1. family and parenting
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Social Policy Report
Giving Child and Youth Development Knowledge Away
Volume XXII, Number I
2008
Mathematics Education for Young Children:
What It is and How to Promote It
Herbert P. Ginsburg
Joon Sun Lee
Judi Stevenson Boyd
Abstract
Effective mathematics education for young children (approximately ages 3 to 5) seems to hold great promise for improving later achievement, particularly in low-SES students who are at risk of inferior education from
preschool onwards. Yet there is limited understanding of what preschool and kindergarten mathematics education
entails and what is required to implement it effectively. This paper attempts to provide insight into three topics
central to understanding and improving early childhood mathematics education in the United States. First, we
examine young children’s mathematical abilities. Cognitive research shows that young children develop an extensive everyday mathematics and are capable of learning more and deeper mathematics than usually assumed. The
second topic is the content and components of early childhood mathematics education. We show that the content of
mathematics for young children is wide-ranging (number and operations, shape, space, measurement, and pattern)
and sometimes abstract. It involves processes of thinking as well as skills and rote memory. Components of early
childhood mathematics education range from play to organized curriculum (several research based programs are
now available) and intentional teaching. Third, we consider early childhood educators’ readiness to teach mathematics. Unfortunately, the typical situation is that they are poorly trained to teach the subject, are afraid of it, feel
it is not important to teach, and typically teach it badly or not at all. Finally, we conclude with policy suggestions.
The most urgent need is to improve and support both pre-service and in-service teacher training.
A Publication of the Society for Research in Child Development
Article begins on page 3
Social Policy Report
Editor
Lonnie Sherrod, Ph.D.
[email protected]
Associate Editor
Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Ph.D.
[email protected]
Director of SRCD Office for
Policy and Communications
Mary Ann McCabe, Ph.D.
[email protected]
Managing Editor
Amy D. Glaspie
GOVERNING COUNCIL
Arnold Sameroff
Suniya Luthar
Aletha Huston
Ann Masten
Greg J. Duncan
Robert B. McCall
Judith G. Smetana
Ellen E. Pinderhughes
Oscar Barbarin
Elizabeth Susman
Patricia Bauer
Lonnie Sherrod
Marc H. Bornstein
Mary Ann McCabe
Melanie Killen
Alisa Beyer
From the Editor
It is a pleasure to introduce this issue of the Social Policy Report.
Ginsburg and his colleagues have prepared a masterful piece on
mathematical learning of and instruction forpreschool and kindergarten children. The authors describe what is known about
early mathematical learning; they then apply their research to the
development of a new curricula, Big Math for Little Kids. Their
work is a great exemplar about how research informs practice
as well as how a developmental scientist/scholar has been able
to take his theory and build instructional materials from it. Indeed, this work reminds us that the following two statements are
both true—there is nothing as practical as good theory and there
is nothing as theoretical as good practice. In addition, given the
state of math education for young children, such curricula have
the potential to revolutionize current teaching practices. At the
very least, they are likely to lead presachools to do more than
the bare minimum when it comes to math education. This point
is made forcefully by our two commentators—Robert Pianta and
Deborah Stipek. Math education is currently a national priority
because of its recognized importance to the future work force
and hence to our international economic standing. Ginsburg and
colleagues demonstrate the importance of basing attention to this
topic on research and of the need to always place the child’s needs
foremost. We hope that you enjoy this SPR as much as we do.
Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Ph.D., Associate Editor
Columbia University
Lonnie Sherrod, Ph.D., Editor
Fordham University
SRCD Executive Director
POLICY AND
COMMUNICATIONS COMMITTEE
Cheryl Boyce
Dale Farran
Barbara H. Fiese
Bonnie Leadbeater
Amy Lowenstein
Karlen Lyons-Ruth
Joseph Mahoney
John Ogawa
Cassandra Simmel
Louisa Tarullo
Lonnie Sherrod
Mary Ann McCabe
PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE
Anne D. Pick
Ann Easterbrooks
Sandra Graham
William Graziano
Brenda Jones Harden
Amy Jo Schwichtenberg
Joan Grusec
Arnold Sameroff
Gene Sackett
Judith G. Smetana
Lonnie Sherrod
2
Mathematics Education for Young Children:
What It is and How to Promote It
at all levels requires improvement, if not radical reform.
Part of the solution may lie in effective early education,
which has been shown to provide a foundation for later
academic success (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001;
Campbell, Pungello, Miller-Johnson, Burchinal, & Ramey, 2001; Reynolds & Ou, 2003), especially in the short
term (Gormley, 2007) and arguably in the years thereafter
(Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). Early education may even be
seen as a good financial investment, resulting in economic
benefits over the long term (Heckman, 2000).
Initiating mathematics instruction as early as possible
may be particularly beneficial. In the early years, both lowand middle-SES children have confidence in themselves as
learners and expect to do well in school (Stipek & Ryan,
1997). Also, mathematics ability upon entry to kindergarten is a strong predictor of later academic success, and in
fact is even a better predictor of later success than is early
reading ability (Duncan et al., 2007).
But as we shall see, implementing ECME on a wide
scale is a massive and difficult undertaking. To do the
job effectively, we need to grapple with some key issues,
among them young children’s ability to learn mathematics,
the nature of the early childhood mathematics curriculum,
and teachers’ readiness to teach. Fortunately, research in
cognitive developmental and educational psychology and
in mathematics education can illuminate these basic issues
and serve as the basis for policy recommendations.
Herbert P. Ginsburg
Teachers College Columbia University
Joon Sun Lee
Hunter College of the City University of
New York
Judi Stevenson Boyd
Teachers College Columbia University
Mathematics education for young children—roughly
ages 3 to 5, or preschool to Kindergarten in the American system—is not new. Early childhood mathematics
education (ECME) has been a key part of preschool and
kindergarten practice at various times during the past 200
years (Balfanz, 1999). In the 1850s, Froebel introduced a
system of guided instruction centered on various “gifts,”
including blocks that ever since have been widely used to
help young children learn basic mathematics, especially
geometry (Brosterman, 1997). In the early 1900s, Montessori (1964), working in the slums of Rome, developed
a structured series of mathematics activities to promote
young children’s mathematics learning.
Interest in ECME appears to wax and wane in response to social conditions. In the early years of the 21st
century, policy makers, educators, and parents in the U.S.,
and indeed around the world, are again concerned with
ECME. For example, in the U.S., Head Start has begun
to strengthen its mathematics curriculum, and states like
Texas and New Jersey are implementing new programs of
ECME, especially for low-SES, minority children.
Two widespread social concerns have contributed to
the current interest. The first is that American children’s
mathematics performance is weaker than it should be.
Children from East Asia outperform their American counterparts in mathematics achievement, perhaps as early
as preschool (Miller & Parades, 1996) or kindergarten
(Stevenson, Lee, & Stigler, 1986). The second is that
within the U.S., low-SES children, a group comprised
of a disproportionate number of African-Americans and
Latinos (National Center for Children in Poverty, 2006),
show lower average levels of academic achievement
than do their middle- and upper-SES peers (Arnold &
Doctoroff, 2003).
The current situation is detrimental to our children
and the nation as a whole. American mathematics education
Are Young Children Ready to Learn
Mathematics?
Over the last 25 years or so, researchers have accumulated a wealth of evidence (Baroody, Lai, & Mix,
2006; Clements & Serama, 2007; Ginsburg, Cannon,
Eisenband, & Pappas, 2006) showing that nearly from
birth to age 5, young children develop an everyday
mathematics—including informal ideas of more and
less, taking away, shape, size, location, pattern and position—that is surprisingly broad, complex, and sometimes
sophisticated. Everyday mathematics is an essential and
even inevitable feature of the child’s cognitive development, and like other aspects of the child’s cognition,
such as theory of mind or critical thinking, develops in
the ordinary environment, usually without direct instruction. Indeed, everyday mathematics is so fundamental
and pervasive a feature of the child’s cognition that it
is hard to see how children could function without it.
