1. family and parenting
2. children

A world without play:
A literature review
A literature review on the effects
of a lack of play on children’s lives
Revised January 2012
Josie Gleave and Issy Cole-Hamilton
www.playengland.org.uk
‘A world without play’ – a literature review
Revised January 2012
Authors
Josie Gleave and Issy Cole-Hamilton
Much of the information in this review is drawn directly from previously published work
including:
• NCB Highlight: Play and Well-being 1
• Community Play: A literature review 2
• Children’s Time to Play: A literature review 3
A library search was also conducted using the Children’s Play Information Service (CPIS) to
include the most up-to-date published research. Information was collated from relevant
websites including that of British Toy and Hobby Association4. The review also draws
extensively on Play for a Change, by Lester and Russell (2008), published by Play England and
is informed by the research undertaken for Getting it Right for Play: The Power of play – an
evidence base published by Play Scotland in January 2012.
Contents
Summary ............................................................................................................................................3
1: The essence of play ....................................................................................................................4
2: Play, happiness and well-being .................................................................................................5
3: Physical benefits of play ..........................................................................................................6
4: Cognitive benefits of play .......................................................................................................9
5: Social benefits of play ..............................................................................................................12
6: Play and the community ...........................................................................................................14
7: Time to play ...................................................................................................................................18
Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................21
References ........................................................................................................................................23
1
2
3
4
1
Cole-Hamilton, I. (2011) NCB Highlight: Play and Well-being. London: NCB
Gleave, J. (2010) Community Play: A literature review. London: Play England
Gleave, J. (2009) Children’s Time to Play: A literature review. London: Play England
www.btha.co.uk
Introduction
This review is part of a wider enquiry conducted on behalf of Play England and the British
Toy & Hobby Association (BTHA) for the 2011 Make Time to Play Campaign. It examines the
importance of providing good-quality play opportunities to children, their families and
their communities. This body of research informs a campaign around the concept of ‘A
World Without Play’. Play is fundamental to children’s happiness and well-being, and the
evidence shows that it is also influential in their health and future life chances. If children’s
opportunities for play are restricted there are likely to be profound effects on their life
experience in general and more specifically on their physical and mental health. For example,
obesity, rickets and attention deficit disorder are just some of the growing problems
experienced by children, that health experts have recently linked to a lack of particular forms
of play (Play England 2011).
The review gives an overview of the importance of play for children’s health, well-being and
development, as well as discussing the benefits of play provision to local communities. It
illustrates how lack of time and spaces for play, and hostile attitudes towards children playing
outdoors can have damaging implications for children’s health and happiness. Drawing on a
wide range of evidence, the review indicates the potential consequences of ‘a world without
play’; that is, a world where play is placed at the bottom of adult agendas and the value of play
in children’s lives is not fully acknowledged. Children will always play, but adults must provide
children with opportunities, time to themselves and spaces for play if they are to get the full
benefits.
2
Summary
This literature review provides strong evidence that playing is central to children’s physical,
psychological and social well-being. Whilst playing, children can experience real emotions,
create their own uncertainty, experience the unexpected, respond to new situations
and adapt to a wide variety of situations. Play enables children to form friendships and
attachments to adults and to places, allowing for the development of familiarity and intimacy
with both. It can provide opportunities for independent learning and building confidence,
resilience, self-esteem and self-efficacy (Lester and Russell 2008; NICE 2010; Coalter and
Taylor 2001). Whilst play can bring families closer together, strengthening parent–child
relationships (Gardner and Ward 2000), playing away from adult supervision is equally
important, allowing children to acquire independent mobility, explore the world on their own
terms and create their own identities (Armitage 2004).
This review highlights the importance of play, particularly outdoor play, for increasing levels
of physical activity, alongside other positive influences on a child’s well-being, such as
opportunities to understand and respect the natural world. However, children seem to be
getting fewer opportunities to play. A combination of poor play environments, busy school
schedules and an increase in structured activities has meant that this beneficial and basic
children’s right has become sidelined, often perceived as an ‘unaffordable luxury’ (Elkind
2008). Even self-directed play during school break times, which has been linked to improving
concentration and behaviour during lesson times (Madsen and others 2011) as well as
offering children a unique opportunity to advance their interacting skills, have been cut
significantly in recent years (Blatchford and others 2002).
The evidence confirms that it is important to allow children every opportunity to play,
as this can benefit their physical and mental health, well-being, and social and emotional
development. Play is also an invaluable part of family and community life. The study also
demonstrates that while we should acknowledge the benefits of play in children’s lives, we
must be cautious not to ‘instrumentalise’ play by perceiving it merely as a tool to achieve
other benefits (Lester and Russell 2008). Play is a basic right for all children and is worthwhile
for the enjoyment it brings to children and their families in the moment. If we view play
primarily as a means to achieve long-term physical, psychological and social benefits we are in
danger of losing sight of the essence of play as intrinsically motivated behaviour, something
children do in their own time, following their own ideas, in their own way, for their own reasons
(Cole-Hamilton 2011). However, this review gives an overview of how this fundamental and
enjoyable instinct has been shown to increase children’s quality of life across many areas.
3
Section 1: The essence of play
The definition of play is both complex and contested and has long been the subject of
social and academic debate. The increase in structured ‘play’ sessions and emergence of
technology-based play has led to further confusion over the nature and meaning of play
(Lester and Russell 2008). What is clear is that play is an innate childhood instinct, that is not
only enjoyable but also crucial to the processes of learning and development. Play is varied and
flexible and there is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ way to play; encompassing an endless range of play
types, which could be active or subdued, imaginative or exploratory, involve others or carried
out alone. An attempt to distil the essence of play is perhaps best expressed through the
Playwork Principles that underpin all good playwork practice:
‘Play is a process that is freely chosen, personally directed and intrinsically motivated. That
is, children and young people determine and control the content and intent of their play, by
following their own instincts, ideas and interests, in their own way for their own reasons.’
