the CMA have access to:
technical advice from specialised staff; a
network of like-minded landowners who
want to sustainably manage grasslands
on their property for conservation and
production; and incentive funding to
protect significant sites.
With 250,000 hectares of grasslands in the
region, significant conservation outcomes
are anticipated from the improved
management.
More information on this work can be
found at: http://www.nrm.gov.au/projects/
nsw/sriv/2006-08.html
A native grassland on the Monaro Plains (Image: Rainer Rehwinkel)
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
31
A native grassland on the Monaro Plains (Image: Rainer Rehwinkel)
Case Study:
A Community Group Makes a Difference
D. Costello and West Hume Landcare Group
The burning of vegetation in rail corridors
was a regular management practice until
many of the rail lines closed in the early
1980s.
The West Hume Landcare group rediscovered five hectares of native
grassland along the Culcairn to Corowa
railway line in 1992. A botanical survey
by the group identified more than 50
groundcover species including native
grasses, lilies and orchids. The group had
concerns that the thick swards of native
Kangaroo Grass were smothering much of
the diversity found within the site. It was
also noted that woody and herbaceous
weeds were starting to invade.
In June 2003, the West Hume Landcare
Group, with support from the local
32
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Rural Fire Service, implemented a
prescribed burn of the site with the aim
of reducing the Kangaroo Grass cover
and opening the inter-tussock space to
allow regeneration of the smaller native
herbs and grasses. After three months
the burn was deemed a success, with an
impressive show of wild flowers emerging,
despite ongoing drought. This action
increased the biodiversity of this site and
offered valuable education for the local
community who could see more value in
the site when the grassland was flowering.
The group continues to manage the site
and has also removed emerging canopy
trees to maintain the grassland structure.
The diversity of the site has declined
since the initial burn and future burns are
planned to boost diversity again.
Restoration of Native Grasslands and Native Grasses
Harvesting seed from Red Grass (Bothriochloa decipiens) for sowing (Image: Mary Goodacre)
Because most native grasslands are located
on private land, their conservation will
depend largely on the implementation of
conservation management and restoration
techniques by private land managers.
The strategic use of grazing and fire,
sowing of native grass species, mulching
practices, and weed control measures all
have an important role to play in improving
grassland management and thus condition
and productivity. Grassland restoration
also provides opportunities to learn. Simple
trials and monitoring over time can provide
feedback for management.
Grassland restoration benefits for farm
productivity and the natural environment
have been demonstrated in NSW, particularly
where plants have been locally sourced.
For example, native grasses such as couch
varieties have been used successfully to
revegetate and restore areas suffering from
dryland salinity, and the Land, Water and
Wool project (http://lwa.gov.au/programs/
land-water-and-wool ) has demonstrated that
in south-east Australia sheep grazing can
make it profitable to rehabilitate degraded
landscapes such as saline scalds.
The results of restoration have been
promising. However, much remains to be
learned about restoration and management
methods for different native grasslands,
in particular their outcomes for farm
production, profitability and for nature.
Addressing Climate Change
Native grasslands play a role in the
storage of carbon in the environment.
The vast extent of grasslands in Australia
means they have the potential to store
huge amounts of carbon. The agricultural
industries contribute approximately 16%
of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions,
mainly through production of methane by
livestock. Restoration and maintenance of
native grasslands can achieve sequestration
of carbon to help offset agricultural
contributions to greenhouse gases.
agricultural, environmental and indigenous values and management for the future
33
Case Study:
Research Improves Management of Grazed Grasslands
for Threatened Species
At Morundah, in the Riverina, a high
frequency communications tower
operated by the Department of Defence
is surrounded by native grassland grazed
by cattle. Aware of the environmental
significance of the grasslands and the
presence of threatened species on the
13,000 ha site, the Department of Defence
commissioned a study to research and
monitor threatened flora and fauna, with
particular focus on the impact of grazing.
The objectives of the study were:
●●
to validate historical records of
threatened flora and determine the
extent of these species on the site;
●●
to undertake annual monitoring of
threatened flora;
●●
to establish a monitoring program
for the threatened Plains-wanderer
that includes systematic surveys and
habitat condition assessment; and
●●
to use the data to inform grazing
management.
Five threatened flora species were
identified on the site and monitoring
points were established for each. The
condition of Plains-wanderer habitat
was monitored monthly on each of five
1 km x 500 m grids. Habitat quality was
assessed at each quadrat and the amount
of vegetation cover, leaf litter and bare
ground was estimated. These monthly
assessments allowed changes in grassland
structure induced by grazing and weather
to be detected.
The research showed that the abundance
of the Plains-wanderer was influenced
by weather and grazing. Adaptive grazing
management has been a key factor in
assuring its persistence on the site. These
rotational grazing regimes also assisted
the survival of the threatened flora species.
The research has culminated in
the development of a Biodiversity
Conservation and Landscape Management
Plan for the site that identifies its values
and makes recommendations for its
continued conservation management.
Endangered species found at the Department of Defence site: Plains-wanderer; Claypan Daisy, Brachyscome
muelleroides; Slender Darling Pea, Swainsona murrayana (Images: Bruce Mullins)
34
UNDERSTANDING OUR NATIVE GRASSLANDS
Useful Sources of Information on Native Grasslands
Barlow, T., Grassy Guidelines: How to Manage
Native Grasslands and Grassy Woodlands on
Your Property, 1998; download at http://www.
environment.gov.au/land/publications/pubs/
grassguide.pdf
Catchment Management Authorities:
http://www.cma.nsw.gov.au/
Eddy, D. Managing Native Grassland: A Guide
to Management for Conservation, Production
and Landscape Protection, World Wildlife Fund
Australia, 2002; download at http://www.wwf.
org.au/publications/managing­_grasslands.pdf
Eddy, D., Mallinson, D., Rehwinkel, R. and
Sharp, S. Grassland Flora: A Field Guide
for the Southern Tablelands (NSW & ACT).
Environment ACT, Canberra, 1998
Keith, D., Ocean Shores to Desert Dunes: The
Native Vegetation of New South Wales and
the ACT. Department of Environment and
Conservation, NSW, 2004
Land and Water Australia, Shaping the
Future: Managing for Sustainable Profit, 2007;
download at http://images.wool.com/pub/
lww_Intro_Managing-Sustainable-Profit.pdf
McIntyre, S., McIvor, FJ.G. and Heard,
K.M. (Eds) Managing and Conserving Grassy
Woodlands. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood,
2002. (www.publish.csiro.au)
Native Grasses Association Inc:
http://www.stipa.com.au/
Native Pastures & Native Grasses
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/field/
pastures-and-rangelands/native-pastures
New South Wales Vegetation Classification
& Assessment Database Project (NSWVCA);
http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/
Evolutionary_Ecology_Research/vegetation_
of_nsw
NSW Vegetation Information System:
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/research/
vegetationinformationsystem.htm
Sharp, S., Dorrough, R., Rehwinkel, R., Eddy,
D. and Breckwoldt, A., Grassy Ecosystems
Management Kit: A Guide to Developing
Conservation Management Plans, Environment
ACT, Canberra, 2005 (www.tams.act.gov.au)
Contact Details
Natural Resources Advisory Council:
http://www.nrac.nsw.gov.au/
Telephone: 02 9895 7334
Email: [email protected]