Core Mathematical Abilities
Even infants display core mathematical abilities.
3
They can, for example, discriminate between two colCompetence and Incompetence
lections varying in number (Lipton & Spelke, 2003) and
Children’s minds are not simple. On the one hand,
develop elementary systems for locating objects in space
from an early age they seem to understand basic ideas of
(Newcombe & Huttenlocher, 2000). Geary (1996) argues
addition and subtraction (Brush, 1978) and spatial relathat all children, regardless of background and culture,
tions (Clements, 1999). They can spontaneously develop
are endowed with “biologically primary” abilities includ(Groen & Resnick, 1977) various methods of calculation,
ing not only number, but also
like counting on from the larger
basic geometry. These kinds of
number (given 9 and 2, the child
abilities are virtually universal
counts, “nine…ten, eleven”)
From
birth
to
age
5,
young
children
to the species and require only
(Baroody & Wilkins, 1999). At
develop an everyday mathematics—
a minimum of environmental
the same time, children display
including informal ideas of more and
support to develop.
certain kinds of mathematical
incompetence, as for example
less, taking away, shape, size,
Everyday Mathematics
when they have difficulty unlocation, pattern and position—that is
Throughout the preschool
derstanding that the number of
surprisingly broad, complex, and some- objects remains the same even
years, children’s everyday
times sophisticated.
mathematics develops in inwhen they are merely shifted
teresting ways, often without
around (Piaget, 1952) or when
adult assistance. As Gelman
they fail to realize that an odd
(2000) puts it, “We can think of
looking triangle (for example,
young children as self-monitoran extremely elongated, noning learning machines who are
right-angle, “skinny” triangle)
inclined to learn on the fly, even
is as legitimate a triangle as one
when they are not in school
with three sides the same length
Mathematics education is (in part)
and regardless of whether they
(Clements, 1999).
education in language and literacy.
are with adults” (p. 26). In the
ordinary environment, young
Concrete and Abstract
children develop a compreIn some ways, young
hensive everyday mathematics
children’s thinking is relatively
entailing a variety of topics, including space, shape and
concrete. They see that this set of objects is more than
pattern, as well as number and operations, and comprising
that; and they can add 3 toy dogs to 4 toy dogs to get the
several important features.
sum. Yet in other ways, young children’s thinking is very
abstract. They know that adding always makes more and
Spontaneous Interest
subtracting less. They can easily create symmetries in three
Young children have a spontaneous and sometimes
dimensions (Seo & Ginsburg, 2004). They have abstract
explicit interest in mathematical ideas. Naturalistic obideas about counting objects, including the one-to-one
servation has shown, for example, that in their ordinary
principle (one and only one number word should be asenvironments, young children spontaneously count (Saxe,
signed to each object) and the abstraction principle (any
Guberman, & Gearhart, 1987), even up to relatively large
discrete objects can be counted, from stones to unicorns)
numbers, like 100 (Irwin & Burgham, 1992), and may want
(Gelman & Gallistel, 1986).
to know what is the “largest number” (Gelman, 1980).
Also, mathematical ideas permeate children’s play: in the
Language and Metacognition
block area, for example, young children spend a good deal
Mathematics education is (in part) education in lanof time determining which tower is higher than another,
guage and literacy. From the age of 2 or so, children learn
creating and extending interesting patterns with blocks,
the language and grammar of counting. They memorize the
exploring shapes, creating symmetries, and the like (Seo
first ten or so counting words (which are essentially non& Ginsburg, 2004). Everyday mathematics is not an imsense syllables, with no underlying structure or meaning),
position from adults; indeed adults, including teachers, are
and then learn a set of rules to generate the higher numbers
often blissfully ignorant of it.
(Ginsburg, 1989). For example, once you figure out that
4
forty comes after thirty, just as four comes after three, it is
problems (Ginsburg & Pappas, 2004). They both use metheasy to append to the forty the numbers one through nine
ods like counting on from the larger number or “derived
and then go on to the next logical tens number, fifty, which
facts” (4 and 5 is 9 because I know that 4 and 4 is 8 and
comes after forty, just as five comes after four.
5 is just one more, so the answer has to be 9). Educators
Young children also learn other kinds of mathematican use informal strategies like these as a foundation on
cal language, like the names of shapes (“square”) and
which to build school mathematics (Resnick, 1992). Secwords for quantity (“bigger” “less”). Indeed, some of these
ond, although lower-SES children exhibit difficulty with
words (like “more”) are among the first words spoken by
verbal addition and subtraction problems, they perform
many babies (Bloom, 1970). Mathematical words are so
as well as middle-SES children on non-verbal forms of
pervasive that they are not usually thought of as belonging
these tasks (Jordan, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 1994). They
to “mathematics” and are instead considered aspects of
do not lack the basic skills or concepts of addition and
general cognitive development or intelligence.
subtraction. Third, lower- and middle-SES children exhibit
Perhaps most importantly, language is required to exfew if any differences in the everyday mathematics they
press and justify mathematical
spontaneously employ in free
thinking. With development,
play (Ginsburg, Pappas, & Seo,
children become increasingly
2001). In brief, although lowLow-SES
children
show
less
profi
cient
aware of their own thinking
SES children’s performance
mathematical performance than do their needs improvement, they exand begin to express it in words
(Kuhn, 2000). These kinds
hibit a good deal of competence
middle-SES peers, particularly when
of metacognitive skills are as
on which ECME can build. Of
metacognition is required, but do not
necessary for mathematics as
particular concern should be
lack
basic
concepts
and
skills.
for other topics and begin to
the enhancement of language
develop in children as young
and metacognition.
as 4 or 5 years of age (Pappas,
Unfortunately, low SES
Ginsburg, & Jiang, 2003).
children are susceptible to a
The hardest form of language for children to learn is
pervasive risk factor, namely low quality schools (V. E. Lee
the special written symbolism of mathematics, like 5, +,
& Burkham, 2002) that fail to offer suitable mathematics
- or =. For example, asked to represent a quantity like 5
education. Their teachers often fail to provide opportunities
blocks, young children exhibit idiosyncratic (e.g., scribble)
for mathematics learning and teach badly or not at all, as
and pictographic (e.g., drawing blocks) responses and only
we shall see below.
much later can employ iconic (e.g., tallies) and symbolic
(e.g., numerals like 5) responses (Hughes, 1986).
Conclusions on What Children Know
Finally, the importance of mathematical language
In the ordinary environment, young children develop
is underscored by the fact that the amount of teachers’ an everyday mathematics entailing a variety of topics,
math-related talk is significantly related to the growth
including space, shape and pattern, as well as number and
of preschoolers’ conventional mathematical knowledge
operations. Everyday mathematics encompasses more than
over the school year (Klibanoff, Levine, Huttenlocher,
“numeracy”; is both concrete and abstract; involves both
Vasilyeva, & Hedges, 2006). Language is clearly deeply
skills and concepts; and may be learned spontaneously as
imbedded in mathematics learning and teaching.
well as with adult assistance. Low-SES children show less
proficient mathematical performance than do their middleSES Differences
SES peers, particularly when metacognition is required,
As in many other areas, lower-SES preschool chilbut do not lack basic concepts and skills. The question of
dren generally perform more poorly on simple mathematiwhether young children are “ready” to learn mathematics
cal tasks than do their more privileged peers (Denton &
is beside the point: without much direct adult assistance,
West, 2002). At the same time, the pattern of differences
they are already learning some real mathematical skills and
is complex and interesting. First, although lower-SES
ideas. Learning mathematics is a “natural” and developchildren’s performance on informal addition and subtracmentally appropriate activity for young children.
tion problems often lags behind middle-SES children’s,
the two groups often employ similar strategies to solve
Content and Components of Early Childhood
5
Mathematics Education
If children are capable of learning mathematics,
and if we choose to help them learn it, what kind of mathematics should we teach and how should we teach it? The
decisions stem from our educational values and goals, but
should be informed by psychological research. ECME
promotes the learning of mathematics subject matter and
ways of thinking by means of various components of the
educational experience.
rus rex,” they should have no problem with “hexagon”
or “symmetrical”). Children need to learn to analyze and
construct shapes and to understand their defining features
(Clements, 2004).