‘All children and young people need to play. The impulse to play is innate. Play is a biological,
psychological and social necessity, and is fundamental to the healthy development and wellbeing of individuals and communities.’
(Playwork Principles Scrutiny Group 2005)
In other words, play involves children doing as they wish in their own time and in their own way,
and it is this component of play that is key to understanding the positive outcomes of playing
throughout childhood. However, whilst playing comes instinctively to all children, without the
support of parents, policy makers and the wider community to make play a priority, children will
be denied the freedom, spaces and time to themselves to act on their natural instincts.
The following sections of this review discusses the role for play in children’s lives and why play
must be understood, taken seriously and provided for in adult agendas.
4
Section 2: Play, happiness and well-being
The concept of well-being is multi-dimensional, encompassing physical, emotional and social
well-being and focusing on children’s immediate as well as their future lives (Statham and
Chase 2010; Saunders and others 1997: cited in Chambers and others 2002). Other factors
used to discuss children’s well-being in the UK and other Western societies include the
concepts of need, rights, poverty, quality of life and social exclusion (Axford 2008). Children’s
definition of ‘happiness’ is strongly associated with ‘doing what you want when you want to’,
‘getting what you want’, or ‘something unexpected, out of the ordinary happening’ and is
therefore seen as a temporary state (Counterpoint 2008).
In 2007, a UNICEF report on the well-being of children around the world, ranked the UK at
the bottom of the world’s 21 richest countries. For all six parameters: material well-being,
health and safety, educational well-being, family and peer relationships, behaviour and risks
and subjective well-being, the UK was amongst the bottom five countries (UNICEF 2007).
Since then, there has been considerable debate in the UK about ways to measure and
enhance children’s well-being. Traditionally, children’s well-being has been measured through
‘objective’ indicators, examining the impact of social and economic factors on children’s lives.
However, more recently it has been acknowledged that children’s subjective views should also
be considered because they differ from adults’ viewpoints, and also out of respect for their
fundamental rights (Hicks and others 2011).
Following the UNICEF report, a comparative study, carried out by Nairn and IPSOS MORI
(2011), compared the lives of children in UK with those in Sweden and Spain, to uncover why
the UK was ranked so poorly in relation to children’s well-being. Using subjective indicators,
the study found that children perceived spending time with their friends and family, as well
as having fun and engaging things to do, as fundamental to their well-being. The research
indicates that children in the UK had fewer opportunities for fun outdoor activities compared
with the other two countries and that this was a significant contributor towards poor wellbeing in the UK. Decisions to cut funding for local play spaces, they argue, is detrimental for
children’s well-being, particularly for children from low socio-economic groups, whose parents
struggle to find affordable play provision on their area. The study also found that UK parents
had less free time to spend with their children, due to work and other commitments, and calls
for policy makers to consider how UK policies impinge on family time. The authors conclude
that children must be prioritised in UK government public spending. This is persuasive
evidence of the role in playing to children’s overall happiness and well-being. As Foley (2008)
puts it: ‘It is widely understood that play is crucial to children’s healthy development and
quality of life’ (p 6).
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Section 3: Physical benefits of play
Physical activity in childhood is important for many reasons and a variety of sources indicate
a direct relationship between physical activity and children’s health (Hope and others 2007). In
early childhood physical exercise helps build strong bones, muscle strength and lung capacity
(Lindon 2007). It may also increase cognitive function, improve academic achievement and
accelerate neurocognitive processing. In addition, it appears that active children are also
less likely to smoke, to abuse alcohol or take illegal drugs as they grow up (BHF 2009). There
is also evidence that exercise breeds exercise, and children in the east of England who cycle
to school have been found to be much more active at other times and are aerobically fitter.
There is also a suggestion that across England, children in rural areas may be more active
than other children (Pretty and others 2009).
Several studies have shown that playing is good for developing motor functioning, and most
infants and toddlers acquire fundamental movement skills through unstructured physical
activity and play. Children who lack proficient motor skills often choose not to participate in
physical activities as they get older, and as games become more competitive (Graham and
others 2005 cited in Low Deiner and Qiu 2007). Better motor function has also been found to
lead to fewer accidents (HC Netherlands 2004).
Fun and enjoyment are the greatest motivators for physical activity and, whilst children see
health reasons as important, they are more attracted by ‘unhealthy’ activities if they are
more fun than ‘healthier’ activities (Hemmings 2007). Young children are innately active, but
this natural tendency is easily overridden by external constraints, including adult supervision
(Jebb 2007).
A recent study (Brockman and others 2011a) found that children’s primary motive for
engaging in physically active play was for social and enjoyment reasons, to prevent boredom
and because they were aware of the physical and emotional benefits of being active. They
also valued the freedom from adult control and the unstructured nature of physically active
play. However, children felt that their active play was restricted by poor weather conditions,
fears and a lack of suitable play spaces. From these findings, the authors suggest that more
encouragement should be given by schools to allow children outside at break times when
it is raining, perhaps also providing them with waterproof clothing. Brockman and others
believe that more safe places to play are required to reduce children’s and parents’ fears,
which can prevent children from being active in their neighbourhoods. The study also found
that children who owned mobile phones had more independence to play actively around their
neighbourhood, as parents felt happier letting them play outside unsupervised if they could
reach them by phone.