Various metacognitive functions also play a key
role in mathematics learning. Children need to learn to
be aware of and verbalize their mathematical strategies.
Middle-SES children are more skilled at these aspects of
metacognition than are lower-SES children (Ginsburg &
Pappas, 2004).
Subject Matter
Children also need to mathematize—to conceive of
Most preschool teachers typically instruct children
problems in explicitly mathematical terms. They need to
in a very narrow range of mathunderstand that the action of
ematical content. They often
combining one bear with two
limit their focus to the names
others can be meaningfully inof the common shapes (Graterpreted in terms of the mathham, Nash, & Paul, 1997) and
ematical principles of addition
The leading professional organizathe relatively small counting
and the symbolism 1 + 2. One
tions in the field recommend that
numbers, up to about 20. They
of the functions of mathematgenerally do little to encourage
ics education is to help chilearly mathematics instruction cover
counting or estimation, and
dren to advance beyond their
the “big ideas” of mathematics...
seldom use proper mathematinformal, intuitive mathematics terminology (Frede, Jung,
ics—what Vygotsky (1986)
Barnett, Lamy, & Figueras,
called “everyday knowledge.”
2007, p. 21).
In Vygotsky’s view, the goal is
Yet, as we have seen, reto help children develop, over
search shows that children are capable of learning content
a period of years, a powerful and organized “scientific”
far more complex than this. The leading professional orknowledge—in this case the formal concepts, procedures,
ganizations in the field recommend that early mathematics
and symbolism of mathematics.
instruction cover the “big ideas” of mathematics in such
areas as number and operations, geometry (shape and
Components
space), measurement, and “algebra” (particularly pattern)
Given the goals of teaching subject matter and think(National Association for the Education of Young Children
ing, what methods should we use? ECME can be thought
and National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2002;
of as involving the following six components.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000),
within learning contexts that promote problem solving,
Environment
analysis, and communication (National Council of TeachThe preschool classroom (or “childcare center”—we
ers of Mathematics, 2006).
use the terms synonymously) should contain a rich variety
of objects and materials—such as blocks, dress up area and
Mathematical Thinking
puzzles—that can set the stage for mathematics learning.
Understanding number involves more than saying a
Widespread agreement on this requirement has resulted
few counting words. It involves reasoning about number (if
in the extensive use of the Early Childhood Environ2 and 3 is 5, then 3 and 2 must also be 5) (Baroody, 1985),
ment Rating Scale (ECERS) (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer,
making inferences (if we add something other than 0 to 3,
1998), which primarily provides a rating of the quality
the sum must be bigger than 3) (Baroody, 1992), and deof the preschool “physical” environment. Research using
veloping a mental number line (100 is much further away
this measure shows that preschool environments vary in
from 2 than is 20) (Case & Okamoto, 1996). Understandquality and that many require considerable improvement.
ing shape involves more than knowing a figure’s name,
But a rich physical environment by itself is not enough.
although knowledge of correct mathematical vocabulary
The crucial factor is not what the environment makes posis certainly necessary. (If children can learn “tyrannosau6
little time with children (Seo & Ginsburg, 2004) or tend
only to manage their behavior (Kontos, 1999). Teachers
do not appear to be sufficiently knowledgeable to see the
opportunity for teaching a range of mathematical concepts
in everyday situations (Moseley, 2005). In brief, teachers
seldom attempt to exploit teachable moments, and even
if they did, it’s hard to see how
they could effectively keep track
of and productively respond to
the haphazard occurrences of
Although essential for children’s inteachable moments in 20 or so
young children, especially from
tellectual development generally and
diverse backgrounds (Hyun &
for mathematics learning in particuMarshall, 2003).
sible, but what children do in it. Thus, many New Jersey
preschools score relatively high on the ECERS: “Over
40 percent scored 5 or better, placing them in the good to
excellent quality range” (Frede et al., 2007, p. 11). Yet observation of these classrooms showed that “… the average
Abbott preschool provides limited support for children’s
mathematical skill development” (p. 20).
Play
We know that children
do indeed learn a good deal
of everyday mathematics on
their own (Seo & Ginsburg,
lar, play is not enough.
2004). Play provides valuable
Projects
opportunities to explore and
These are extensive teacher
to undertake activities than
initiated and guided explorations
can be surprisingly sophisof complex topics related to the
ticated from a mathematieveryday world, like figuring out
cal point of view (Ginsburg,
how to create a map of the class2006), especially in block
room (Katz & Chard, 1989). This
play (Hirsch, 1996). Although
kind of project can involve meaessential for children’s intelOrganized curriculum is an essential
surement, space, perspective, replectual development generally
part of ECME.
resentation, and many mathematiand for mathematics learning in
cal and other ideas (e.g., scientific)
particular, play is not enough. It
that have practical application and
does not usually help children
appeal (Worsley, Beneke, & Helm,
to mathematize—to interpret
2003). They can help children to
their experiences in explicitly
learn that making sense of real-life problems can be stimumathematical form and understand the relations between
lating and enjoyable. Although projects can be effective,
the two.
the danger is that they may turn into a “... a grab bag of
any mathematics-related experiences that seem to relate
Teachable Moment
to a theme…” (National Association for the Education
The teachable moment is a form of adult guidance
of Young Children and National Council of Teachers of
that enjoys widespread acceptance in the preschool world.
Mathematics, 2002, p. 10).
The teachable moment involves the teacher’s careful observation of children’s play and other activities in order
Curriculum
to identify the spontaneously emerging situation that can
Yet projects may be useful if guided by a larger plan
be exploited to promote learning. The popular Creative
(Helm & Beneke, 2003), namely a curriculum, which is
Curriculum program (Dodge, Colker, & Heroman, 2002)
the fifth component of ECME. Organized curriculum is an
relies heavily on use of the teachable moment.
essential part of ECME. A curriculum can be characterized
No doubt, the teachable moment, accurately perceived
as “…a written instructional blueprint and set of materiand suitably addressed, can provide a superb learning exals for guiding students’ acquisition of certain culturally
perience for the child (Copley, Jones, & Dighe, 2007). But
valued concepts, procedures, intellectual dispositions,
there is good reason to believe that in practice the teachand ways of reasoning…” (Clements, 2007, p. 36). A
able moment is not an effective educational method. Most
curriculum offers planned activities for the teaching of
early childhood teachers spend little time in the careful
mathematics. It assumes that mathematics does not always
observation necessary to perceive and interpret such moneed to be sugar coated or integrated with other activities
ments (J. Lee, 2004). During free play, teachers spend very
7
to appeal to young children, but can be an interesting and
exciting subject of study in its own right. What could be
more fascinating in a young child’s eyes than the identity of the largest number (Gelman, 1980)? Adults who
fear introducing mathematics to young children may be
reacting more to their own unfortunate encounters with
the subject than to any appreciation of young children’s
interests and capabilities.
effectiveness is currently underway.