Opportunities for play, throughout childhood, contribute to children’s life chances and
development and active toddlers who grow up enjoying physically active play, especially in
natural environments, may be laying the foundations for better health and a longer life than
sedentary children (Pretty and others 2009). Active play is the most common type of physical
activity children take part in outside of school, and outdoor and unstructured play may be one
of the best forms of physical activity for children (BHF 2009). Brady and others (2008) found
that physical activity in early years settings was influenced by a number of factors, including
6
the layout of the setting, ethos of play staff, encouragement from staff, opportunities for
free flow play and access to outdoor space and suitable equipment. This not only influenced
the time children spend playing actively, but also the quality of the play.
Encouraging active play and walking as a routine in the daily lives of young children may be
important in preventing obesity. Children who sleep fewer hours a day are more at risk of
obesity and active children tend to sleep longer (Taheri 2006 cited in Milano 2007). However,
research into effective interventions for obesity is complex and although individually each
factor may make only a small contribution to weight gain, the potential synergies may
underestimate the overall impact of playing. For the role of physical activity in controlling
a child’s weight may be more complex than its contribution to energy expenditure (Jebb
2007). For older children and teenagers, the outdoors is perceived as the most important
environment for physically active play (Open Space 2006), and that children who go out
without adult supervision are likely to be more physically active than those who are with
adults (Mackett and others 2007). As Dietz points out: ‘Opportunities for spontaneous play
may be the only requirement that young children need to increase their physical activity’
(Dietz 2001: 314).
Children’s activity levels are related to gender, family patterns and outdoor play. Boys are
more active than girls, children whose parents participate in physical activity with them
are more active and children who spend more time in outdoor play spaces are more active
(BHF 2009). Brockman and others (2011b) note how boys tend to play further away from
home with friends, while girls tend to play closer to home, often with family members. Both
genders preferred unmanaged spaces for engaging in active play, rather than structured
activities. Parents also have a strong influence on their children’s activity levels. If parents
understand the importance of physical activity to their children’s health and are involved with
their children in some physical activity, this not only encourages their children to be more
active but can also enhance parent–child communication and social interactions among family
members (Thompson and others 2010).
Children get much of their physical exercise at school and play times can be important for
this, especially during the longer breaks (Fairclough and others 2008). Although children are
more active during longer breaks it has been found that the longer they played the less active
they became. Children were more active when playing ball games, had free access to nonfixed equipment and where there were suitable markings on the ground. When teachers were
managing or observing the playground, children’s activity was reduced (Parrish and others
2009).
Guidelines set out by the Department of Health (2011) call for interventions to increase
children’s physical activity levels, starting from birth. Early years children should be given
ample opportunities for unrestricted movement (such as crawling and water-based play)
to increase their physiological development and encourage bonding with others. Drawing on
robust research, the report argued that levels of physical activity required in childhood to
help achieve healthy weight, bone and cardiometabolic health and psychological well-being are
higher than previously estimated. Unstructured play is perceived as vital to achieving this, as
young children ‘need the freedom to create their own opportunities for active play, lead their
own activities, direct their own play and engage in imaginary play’ (DH 2011: 22). The report
calls for more play spaces and parental support to help foster this.
7
For the benefits of play to be used to their full advantage, support must come from everyone.
The NICE report on promoting physical activity for children and young people, carried out on
behalf of the Department of Health, states that responsibility for increasing physical activity
levels in childhood should involve a range of professional bodies (NICE 2009). This includes
community and voluntary groups, government departments, local authorities, early years,
play and youth service providers, the police, health service providers, the private sector,
schools and colleges. It provides numerous recommendations to increase physical activity
in childhood, such as a national campaign that consults with children and families about the
importance of physical activities; a high-level policy and strategy to increase opportunities
to be safe and active outdoors; local strategic planning that identifies children who have low
exposure to physical activity; planning play spaces and facilities (such as parks, out of hours
car parks and school grounds); and local transport planning that encourages active travel.
NICE (2008) also provide guidance about creating environments for physical activity. The
recommendations include strategies and policies that involve the local community and
prioritise children, particularly when planning and developing roads (such as providing safe
routes plans and guidance), ensuring public open spaces are accessible by bike or foot and
designing playgrounds to encourage high levels of active play.
8
Section 4: Cognitive benefits of play
The evidence base that examines the cognitive implications of playing is complex and not
entirely consistent. However, there is substantial evidence overall to suggest that play is a
natural way of building cognitive processes, assisting learning and can even help with more
complex mental health issues. However, caution should be exercised when linking play to
cognitive functioning, as this can lead to the ‘instrumentalising’ of play (Lester and Russell
2008). While research does indicate that play can help to foster specific skills, Lester and
Russell argue that it should not be perceived simply as a tool for learning and that the role
of play within a particular moment, the joy it brings and the right that children have to play
regardless of the positive outcomes, should be recognised as its primary drivers. However,
evidence of the long-term psychological impact of play is growing and is discussed in this
section.
The notion that playing takes a central role in developing cognitive skills is by no means a
new one. Piaget and Vygotsky, two of the most influential 20th century theorists of cognitive
development, both emphasised the essential role of play in children’s development. According
to Piaget, play provides children with extensive opportunities to interact with materials in
the environment and construct their own knowledge of the world, making play one of the
most important elements of cognitive development (Zigler and Bishop-Josef 2009). As
Elkind reflects: ‘Play is our need to adapt the world to ourselves and create new learning
experiences’ (Elkind 2007: 3).
Others claim that playing contributes to children’s developing vocabulary, their understanding
of different concepts, their ability to solve problems, their self-confidence and motivation,
and an awareness of the needs of others (Zigler 2009). Constructive and imaginative play has
been identified as most important for cognitive development (HC Netherlands 2004). Play
involving arts, craft and design gives children the opportunity to develop the fine motor skills
of hand and finger control, required for handwriting (Lindon 2007).