Building Blocks (Clements & Sarama, 2007a) draws
upon an extensive body of research on developmental trajectories to create materials “… designed to help children
extend and mathematize their daily activities, from building blocks… to art and stories…” (Clements & Sarama,
2007b, p. 138). The materials are unique in integrating
three types of media: computers, manipulatives, and print.
The curriculum focuses on two major topics, space/geIntentional Teaching
ometry and number/quantity. A “small scale summative
Deliberate instruction—teaching—is of course reresearch” study showed impressive gains for low-SES
quired by curriculum and is a key part of ECME. It is the
children, especially in the areas of subitizing (“seeing”
responsibility of educators to do more than let children
a number quickly, without counting), sequencing, shape
play or respond to teachable
identification, and the compomoments. “In high-quality
sition of shapes (Clements &
mathematics education for 3- to
Sarama, 2007b). Subsequent
6-year-old children, teachers
research presents even more
and other key professionals
impressive support for the
should… actively introduce
program’s efficacy (Clements
Preschool teachers need to engage in
mathematical concepts, meth& Sarama, 2007c; What Works
deliberate and planned instruction...
ods, and language through a
Clearing House, 2007).
range of appropriate experiThe Measurement-based
ences and teaching strategies”
approach (Sophian, 2004)
(National Association for the
was developed for teaching
Education of Young Children
mathematics in the Head Start
and National Council of Teachprogram. Drawing on the work
ers of Mathematics, 2002, p. 4). Preschool teachers need
of Russian psychologists (Davydov, 1975) and developed
to engage in deliberate and planned instruction, an activity
in collaboration with teachers, the program assumes that
some think is developmentally inappropriate, as we shall
the concept of unit is crucial to the early understanding
soon see.
of number, measurement, and geometric shapes. The curriculum includes a weekly project activity conducted by
New Curricula
Head Start teachers, various supplementary activities, and
Fortunately, within the past 10 years or so, several
weekly home activities for parents to conduct with their
curricula inspired by cognitive developmental research
children. An evaluation “…showed significant, albeit
have become available. All are devoted to improving lowmodest, positive effects of the intervention” (Sophian,
SES children’s achievement.
2004, p. 59). Sophian also notes that an indirect outcome
The Big Math for Little Kids curriculum (Balfanz,
of the program was to elevate teacher and parent expecGinsburg, & Greenes, 2003; Ginsburg, Greenes, & Baltations about preschool children’s potential for learning
fanz, 2003) uses activities and storybooks to engage chilmathematics.
dren first in learning key concepts of number, then shape,
The Number Worlds curriculum (Griffin, 2007b)
pattern, measurement, operations on number, and finally
covers basic number concepts from preschool through the
space. Activities are offered for each day of the school
sixth grade. It pays special attention to helping children
year. Within each of the larger topics, the activities are
navigate among the three different worlds of “…real quanarranged in order of difficulty, as indicated by research on
tities that exist in space and time, the world of counting
the developmental trajectories of children’s mathematics
numbers… and the world of formal symbols” (Griffin,
learning. Thus, in the case of number concepts, children
2007a, p. 375). Building on the natural developmental profirst begin to learn number words, and then encounter congression, the program attempts to teach concepts foundacepts of cardinal number, representation, and next ordinal
tional for learning and to promote rich connections among
number, in that rough order. Research on the curriculum’s
different areas of knowledge. Number Worlds relies heavily
8
on hands-on games and activities that “capture children’s
emotions and imaginations as well as their minds” (p. 379),
and stresses the central role of language. The program,
aimed primarily at low-SES children struggling in school,
has shown promising results (pp. 390-392).
The Pre-K Mathematics Curriculum (Klein &
Starkey, 2002) includes 29 small-group preschool classroom activities employing manipulatives and 18 home
activities for parents to use with their children. “The activities are designed to be sensitive to the developmental
needs of individual children. Suggestions are provided for
scaffolding children who experience difficulty…” (Klein,
Starkey, Clements, & Sarama, 2007, p. 5). The content
of the program involves number and operations, space,
geometry, pattern, measurement and data, and logical reasoning. The program also made use of the DLM Express
software (Clements & Sarama, 2003), an earlier version of
the Building Blocks software discussed above. Evaluation
research showed impressive gains, with large effect size,
for low-SES children in the treatment group.
Storytelling Sagas (Casey, 2004) is a series of specially created supplementary mathematics storybooks for
preschool through grade 2. Each of the six books focuses
on a different content area (such as space, pattern, or measurement) and combines oral storytelling with hands-on
activity. The books all have a strong visualization/spatial
reasoning component. The series of books obviously
stresses the very important role of language as it involves
children in active learning of mathematics. Evaluations
of the program are underway. One study showed that embedding mathematics activities in stories is an effective
pedagogical method for promoting spatial reasoning in a
sample of low-SES kindergarten children (Casey, Erkut,
Ceder, & Young, in press).
In addition to these developments, the High/Scope
curriculum (Hohmann & Weikart, 2002), one of the most
popular in early childhood education, is being updated
and will be called Numbers Plus. As the title suggests,
the new curriculum will focus on number, but will also
include activities in shape, space, measurement, “algebra”
(mostly patterns), and data analysis. The new High/Scope
mathematics curriculum will provide far more challenging (and we think appropriate) mathematics than did its
earlier version, which was limited in scope and content,
and will include professional development activities. The
new curriculum will be carefully evaluated as well.
Although the curricula described above vary in many
ways, they are all research-based and seem to hold promise
for promoting the mathematics education of young chil-
dren, particularly those from low-SES backgrounds.
Are early childhood teachers ready?
Early childhood education is increasingly becoming
a common experience for young children in the U.S. Between 1970 and 2005, enrollment in some type of school
(including private childcare centers, publicly supported
preschools and kindergartens, and Head Start) increased
substantially: for children ages 3 to 4 enrollment grew
from 20 to 54 percent, and for children ages 5 to 6 it grew
from 89.5 to 95.4 percent (U.S. Department of Education & National Center for Education Statistics, 2007).
Many children are in school, ready and eager to learn
mathematics. But are teachers and other childcare providers (for our purposes we refer to them as teachers as well)
ready to teach them?
Teacher Qualifications
How do we know whether a person is qualified to
teach early mathematics? The consensus of professional
leaders and policy makers is that the minimum standard for
early childhood teachers should be a four-year undergraduate degree with specialization in early childhood education
(Bowman et al., 2001). Yet the certification requirements
for early childhood teachers vary considerably across the
U.S. For example, during the 2005-2006 school year, only
18 of the 38 states funding preschool programs required
the lead teachers in every classroom to have a four-year
college degree (although it may not involve training in
ECME). The other 20 states had no such requirement
(Barnett, Hustedt, Hawkinson, & Robins, 2006).
If possession of the BA is the criterion, the largest
number of “qualified” teachers can be found in programs
located in public schools. Around the year 2003, all kindergarten teachers and eighty-seven percent of pre-kindergarten teachers in public schools had at least a bachelor’s
degree (Barnett, 2003). Teachers in other center-based
settings (for example, Head Start programs) are less qualified (as defined by degree).
Of course, educational credentials are only a proxy
for relevant knowledge and skills acquired in the colleges
and universities. The real issue is whether an undergraduate
degree—especially an undergraduate degree in early childhood education—provides teachers with knowledge and
skills useful for teaching early childhood mathematics. The
answer is discouraging. The undergraduate degree—even
with a major in early childhood education—is not a good
predictor of classroom quality and children’s academic
outcomes (Early et al., 2007).