In early childhood it is important to support and encourage self-directed play activities even
if these appear meaningless to adults. Allowing a child time and freedom to complete these
activities to their own satisfaction supports the child’s ability to concentrate (Elkind 2007).
Elardo and others (1975 cited in BTHA 2011) found that access to a variety of toys during
infancy was associated with higher IQ levels at the age of three, irrelevant of ethnicity, gender
or social class. Play in school settings can allow children to connect with their surroundings
and give the opportunities for interactive learning (Ginsburg 2007 cited in BTHA 2011).
Children benefit from being able to take risks and challenge themselves (Gill 2007). Some
commentators argue that if children are not allowed to take risks they may grow up overcautious in many everyday situations, or be unable to judge potentially dangerous situations,
placing themselves in danger (Gleave 2008). The importance of risk-taking to children’s
neurological, emotional and social development has also been widely discussed (Gladwin and
Collins 2008).
Aggressive behaviour has been linked to a lack of interesting and engaging environments
and destructive behaviour is most common in boring spaces without trees, bushes or other
natural boundaries. Bland environments such as these, mean that peer groups can feel it is
9
difficult to have their own space or get away from each other (Bird 2007a; Bird 2007b).
Emotions can be expressed and managed through playing. Play fighting, although often
discouraged by adults, has been shown as behaviour where children learn about self-control
and restraint, preparing children for situations that they may have to deal with in later life
(Power 2000; Galyer and Evans 2001 cited in BTHA 2011).
Certain forms of play seem to encourage different kinds of cognitive processes. Fantasy
play, for example, has been perceived as almost therapeutic, allowing children to uncover
and address painful feelings and conflicts with others. In the late 1960s, Smilansky (1968
cited in Marjanovic-Umek and Lesnik-Musek 2001: 56) argued that fantasy play, in the form
of role play, is vital for cognitive processing and developing empathetic emotions. Smilansky
contends that fantasy play aids speech and language skills as a child ‘acts out’ a role, often
using particular symbolic objects, which allows children to construct meaningful and perfect
speech.
Marjanovic-Umek and Lesnik-Musek (2001) compared children from three age groups in
preschool settings to investigate the links between symbolic play and cognitive and language
development. Their findings suggest that materials and context were very influential in terms
of the level and complexity in which children play. It was found that children play differently
in different settings and situations, with some situations encouraging higher levels of
symbolic play. The authors argue that preschool teachers should provide age-appropriate
play materials, and ensure that rooms are arranged in a way that will encourage symbolic play,
cognitive and language skills.
In a Community Practitioner article, health expert June Thompson (2000) explains how playing
with toys is pivotal to a child’s physical development. For example, between the ages of three
and six months a baby will start to reach, grasp and explore objects and handle suitable toys,
vital to hand-eye coordination and fine motor control. From the ages of six to twelve months,
young children are increasingly mobile, quickly developing ‘manual dexterity’ (p. 844). During
the second year, playing with toys that can be pushed or pulled helps walking and balance.
The article highlights the role of playing with toys for learning manipulative skills and allowing
movements such as twisting, screwing, turning and opening.
Toys appear to play an important role in children’s cognitive development. However, children
may not use these toys in the ways that have been intended. Children use their creativity to
play with toys in their own ways. Therefore, some authors argue that children should have
access to as many kinds of toys as possible, as Singer (1994) states: ‘Children play longer
when a wide variety of toys is available. Playful children are more physically active, creative,
humorous, imaginative, emotionally expressive, curious and communicative’ (Singer 1994 cited
in BTHA 2011b).
BTHA (2011b) maintains that children who have the freedom and opportunities to play have
stronger friendships, are more joyful, secure and cooperative than those who do not. Play in
early childhood allows children to give voice to their experiences and to have a safe place to
express confusing and painful feelings, and to find ways of overcoming emotional traumas
(Hirschland 2009).
Play that involves contact with nature appears to have a positive effect on recovery from
stress and attention fatigue and on mood, concentration, self-discipline and physiological
stress (HC Netherlands 2004). Some preliminary research has also shown that woodland can
provide a sanctuary for both rural and urban children and reduce self-reported stress.
10
Spending time in the natural environment is important in creating a sense of belonging and
identity, which in turn improves mental health (Bird 2007b).
Research cited in the 2008 Conservative Party Childhood Review suggests that the use of
drugs prescribed to children under the age of sixteen in order to control the symptom of
ADHD has increased by 842 per cent since 1996 (Hansard 2007 cited in Conservative Party
2008). However, there is evidence to suggest that spending time in green spaces can be an
effective means of reducing symptoms of ADHD. In fact Panksepp (2008) suggests that poor
play opportunities may be responsible for the growth in ADHD. Panksepp maintains that
creating exciting play opportunities for children may be the best way to tackle the problem of
ADHD, although medication may have been found to be effective, little is known of the longterm implications of these drugs on children’s brains.
The complex nature of play makes it central to children’s developing resilience as they grow
up. Lindon defines resilience as ‘an outlook for children and young people characterised by the
willingness to confront challenges, with a sense of confidence that it is possible to deal with
setbacks. Resilience is built from a foundation of emotional security that key, familiar adults
will help’ (Lindon 2007: 7). The creativity required and developed in play, the use of imagination
and finding one’s own solutions to problems, both real and imagined, all help children to
develop ways of reacting to a wide range of situations. Lester and Russell (2008) suggest
that children must develop these adaptive systems so that they acquire an ‘open disposition
to the unexpected’.
Children’s ability to cope with difficult situations and to recover from, or adapt to, adversity
whilst playing, can help them to develop strategies for reacting to real situations (Lester and
Russell 2008). Empathy and imaginary play allow children to learn about the feelings of others
and imagine themselves in different situations. Boys with imaginary friends have been shown
to have lower levels of aggression, feel happier, have more positive attitudes, and experience
less fear and anxiety during later play situations and girls are less likely to be angry, fearful
and sad in their play (Singer and Singer 1992 cited in Jenkinson 2005: 78).
Sandseter and others (2011) provide compelling evidence that taking risks in play is a natural
coping mechanism, which helps to reduce fears and tackle phobias. In this sense, risk-taking
in play mirrors many aspects of cognitive behavioural therapy; by thinking less negatively
about anxieties it can help to reduce anxious behaviour. Over-protection can cause children
to become more anxious and develop behaviours associated with anxiety throughout their
lives. The report suggests that risk taking in play can reduce anxiety problems in children.
11
Section 5: Social benefits of play
Playing with other children affects the ways in which children relate to each other, form
groups and feel part of a group or part of their local community. When children play they
use their own language, rules and values and play helps them to develop their own identities
(Casey 2010). Children who are able to play freely with their peers develop skills for seeing
things through another person’s point-of-view, for cooperating, helping, sharing, and solving
problems (Open University 2011). Traumatised children, who lose their ability for creative play,
do not have full access to their problem-solving capabilities, which can make social situations
difficult for them (Lovett 2009).
The act of playing can overcome cultural and other boundaries and help children to
understand others who they might consider to be different from themselves and for disabled
children, who are prone to social isolation, play can be an important way of creating bonds
with other children (Dunn and others 2004). Parents meet and talk to other parents when
accompanying their children to play spaces, which helps to foster community relations and
friendships. The many ways in which children play help the development of different types of
relationships with others. Types of play that allow for physical contact, use of the imagination
and social negotiation allow children to form ‘highly sophisticated attachment systems’ at
a time in their lives when friendships are becoming important (Lester and Russell 2008: 21).
Role play has been shown to help acquire a sense of belonging for many children, improve
their social skills and help foster adult–child relationships (Ginsburg 2007 cited in BTHA 2011).
Power (2000 cited in BTHA 2011) argues that parents have an influential role when playing
with children. When young children involve their parents in play their behaviour tends
to be more complex and symbolic compared to when they play alone or with friends. He
states: ‘When parents play with infants and young children, the complexity of children’s
behaviour increases substantially both in the duration of the social interactions and in the
developmental level of children’s social behaviour’ (Power 2000: 362–375 cited in BTHA 2011).
Elsewhere, Grossman and others (2002 cited in BTHA 2011) provide evidence from Germany
that children tend to form stronger attachments to their parents if they play regularly
with their fathers. The author concludes that fathers’ ‘play sensitivity’ gives an indication of
child–parent attachment. Further evidence suggests that fathers’ engagement in roughand-tumble play encourages competitive attitudes without violent or aggressive behaviour
(Paquette and others 2003 cited in BTHA 2011). Parent–child play has also been linked with
improved ‘conduct problems’ (Gardner and others 2003 cited in BTHA 2011) and social
competency skills (Lindsey and Mize 2000 cited in BTHA 2011).
Davis and others (2002) examined how intergenerational play led to positive outcomes for
both older and younger generations. For children, this kind of play was perceived to have
cognitive, physical, social and emotional benefits. According to this research, children who
have access to play settings that offer cross-generational interactions, develop physically
and psychologically as a result of this exchange. Davis and others argue that traditional toys
can be important for intergenerational play and can help to reduce any animosity that exists
between older and younger generations. The authors suggest that building intergenerational
relationships can encourage children to perceive elderly people in a positive light.
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Intergenerational play has also been linked to creativity, and combining this with play settings
that are equipped for active and interactive play can contribute to children’s development
and well-being (Davis and others 2002). Furthermore, Neuman and Roskos (1992 cited in Davis
and others 2002) argue that children’s ability to read ‘environmental print’ is advanced by an
interesting and diverse play setting, which encourages interaction with adults.
Despite the growing body of evidence indicating the social benefits of adult–child play,
everyday pressures have meant that finding time to play is challenging for some families
(Gleave 2009). Lester and Russell (2008) argue that, under such strict time schedules when
setting time aside for play is not always possible, one solution is to be more playful in the time
families to spend together; incorporating this into their routine and lifestyle.
Clearly, play involving adult–child interaction has substantial benefits for children’s social
skills, as well as having an important role in fostering positive relationships between adults
and children. However, opportunities for children to play away from adult gaze are also vital
for children. This is discussed in the following section.
13
Section 6: Play and the community
‘In the street, particularly in the nooks and crannies of public space not under the watchful
gaze of adults, children may thus begin forming a public identity and establish their own
selfhood and independence’ (Spilsbury 2005: 81).
The benefits of community play
For many years, research findings have demonstrated the value and importance of
community play to children’s well-being. This was recognised in the 1960s when Mead (1966
cited in Blakely 1994) pointed out that neighbourhoods provide vital opportunities for children
to explore their environments without adult direction and learn life lessons about the
‘familiar’ and the ‘strange’. Mathews (2003, cited in Spilsbury 2005) who investigated public
space in relation to 9- to 16-year-old children suggested that public space acts as a ‘liminal’
or in-between setting, in the rite of passage from childhood to adulthood. In fact, evidence
suggests that limiting children’s freedom in the local area can restrict their opportunities to
create social networks and hinder their ability to build strong trusting relationships (Groves
1997 cited in Spilsbury 2005). Elsewhere, Valentine (2004) argues that public space is vital
for young people in order to escape adult supervision and define their identities. Findings
presented by Irwin and others (2007) suggest that children with poor play opportunities were
less likely to have friends in their community and that this had an impact upon their social
well-being and sense of self (Irwin and others 2007).