9
One reason may be that postgraduate programs do
development providers or administrators, teacher educanot appear to adequately prepare early childhood educators from 2- and 4-year institutions of higher education,
tion majors to teach domain-specific knowledge to young
or state policymakers spontaneously discussed any kind
children (Isenberg, 2000), especially mathematics (Copley,
of subject matter knowledge as relevant for preschool.
2004; Sarama, DiBiase, Clements, & Spitler, 2004). For
Furthermore, during eight focus group meetings, none of
example, although almost 80% of preschool to grade 3
the stakeholders discussed mathematics at all (Lobman,
preparation programs in New Jersey 4-year colleges offer
Ryan, & McLaughlin, 2005b). When explicitly asked to
coursework targeted to literacy, only 16% offer coursework
compare the relative value of different academic topics,
targeted to mathematics; 74% offer mathematics education
early childhood teachers rate mathematics as significantly
only as a part of a comprehensive early childhood educaless important than literacy (Blevins-Knabe, Austin,
tion course; and 10% do not offer mathematics education
Musun-Miller, Eddy, & Jones, 2000; Musun-Miller &
at all. The situation is not better for 2-year community colBlevins-Knabe, 1998).
leges; 18% of them do not offer
Yet early childhood
early childhood mathematics;
teachers may be aware of
almost 50 percent offer it only
the changes in the field that
as part of another course; and
demand more rigorous ECME.
...many prospective and current preless than 40% offer it as a stand
When asked directly to focus
school teachers do not like mathematalone course (Lobman, Ryan,
on the role of mathematics
ics,
are
afraid
of
it,
and
do
not
want
to
& McLaughlin, 2005a). Colin early childhood education,
leges and universities provide
they generally agree that their
teach it.
prospective teachers with few
young students could and
opportunities to learn about
should engage in mathematiECME.
cal learning, especially basic
“numeracy readiness skills”
Teachers’ Beliefs
such as one-to-one correspondence, understanding of
Our personal experience suggests that many prospecmore and less, simple counting, and sorting. Geometry
tive and current preschool teachers do not like mathematand measurement concepts were less popular (J. S. Lee
ics, are afraid of it, and do not want to teach it. The avail& Ginsburg, 2007b; Sarama et al., 2004).
able research does not put the issue so bluntly, but provides
At the same time, goals and beliefs about methods
evidence consistent with our observations. In general, early
of early mathematics education vary depending on the
childhood teachers place higher priority on the social,
population of children teachers serve (J. S. Lee & Ginsemotional, and physical domains in their classrooms than
burg, 2007a, 2007b). Preschool teachers working with
on intellectual or academic activities (Kowalski, Prettimiddle-SES children at private preschool programs for the
Frontczak, & Johnson, 2001; J. S. Lee, 2006). Preschool
relatively affluent appear to take a relatively unstructured
and kindergarten teachers alike emphasize that, in order
approach to mathematics education. They feel that it is
to be ready for success in school, young children need to
important to foster children’s positive dispositions and
be healthy and socially and emotionally competent, but
feelings, but that it is not as crucial to teach mathematics
that it is not as important for them acquire basic literacy
knowledge or skills. They believe that children should
and mathematics knowledge and skills (Lin, Lawrence, &
learn mathematics through self-initiated play, exploration,
Gorrell, 2003; Piotrkowski, Botsko, & Matthews, 2001).
discovery learning, and problem solving.
One exception is that the greater the school’s poverty level
By contrast, preschool teachers working with children
and the greater the number of minority students enrolled,
from low-SES families at publicly funded preschool
the more kindergarten teachers identify lack of academic
programs such as Head Start or Universal Pre-kindergarten
skills as a major problem to be addressed in the transition
place strong emphasis on the need for ECME to prepare
to elementary school (Rimm-Kaufman, Pianta, & Cox,
their children for kindergarten and beyond. They believe
2000).
that teachers should work with overall goals and plans
But in general, early childhood teachers do not place
for mathematics education, set time aside specifically for
a high value on teaching mathematics. A focus group study
mathematics, and expect their students to participate in
showed that very few preschool teachers, professional
mathematics activities regardless of their interests. In order
10
to achieve their goals, these teachers tend to rely heavily on
ready-made curricula and materials and to use computers
to promote children’s mathematical learning.
In brief, early childhood teachers believe that social
emotional learning is more important than literacy, which
in turn they see as more important than mathematics. When
asked directly about teaching mathematics, teachers agree
that children should learn some basic aspects of number.
Teachers of low-SES children tend to favor more directive
instructional methods of than do teachers of middle-SES
children.
Graham et al. (1997) observed that mathematics was
not a salient topic of discussion, not even opportunistically or spontaneously, in two preschool programs with
a reputation for high overall quality. When mathematics
was discussed, the conversation lasted less than a minute,
primarily centering on very basic concepts such as age,
numeral recognition, and names of shapes. Interestingly,
these teachers reported that they believe mathematics is
important, and that they indeed engaged in mathematical
discussions with their children. Observing 20 preschool
classrooms, Brown (2005) rarely saw teachers scaffolding
children’s exploration of mathematical ideas or suggesting
Teaching Practice
challenges. Brown also found
Early childhood teachers’
that those teachers who rated
low emphasis on mathematics
mathematics as important did
also manifests itself in their
not necessarily teach it freThe
poor
quality
of
instruction
practice. Empirical observation
quently. In short, mathematics
is...troubling.
of a large number of classrooms
seems to be seriously overshows that: “We can characterlooked in preschool classrooms
ize these early education envieven when teachers say that
ronments as socially positive
it is important and that they
but instructionally passive”
teach it.
(Pianta & La Paro, 2003, p.
The picture does not look
28). Moreover, teachers spend
much better at kindergarten
much less classroom time on
level. Chung (1994) found
mathematics than on literacy.
that, although 30 public school
Our most urgent need is to improve
Layzer and colleagues (1993)
kindergarten teachers were
teacher training and support.
observed that in preschool only
observed to spend a quarter
15% of the class time during
of their classroom time on
periods of core programmatic
mathematics, it was usually
activity in the morning was
integrated with other learning
spent teaching mathematics
activities and seldom taught
and science, compared to 29% spent on teaching reading
as a separate subject. Even more troubling, most of the
and language. Similarly, according to Early and colleagues
mathematics time was spent on rote learning of basic skills.
(2005), only 8% of classroom time is spent on math activiMany early childhood teachers seem to be adept at preparties involving counting, time, shapes, sorting, while 21%
ing the physical environment that includes mathematics,
is devoted to literacy activities.
but not at teaching it (J. Lee, 2004).
The situation is similar in kindergarten. Teachers
report spending 39 minutes in each session, 4.7 days a
Where do we go from here?
week, for a total of 3.1 hours each week on mathematWe have seen that:
ics, whereas the comparable figures for reading are 62
• There is a clear need for ECME, particularly to
minutes, 4.9 days, and a total of 5.2 hours (Hausken &
enhance the school success of low-SES students who are
Rathbun, 2004). Because children’s mathematics gains
at risk of school failure;
over the course of their schooling are related significantly
• Children have the potential and desire to learn
to the amount of time they spend on the subject (Guarino,
mathematics, even at an abstract and symbolic level;
Hamilton, Lockwood, Rathbun, & Hausken, 2006), the
• ECME is more complex, deep and difficult than
quantity of early childhood mathematics instruction is a
usually assumed;
cause for concern.
• The means for teaching early mathematics—most
The poor quality of instruction is also troubling.
importantly research-based curricula—are available (al-
11
Early Childhood Mathematics Education: What is Math and What is Education?