It is now widely believed that play is important for children to maintain a sense of community.
For adults too, children’s play can help to build good social networks, as it provides them
with opportunities to interact with one another at places children play. Similarly, Worpole
and Knox found that public space is highly valued for socialising opportunities and developing
community ties. For children specifically, public space allows them to build friendships and
learn rules of social life. Public space is also cited as an important play arena, whether on the
streets or in more secluded areas (Worpole and Knox 2007).
It is not only in the UK that community play has been shown to be of value to children and
communities. Evidence from Australia also illustrates that involvement with the community
plays an important role in children’s development, and suggests that positive associations
with community life can help to prevent ‘conduct problems’ as children grow up (Edwards
and Bromfield 2009). A nationally representative survey consulting 4,983 four and five year
olds across 257 neighbourhoods, illustrated ‘undesirable’ behaviours, such as lying, fighting
and temper tantrums, can be associated with children who lack a sense of belonging in their
neighbourhood. It is argued that community development initiatives should be employed to
increase children’s feelings of inclusion, by building on social relationships and establishing
trust.
Working in Italy, Prezza and Pacilli suggest that developing relationships with adults in the
local neighbourhood is vital for children and young people. The authors state that: ‘autonomy
and play in public areas during childhood influences more intense neighbourhood relations,
a strong sense of community and less fear of crime and, in turn, these later variables
consequently reduce feeling of loneliness during adolescence’ (Prezza and Pacilli 2007 cited in
Lester and Russell 2008: 165).
Community play can be particularly beneficial in natural settings. Free play and exposure to
14
nature are increasingly recognised as essential to healthy child development (Moore and
Cosco 2009). Several studies have found that playing in natural environments has a positive
impact on children’s social play, their sense of well-being, their concentration and motor
ability, and that children have a particular attraction to natural environments (Bird 2007b;
Lester and Russell 2008).
A growing body of research indicates a direct connection between daily exposure to natural
outdoor environments and individual health, including increased attention, improved fitness
and motor functioning and lower sickness rates. Pretty and others (2009) cite a number
of researchers who have demonstrated that outdoor play, especially in more natural
environments, gives children a sense of freedom, healthier personal development, increased
cognitive functioning, emotional resilience, and opportunities for self-discovery.
Children who play outside more, learn to navigate their immediate environments and build
their self- confidence (Open University 2011). Children who do not play outside can have fewer
social networks, can be less confident and be less involved in their local community (Gleave
2010). When young children play freely in natural environments they are more likely to enjoy
nature as they grow up (Pretty and others 2009; HC Netherlands 2004).
Beunderman (2010) found evidence of children acquiring life skills through playing outside
in their communities, such as sharing, looking out for one another and asking for help. It is
argued that such skills can provide them with a more positive outlook on the neighbourhood
through gaining trust, feeling welcome and knowing others in the community. It seems that
having a place to go, where children are listened to and respected gives them a positive
perception of their local area. Through their engagement in the local environment and with
others in the community, children not only had better relations with adults, but had more
respect for the public arena allowing them to make a positive contribution to their local
neighbourhood.
Decline in community play
Despite evidence documenting the value of neighbourhood play, children’s presence in public
space seems to have declined dramatically in recent decades. Spilsbury (2005) argues that
public space in the USA has come to be recognised as adult space, an argument mirrored
in the UK. According to Spilsbury, high profile cases about child abduction or ‘out of control’
young people have led to ‘moral panic’, responded to by keeping children away from the public
realm. Spilsbury blames the media’s sensationalism of rare murder and abduction cases,
which distract attention away from realistic threats, such as poverty.
Supporting the findings of previous research (Prezza and Pacilli 2007 cited in Lester and
Russell 2008; Hillman, Adams and Whitelegg 1990), the Living Streets study (2009) suggests
that street play has decreased dramatically over time. Only 12 per cent of people over 65
never played out as children, whereas almost half of today’s children never play out. The 2007
Playday opinion poll (ICM and Playday 2007) also documented a decline in street play showing
that, while 71 per cent of adults reportedly played outside every day as children, only 21 per
cent of today’s children claim to do so. Parents no longer believe that playing outdoors is safe
for their children. In fact, according to the 2006 Children’s Society research, 43 per cent of
adults felt that children should not be allowed out unsupervised under the age of 14, and 22
per cent thought children should not venture out alone until they are 16 years old (cited in
Living Streets 2009).
15
Concerns about children in public space have contributed to the decline of community play
in the USA as well as in the UK. A number of studies in the USA have found that parents
adopt a variety of strategies to protect their children from the perceived danger of violence
in the neighbourhood. This includes enforcing curfews, accompanying children around the
neighbourhood or restricting their free play and mobility in the local area. A study from
the USA shows that of 482 parents from disadvantaged communities, nearly half reported
that they kept their children in as much as possible (Fursternberg and others 1999 cited in
Spilsbury 2005). Similarly, Outley and Floyd (2002 cited in Spilsbury 2005) note that 10 and 11
year olds living in a socially isolated area in Houston, USA have restrictions imposed on them
and found that this constrained children’s participation and exploration of the local play and
leisure facilities.
In a study in Canada, Irwin and others (2007) found that the majority of parents characterised
their neighbourhood as unsafe and felt that their local neighbours could not be trusted to
look after their children. This lack of trust drove children away from the community spaces
because adults chose indoor activities for their children rather than outdoor play. These
views were mirrored in the children’s perspectives, many of them expressing their anxiety
about their safety in the local neighbourhood, particularly in relation to ‘stranger danger’, and
this prevented them from playing outside.