Robert C. Pianta
University of Virginia
As Ginsburg, Lee, and Boyd document so clearly, young children are capable of a wide range and depth of thinking
and learning in mathematics; such capacities appear to be sensitive to environmental input; and the systems in place
for ensuring the quantity and quality of such inputs are at best third-rate. Their nine recommendations are sensible,
appealing to developmental scientists, early educators, and education researchers. But for these recommendations to
have desired effects, several challenges remain to be addressed.
First, there is a core question – what skills and knowledge fall within the domain of mathematics? The studies of math
performance catalogued by Ginsburg and colleagues are a laundry list of content and cognition: number, space, memory,
time, quantity, etc.. Children are capable of more than what classrooms require of them, but we need a more detailed
documentation of the developmental connections among what young children can learn and the skills tested in school.
Visit any elementary school and if you see math instruction (see Pianta, Belsky, Houts, Morrison, & NICHD ECCRN,
2007), you will be struck by the hodge-podge of activities, focus, and target-skill areas. At the risk of oversimplification, more than 2 decades of research on language development and early literacy helped describe the developmental
course of literacy and role(s) played by skill areas such as phonological processing; now every early literacy curriculum
emphasizes instruction in phonological and meaning-based skills, rather than one versus the other.
Developmental science has yet to map mathematics trajectories to the same extent. If there is to be some systematic
link among children, teachers, and curriculum, we need to know how mathematics is organized developmentally – how
does understanding quantity or order translate into the kind of performance we call “mathematics” in 4th grade? What
skills are essential as a focus of instruction? Clearly-articulated developmental pathways are essential if instruction is
to move beyond the “skill of the week,” and a particular challenge is whether the disparate skills observed in various
labs are the product of some underlying, organizing process. The design of curriculum and training of teachers are
very different if four domains of math skills develop independently or whether a common cognitive capacity accounts
for growth in each.
Studies of development in mathematics must also consider issues of context, scaling, and assessment if findings will
translate from lab to classroom. Although knowledge is increasing about what young children can do in lab situations,
research has yet to describe whether such skills are necessary or present norms for their performance, information
that could drive the construction of useful assessment systems. And because the learning of mathematics is embedded
in interactions with the “stuff” of the world and with “teachers,” it is dependent on the knowledge of the teacher and
their skill engaging young children through feedback, sensitivity, and attentiveness to cues for learning. Well-described
trajectories or developmental curricula will not by themselves increase mathematics performance; literacy curricula
proven effective in rigorous trials often fall short when scaled in typical implementation contexts.
Ginsburg and colleagues are right to focus on the knowledge and skills of teachers, and how to effectively improve
them, as a central focus of research if the progress of developmental science will be realized in gains in children’s
competence. The very low levels of active, cognitively-engaging teaching that occurs in most classrooms, even when
staffed by certified, licensed, or degreed teachers (see Pianta et al., 2005) is sobering. We need more careful study of
effective instructional processes, of ways to assess these processes reliably in large samples, of factors that regulate
their presence and how to improve them. This requires a science linking the “what can be” in the lab with “what is”
and too often “what will be” in the classroom, a science of teachers and teaching requiring the joint attention of both
developmental and education scientists.
Ginsburg, Lee, and Boyd advance a timely argument for serious attention to mathematics both by policy-makers that
attend to early education and by scholars who focus on development. Their argument identifies two challenges facing the field: the need for a developmental mapping and theory of mathematics skill and how to systematically study
teaching as it can be produced, leveraged, and improved.
References
Pianta, R., Belsky, J., Houts, R., Morrison, F., & NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2007). Opportunities to learn in
America’s elementary classrooms. Science, 315, 1795-1796.
Pianta, R., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Bryant, D., Clifford, R., Early, D., & Barbarin, O. (2005). Features of pre-kindergarten programs,
classrooms, and teachers: Do they predict observed classroom quality and child-teacher interactions? Applied Developmental Science, 9(3), 144-159.
12
The Price of Inattention to Mathematics in Early Childhood Education is too Great
Deborah Stipek
Stanford University
Looking across international comparative studies, American students’ performance in mathematics is in the bottom
third (Ginsburg, Cooke, Leinwand, Noell, & Pollock, 2005). This is not news. We have known that American students
perform poorly in math and science on international comparisons for many years. More recently, longitudinal studies
have shown that math concepts, such as knowledge of numbers and ordinality, at school entry are the strongest predictors
of later achievement, even stronger than early literacy skills (Duncan et al., 2007). It is curious that so little attention
is paid to the mathematical learning of young children, which serves as the foundation for future math understanding
and school achievement.
Ginsburg, Lee, and Boyd remind us that young children can and do learn mathematical concepts, and they could learn
much more if we supported their learning. But, as they explain, preschool teachers are given almost no preparation to
teach mathematics. The consequence, apparent to me in visits to hundreds of preschool and kindergarten classrooms,
is that mathematics is simply not taught. When we planned to assess instructional strategies in math we often had to go
back to a program day after day to see anything that looked like an effort to facilitate children’s math learning. When
we did see it, variations on two approaches predominated. The first involves sheets of paper with numbers on one side
and groups of objects on the other. Children draw a line from, for example three stars on the left to the number 3 on
the right, or from four balloons to the number 4. The other common activity involves painting macaroni and pasting
them in boxes on colored paper in groups that reflected the number written in each box. Children seemed to enjoy both
tasks, to be sure. And they may develop some eye-hand coordination or artistic talent in the macaroni painting and
pasting activity. But it is hard to imagine a more inefficient way to promote an understanding of number.
We cannot blame the teachers. Until recently we have not expected instruction in mathematics in early childhood
education programs. And in addition to not being trained, many are not comfortable with their own mathematical
skill. Furthermore, the difficulty of teaching young children mathematics is typically underestimated. I once observed
a group of highly qualified preschool teachers receive intense training in assessing young children’s mathematical
understandings. They became adept at diagnosing children’s misunderstandings. But after many months of weekly
meetings they all confessed that they were not at all sure what to do after they had identified a problem. We realized
that they needed much more than training in assessment.
Ginsburg et al. describe the many different strands of mathematical thinking and skills young children need to learn,
as well as the many ways we can facilitate their mathematical learning -- with materials, opportunities to play, taking
advantage of teachable moments, guiding children’s explorations, and using math curriculum as a guide for instruction.
The teacher is key to all of these strategies for promoting math understanding. Even children’s play needs to be guided
to focus their attention on math concepts (e.g., providing props for a post office or store, and modeling buying and
selling). Until we make mathematics learning a priority, and until we invest in preparing early childhood educators to
be effective math teachers, we can expect avoidance and ineffective practices to continue, and we will continue to be
embarrassed by the poor performance of children in the country that has been the world leader in innovation.
I am deeply grateful to Ginsburg, Lee, and Boyd for calling our attention to a serious national problem.
References
Duncan, G., Dowsett, C., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A., Klebanov, P., Pagani, L., Feinstein, L. Engel, M., Brooks-Gunn,
J., Sexton, H., Duckworth, K., & Japel, C. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology. 43, 14281446.
Ginsburg, A., Cooke, G., Leinwand, S., Noell, J., & Pollock, E. (2005). Reassessing U.S. international mathematics performance:
New findings from the TIMSS and PISA. Washington DC: American Institutes for Research.
Deborah Stipek, Ph.D. is the James Quillen Dean and Professor of Education at Stanford University. Her doctorate
is from Yale University in developmental psychology. Her scholarship concerns instructional effects on children’s
achievement motivation, early childhood education, elementary education and school reform. In addition to her
scholarship, she served for five years on the Board on Children, Youth, and Families of the National Academy of
13
curricula (later, through in-service work, they will learn
to implement a specific curriculum) and to appropriate
pedagogy; and help them to think critically about ECME
(Ginsburg, Jang, Preston, Appel, & VanEsselstyn, 2004;
Ginsburg, Kaplan et al., 2006). Further, the course should
supplement the traditional textbook and readings with extensive analysis of videos involving children’s thinking (J.