Valentine (2004) conducted a two-year study examining parental views of children’s use of
public space. Her research showed that child abduction was the major concern for most
parents. Nearly two-thirds of parents (63 per cent) believed that abductions were more likely
to be carried out by a stranger. In reality, the number of child abduction cases remains low
and children are far more likely to be harmed by a trusted adult in the private realm, than by a
stranger in their local community (Gill 2007; Valentine 2004).
Coupled with the concern for children’s welfare in public space, is the idea that children
themselves can be the cause of concern in the community. Play England’s findings from
the Playday 2007 research found that 51 per cent of children had been told, by adults, to
stop playing in the streets or area near their home. Crawford’s findings (2009) show that
despite perceptions of children as a threat when they congregate in groups, to the children
themselves this gives them a sense of security. Eighty-two per cent of children stated that
gathering in groups made them feel safer. Crawford is critical of the lack of distinction in the
minds of adults between young people socialising in public space and anti-social behaviour.
Negative attitudes towards children have led to the banning of activities that appeal to
younger people, such as ball games and skateboarding in community space (Worpole and
Knox 2007). Worpole and Knox argue that children must have opportunities for outdoor play
that stretch beyond fixed playground equipment in order for them to participate fully in the
community and develop a sense of belonging.
Living Streets (2009) provide evidence that the decline in use of the street and public
space has led to poor neighbourhood relations. Their 2009 study found that 72 per cent of
respondents aged 65 and over stated that, when they had a young family, they knew at least
five of their neighbours well enough to engage in conversation. Of today’s parents, more than
a quarter knew fewer than two of their neighbours.
Addressing children’s absence in their communities
The Demos publication, Seen and Heard, argues that children must be valued in public space
and that they must be allowed to have safe, informal areas where they can hang out
16
without adult supervision. Demos promote ‘the importance of the everyday public realm
as a legitimate site for children and young people’s informal recreation, and a dimension
of wellbeing’ (Beunderman and others 2007: 113). This should stretch across all aspects of
public space, beyond playgrounds and include all community members, regardless of age. They
advocate traffic calming measures to help open up public space to children.
Elsewhere, Elsley (2004) contends that three issues must be addressed in order to increase
the contribution of young people in public space. Firstly, methods must be used to ensure
children’s active participation in everyday practice (including participatory activities by
seeking and providing information to engage in formal structures or organisations); this
should be monitored by national agencies as an indication of good community participation.
Secondly, more consideration should be put into planning and development policy aimed at
improving the public realm for young people, by noting how children wish to use public space.
This should take into consideration children’s age-related needs and the diversity of children’s
experiences. Finally, policy makers should ensure that public policy is influenced by children’s
perceptions, so it accurately represents children’s views, rather than making assumptions
about these.
Beunderman (2010) illustrates the importance of staffed play provision as offering safe
opportunities for free play. While public space can offer a hostile environment for children,
staffed provision allows children to ‘roam free’ and socialise with peers without the overriding
concerns of unsupervised play. Beunderman is careful not to belittle the importance of
unsupervised play within the community, but suggests that staffed provision can provide a
unique and important contribution to local play opportunities. It is important not to confuse
staffed play provision with structured activities, as only within the former do children have
the opportunity to direct their own play and create their own boundaries. Staffed play
provision can help nurture adult–child relationships and establish a sense of trust that is
often absent in the current social context.
In Beunderman’s study parents, like children and playworkers, were able to articulate their
experiences of how play provision had benefited them and transformed the local community.
Through this, parents had created social bonds with their neighbours and established
support networks. This was particularly valuable for parents living in deprived areas were
there may be more feelings of isolation. In fact, some parents noted that good-quality play
provision was an important factor in deciding which community they chose to live in. Parents
also claimed that the presence of staffed play provision had contributed to a greater sense
of community by uniting different social groups and bringing neighbours together, and it also
offered a vital setting for community involvement.
Play provision needs to offer opportunities for cooperative play, modelling behaviour, conflict
resolution and turn-taking as well as more obvious motor skills. Playground features should
allow children to develop their own ideas and activities at their own pace (Gummer 2010).
Modifying the play features in a playground has been shown to increase physically active play
(Hughes 2007). To be active, children need sufficient space and age-appropriate equipment,
and features to allow them to move around fast and slowly, change direction and manipulate
their environment (Thigpen 2007).
17
Section 7: Time to play
Undervaluing time to play
The previous sections have provided compelling evidence that play is a vital part of children’s
development and is fundamental for every child (Ginsburg 2006 cited in BTHA 2011). It
was widely acknowledged that, not only is play a fundamental children’s right but it is also
central to childhood, offering children choice, autonomy and control, and frequent enjoyable
experiences they want to repeat and develop. Playing has also been linked to overcoming
fears in everyday situations, decision making, discovering interests, brain development
and enhancing academic learning (Lester and Russell 2008; Jenkinson 2001). We have also
examined how playing in local communities and in natural environments is particularly
beneficial, but how unwelcoming attitudes towards children, coupled with fears of the public
realm have restricted community play. As Shier puts it: ‘Play is not a public service, much
less a commodity. Play is a natural and universal human impulse … adults never have to make
children play, and only rarely do we have to help children play. Adults have to let children play’
(Shier 2010: 19).
Another issue that appears to restrict children’s opportunities for playing is the replacement
of free, self-directed play, with structured or educational activities (Hofferth and Sandberg
2000). American writer David Elkind claims the role of free play in physical and psychological
well-being has been ‘overlooked’ in many areas. He states: ‘School administrators and
teachers – often backed by goal-orientated politicians and parents – broadcast the not-sosuitable message that these days play seems superfluous, that at bottom play is for slackers,
that if kids must play, they should at least learn something while they are doing it’ (Elkind
2008: 1).