S. Lee, Ginsburg, & Preston, 2007). Teachers need to avoid
both vague theory and mindless practice. On the one hand,
a course needs to help prospective teachers get beyond the
dogmatic parroting of what have become vacuous concepts
like “constructivism” or “developmentally appropriate
practice.” On the other hand, it should help them to think
about why an apparently attractive “manipulative” activity
may or not work.
As we have seen, ECME courses are rare. Good ones
may also be difficult for individual faculty members to
create de novo. The government and education authorities
should support the development and use of model college
and university ECME courses and should help faculty to
learn to teach them, perhaps through summer institutes
and other means. The courses also need to be evaluated
in a deeper manner than provided by the typical student
popularity ratings.
though some are still being evaluated);
• Yet teachers are generally not well prepared to
teach early mathematics, may not want to teach it, and
often teach it badly or not at all.
In brief, the need, potential, and some means exist,
but we are not currently providing sound ECME, especially to the children most in need. Given this analysis, we
offer the following recommendations concerning teacher
training, curricula, professional development in a curriculum, development of educational materials, research on
children and teaching, and development of and research
into assessment and evaluation.
Teacher Training and Support
Our most urgent need is to improve teacher
training and support. As we have seen, early childhood
professionals are often treated badly (low pay and prestige perhaps lead the list) and have not been given the
training or resources they need to do their job properly.
Yet they need to know so much! They need to understand
the mathematics, the children, the curriculum, methods of
assessment, and pedagogy. It is not an exaggeration to say
that the most pressing need in ECME is to improve teacher
education at all levels. The federal government, states and
local educational authorities need to provide extensive
support for both pre-service (college and university level)
and in-service teacher training.
Recommendation 2: Provide extensive in-service
training and support
Teaching an early mathematics curriculum is not
easy. It is more than child’s play in several senses. It requires not only appreciating the essence of the curriculum,
but also understanding mathematics, individual children,
methods of assessment and pedagogy. Early childhood
teachers need training in implementing the curriculum they
are required to teach and in examining their own teaching.
Specific training of this sort cannot be provided at the preservice level, which of necessity must be generic.
Successful in-service training should be extensive,
frequent and long-term. It should help teachers to reflect
on their methods, to share difficulties and successes. Some
workshops we have seen are mere collections of activities.
They can be useful if teachers understand how and why to
use them. But these “low level” workshops seldom explore
these matters in any depth; they lack a conceptual framework for understanding the activities to be undertaken.
Other, “high level” workshops traffic in abstract principles
like constructivism or developmentally appropriate practice. These principles can be useful if teachers understand
how they relate to the teaching of specific activities. Yet
the high level workshops seem disconnected to a signifi-
Recommendation 1: Stress relevant and rigorous
content in pre-service training
As recommended by the Eager to Learn report (Bowman et al., 2001), an earned early childhood education
degree from a four-year college should be a condition of
employment for early childhood teachers. Yet that is not
enough. The study leading to the degree must involve
some relevant and rigorous content. As we saw, many
early childhood college programs fail to provide adequate
instruction in ECME. It is perhaps ironic that programs
typically offer students the least help in what they find
most difficult (mathematics) and the most help in what
they feel is easiest (literacy). Clearly, there should be more
courses devoted to ECME.
But what should they teach? We have few examples
that can serve as models. In our view, a successful ECME
course needs to introduce students to the new research
literature on children’s mathematical thinking; help them
understand methods of formative assessment, like observation and clinical interview; teach them the basic mathematical ideas underlying ECME; expose them to various
14
cant degree from the nitty-gritty of classroom practice.
local educational authorities should support the developWe propose that “theoretically grounded specificity” is
ment of new curricula. Early childhood mathematics currithe key (Ertle et al., in press). Teachers need to learn to
cula are only in their infancy (or perhaps early childhood).
think deeply about the specific activities they use and why
We have not yet reached the limits of our ingenuity in the
they use them.
creation of materials, activities, software, story books,
Recommending extensive in-service professional deguidelines for exploiting free play, projects, television
velopment is easier than providshows, and toys. In creating
ing it. As in the case of college
these components of ECME,
ECME courses, few successful
developers should certainly
models of early mathematics
take into account researchThe federal government, states
professional development acbased information on the typiand local educational authorities
tivities are available. To some
cal “trajectories” (Clements,
should
mandate
(and
pay
for)
extent, efforts in literacy provide
Sarama, & DiBiase, 2004)
some suggestions. For example,
through which children’s
the use of research-based early
Kinzie, Pianta and colleagues
mathematical thinking natuchildhood curricula.
have developed a web-based
rally progresses. At the same
system with which teachers use
time, we believe, curriculum
a specially developed evaluadevelopers should not treat
tion rubric (CLASS) to analyze
them as setting final and abvideos of teaching, including
solute limits on what children
their own efforts (Kinzie et al.,
can learn. Most research from
We need to conduct teaching experi2006). In any event, the federal
which observed trajectories
ments that provide unusually stimuand state governments and local
derive involves examination
lating
conditions
designed
to
push
education authorities should not
of children’s current abilionly fund extensive in-service
ties, and does not necessarily
children’s performance and learning
professional development, but
explore what children can do
to their outer limits.
also encourage the development
under stimulating conditions.
of new programs of professional
In any event, the government
development and research on
should support vigorous and
their effectiveness.
creative development efforts, involving not only researchers but also those, including teachers, who can provide the
necessary creativity, imagination, whimsy and fun that
Curricula
Recommendation 3: Promote curricula
researchers are not trained to supply (and for which some
The federal government, states and local educational
may have little talent).
authorities should mandate (and pay for) the use of reResearch
search-based early childhood curricula. Since the NAEYC/
Several kinds of research are needed. Over the past
NCTM Guidelines were released, a great deal of progress
has been made. Preschools, kindergartens, and childcare
30 years or so, cognitive developmental researchers have
Centers have begun the process of implementing curricula.
provided a body of knowledge that has transformed our
views of young children’s mathematical minds. This kind
Head Start is rethinking its mathematics curriculum; High
of research is flourishing and remains valuable. But more
Scope is strengthening its approach. But despite the best
importantly we need educational research on several relaefforts of NAEYC/NCTM, there is still a good deal of
resistance in the early childhood community, for a portion
tively unexplored topics—research on what children can
of which any planned, intentional curriculum—no matter
do in rich environments, on teacher knowledge and how
how intellectually exciting—is anathema, equivalent to
to enrich it, and on teaching itself.
the worst of dreary schooling.
Recommendation 5: Support research on learning potential
Recommendation 4: Develop new curricula
At the same time, the federal government, states and
As both Papert (1980) and Vygotsky (1978)
15
pointed out, children may be more capable than we exyoung children, perhaps partly because it is so seldom
pect, and we can only learn about their true abilities if we
done. Recent research (Ball, 1993; Lampert, 2001; Shulchallenge them and test them under deliberately atypical
man, 1987) has added considerably to our knowledge of
conditions. Research of this type is limited, although there
teaching at the elementary level and beyond. But researchare a few distinguished exceptions. For example, 4- and
ers have paid scant attention to the special challenges of
5-year-olds can easily be taught the basics of addition and
teaching 4- and 5-year-olds. For example, can they be
subtraction (Zur & Gelman,
taught in large groups, as they
2004) and to investigate geooften are in Korea (French &
metrical ideas like symmetry
Song, 1998)? How should
(Zvonkin, 1992). Yet most
the teacher of young children
developmental research foemploy manipulatives or
Research providing an understanding of
cuses on what is, not on what
introduce symbolism or read
good teaching—that is, teaching that is
could be. But the issue is not
mathematical stories? What
probably atypical—can serve to inform
what is; the issue is what we
kind of pedagogical content
our views of quality ECME.
can engineer (although what
knowledge (Shulman, 2000)
is may constrain what is posdo they need? Research prosible). We need to conduct
viding an understanding of
teaching experiments that
good teaching—that is, teachprovide unusually stimulating
ing that is probably atypiconditions designed to push children’s performance and
cal—can serve to inform our views of quality ECME.
learning to their outer limits. Before the web’s invention,
we could not have known that 4-year-olds could surf it.
Assessment and Evaluation
Recommendation 8: Support research on and
Recommendation 6: Support research on teacher
development of assessment methods
knowledge and how to enrich it
We also require research and development efforts in
Teachers are the key to the success of ECME.
the areas of assessment and evaluation. To provide effecChildren are capable of learning mathematics. The issue
tive instruction, teachers need to understand what children
is how to help teachers teach it. Teaching is guided by
know and don’t know, and how they are learning. Methods
views of learners and learning (Lampert, 2001) and by
of “formative assessment” can help teachers obtain this
knowledge of subject matter (Ma, 1999). As William James
vital understanding. The field of early education has trapointed out many years ago, the teacher’s “intermediary
ditionally favored observation as the primary method for
inventive mind” (James, 1958, p. 24) must apply general
understanding young children. Yet observation, like any
principles to the individual case so as to promote learning.
other assessment method, is only as good as the theory
The issue then becomes understanding the teacher’s mind,
on which it is based. If they are to learn anything about
which unfortunately is often not as inventive as is required.
children’s mathematical knowledge, teachers need to know
We need research to illuminate how teachers think about
what to look for as they observe, for example, children’s
learning, how they interpret the individual child’s behavior,
block play. We need research on how well teachers observe
how they think critically about their teaching efforts and
and interpret children’s behavior, and we need to develop
children’s learning, and what they understand of both the
methods to help teachers improve these skills.
curriculum and the mathematics underlying it. We also
Yet observation is not enough. As Piaget (1976)
require teaching experiments for teachers, that is, invespointed out many years ago, “... how many inexpressible
tigations of how we can help the teacher mind to become
thoughts must remain unknown so long as we restrict ourmore inventive and more facile in critical thinking. Such
selves to observing the child without talking to him?” (pp.
experiments can inform programs of professional develop6-7). To learn about what is hidden in children’s minds,
ment, which in turn should undergo evaluation.
teachers need to engage in effective clinical interviewing
(Ginsburg, 1997). Not many teachers—at any level of
Recommendation 7: Support research on teacheducation—seem to use this method in a systematic way.
ing
The issue for developers is how to help teachers become
We know little about teaching mathematics to
comfortable with and proficient in use of clinical interview-
16
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Recommendation 9: Support research on and
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Fortunately, the federal government is now supporting
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Conclusions
This paper has shown how research knowledge has
provided a basis for sound ECME. We have also shown
how implementing it presents many difficult challenges,
particularly improving the education and professional
development of our teachers. But as we go forward, we
must remember that ECME cannot in itself perform magic
(Brooks-Gunn, 2003). ECME operates as part of a larger
social and educational context. For ECME to succeed,
teachers need to be adequately paid and supported. Children need good education in all areas, in literacy and art
as well as mathematics, and at all levels, from preschool
through the university. Children need adequate health
care and the emotional support provided by a warm and
caring teacher (Arnold & Doctoroff, 2003). They need to
escape from the debilitating effects of poverty: 18% of
American children live in extreme poverty and another
21% live in low-income families (National Center for
Children in Poverty, 2006). Attention to ECME must be
part—only a small part—of a comprehensive educational
and social agenda.
17
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About the Authors
Herbert Ginsburg, Ph.D., is the Jacob H. Schiff
Professor of Psychology and Education at Teachers
College, Columbia University. He has written, with
Sylvia Opper, a widely used introduction to Piaget’s
theory, as well as an introduction to clinical interviewing, Entering the Child’s Mind. His research interests
include the development of mathematical thinking
(with particular attention to young children and disadvantaged populations) and the assessment of cognitive
function. He has also developed mathematics curricula
for young children, tests of mathematical thinking,
and video workshops to enhance teachers’ understanding of students’ learning of mathematics. Currently he
is exploring how computer technology can be used to
help teachers assess children’s mathematical knowledge. He is also involved in the creation and evaluation of Video Interactions for Teaching and Learning,
a new web-based video system designed to promote
meaningful learning at the University level.
nature of teacher-child interactions, classroom quality,
and child competence, through standardized observational assessment. Dr. Pianta has conducted research
on professional development, both at the pre-service
and in-service levels. He has published more than 300
scholarly papers and is lead author on several influential books related to early childhood and elementary
education. He has recently begun work to develop
a preschool mathematics curriculum, incorporating
a web-based teacher support component. Dr. Pianta
received a B.S. and a M.A. in Special Education from
the University of Connecticut, and a Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Minnesota, and began his
career as a special education teacher.
Judi Stevenson Boyd is a Research Project Coordinator for the National Institute for Early Education Research. She has collaborated on multiple field research
projects, conducting training in child assessments and
classroom observation instruments and coordinating
data collection. She has also co-authored a preschool
mathematics assessment system, which has been used
widely to assess classroom mathematics instruction, as
well as to provide professional development for teachers. Judi holds a Master’s degree in Developmental
Psychology from Rutgers University and is currently
a doctoral student in Cognitive Studies in Education at
Teachers College, Columbia University, with a focus
on early childhood mathematics and professional
development.
Joon Sun Lee is an Assistant Professor in Early
Childhood Education at Hunter College of The City
University of New York. She earned her Ph.D. in
Educational Psychology, Ed.M. in Early Childhood
Education, and M.A. in Developmental Psychology
from Teachers College, Columbia University. Her
research interests include early childhood professional
development in mathematics, especially focusing on
teachers’ beliefs. Currently, as a part of an ongoing
collaboration between Hunter College and Columbia University, she has integrated a web-based video
system, Video Interactions for Teaching and Learning,
into her courses and is evaluating its effectiveness in
early childhood teacher preparation. She also serves as
an educational consultant for inner city early childhood programs.
Deborah Stipek, Ph.D. is the James Quillen Dean and
Professor of Education at Stanford University. Her
doctorate is from Yale University in developmental
psychology. Her scholarship concerns instructional
effects on children’s achievement motivation, early
childhood education, elementary education and school
reform. In addition to her scholarship, she served for
five years on the Board on Children, Youth, and Families of the National Academy of Sciences and chaired
the National Academy of Sciences Committee on
Increasing High School Students’ Engagement & Motivation to Learn. Dr. Stipek served 10 of her 23 years
at UCLA as Director of the Corinne Seeds University
Elementary School and the Urban Education Studies
Center. She joined the Stanford School of Education as
Dean and Professor of Education in January 2001. She
is a member of the National Academy of Education.
Robert Pianta is the Dean of the Curry School of
Education at the University of Virginia, as well as the
Novartis US Foundation Professor of Education and
a Professor in the Department of Psychology. He also
serves as the Director for both the National Center for
Research in Early Childhood Education and the Center for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning. Dr.
Pianta’s work has focused on the predictors of child
outcomes and school readiness, particularly adultchild relationships, and the transition to kindergarten.
His recent work has focused on understanding the
23
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