He claims that because of this, play has become an ‘unaffordable luxury’ in modern society,
pushed aside to make way for organised activities that are seen as more educational, or
television and gaming technology that has taken over from more traditional forms of play. He
points to research from the USA in 2007 suggesting that young children of preschool age are
watching around two hours of television a day (Elkind 2008).
Although evidence suggests that extracurricular activities can enhance academic
achievement, play experts have expressed concern that children’s free time has become
associated only with learning, rather than enjoyment of play itself. This is by no means a
new concept, as Elkind stated in the 1980s: ‘Our traditional conception of play was that of
free, spontaneous, and self-initiated activity that reflected the abundant energy of healthy
child development. Today, however, that conception of play has been relegated to the early
childhood years. For school aged children, play is now identified with learning and with the
preparation for adult life’ (Elkind, unpublished cited in Lego Learning Institute 2002: 6).
Oksnes (2008) reflects on her own research in Norway, analysing children’s perceptions of
play in relation to a ‘spare time programme’, which provides provision for children before and
after school. She conducted focus groups with children aged seven and eight years old and
observed children’s play in the programme over a three-week period. From the data collected,
it became clear that the children’s definition of play and leisure time was relatively ambiguous,
and there was ultimately no agreement over what was meant by it. There was a general
consensus that leisure time is associated with playing, freedom and the ability to do as they
18
wish under their own direction, rather than an activity that is compulsory or under adult
control. For this reason (and despite children’s high regard for the programme), the children
viewed neither school time nor the spare time programme as ‘leisure time’. Rather, the
programme provided a safe alternative for children to go to while their parents worked fulltime. This evidence suggests that although children can enjoy organised activities, children
do not necessarily view it as ‘leisure time’ or ‘free time’. This evidence suggests that making
time for free, unstructured play is important, even if children have access to more formal
recreational activities.
More recently, Oksnes draws on theoretical work to discuss the role of play in children’s
lives. Play and leisure time have been described as ‘instrumentalised’ (Oksnes 2008) in the
sense that it is simply viewed as a means of learning, rather than something to be enjoyed.
This, it is argued, caused the development of ‘good’ or ‘correct’ forms of play that contribute
towards children’s academia or prepares them with life skills, rather than merely playing for
enjoyment’s sake. Mayall uses the term the ‘scholarisation of childhood’ to describe the idea
that academic learning has crossed into all aspects of children’s lives (Mayall 2000).
Elsewhere, Thomas and Hocking (2003 cited in Lester and Russell 2008) argue that the
replacement of self-directed play with organised leisure activities undermines the very
nature of ‘play’ because it reduces the control children exercise over their free time. This
is backed by research from Italy that shows that the essence of ‘play’ is the ability to ‘lose’
sense of time through one’s own experience of the world as a place of ‘mystery, risk and
adventure’ (Tonucci 2005 cited in Lester and Russell 2008). Structured activity, Tonucci
argues, reduces the element of independence to make way for more adult control.
When children do have free time away from school and unstructured activities, other
commitments, such as homework, mean that children can rarely use this time for free play.
A recent survey (Gill 2011) found that 55 per cent of children felt that their time to play
was restricted by homework. The same study found that 36 per cent of children played
with their friends, outside of school, once every two weeks or less. This is a sharp contrast
to their parents, of which 80 per cent reported that they saw their friends at least a few
times a week when they were children. When asked what they played, children most commonly
referred to computer games consoles, despite also stating that they would prefer to spend
more time engaging in more traditional active play, such as riding bikes or skateboards.
Zeiher believes that while places specifically designed for play can be attractive to children
and important for their social life, they can also limit children to certain activities, often doing
the same things each day. For this reason ‘the children see no necessity to overcome these
restrictions by exploring new activities or going elsewhere to pursue them’ (Zeiher 2003).
However, Zeiher contends that children do exercise control over their free time through
choosing whether to visit the play areas.
Research carried out by Armitage (2004 cited in Lester and Russell 2008), found that children
value time spent away from adults and actively seek public areas that can offer this. However,
a number of commentators believe that children are spending less of their time in public
spaces away from adults (Mayall 2000). Armitage (2004 cited in Lester and Russell 2008) has
argued that more resources should be allocated to children’s free play, but that they are
instead channelled towards more supervised forms of activities.
Over-scheduling children’s time could have implications for their health. Research from the
late 1990s indicates that hectic schedules disrupt sleeping patterns and that pressure of
19
homework and household chores have led to increased stress levels in adolescents
(Melman and others 2007). Rosenfeld used the term ‘hyper-parenting’ to describe an
apparent phenomenon whereby parents aim for perfection from their children, encouraging
extracurricular activities at the expense of the imagination and creativity that is brought
about by free-play (Rosenfeld and Wise 2001).
Time to play in schools
In the 1990s, research carried out by Blatchford found that while school days were getting
longer, break times, including lunchtime, had been significantly shortened. His research shows
that children valued break times during school because it offers a level of freedom from the
rules and regulations of the rest of the school day. Confirming previous research, he argued
that playtime is often regarded as problematic, and had been cut down to make more time
for the National Curriculum. This means the positive experience that most of the children had
during breaks was often being overlooked. He suggested that changing the arrangements of
break times, including altering the length of the breaks, should take children’s high regard for
this time into account.
The reduction in school playtimes may be a result of negative attitudes towards giving
children time to play in school. Pellegrini (2008) argues that playtime is perceived as a waste
of time that could be spent on academic forms of learning (Pellegrini and Holmes in Singer
and others 2006). However, according to Pellegrini and Holmes, eliminating or reducing break
times is counterproductive as this may be the only opportunity children have to let off
steam and socialise with their peers. Therefore, break times at school are both important
and educational. In fact Pellegrini has argued that ‘playful’ breaks from learning, that is,
unstructured breaks, actually improve, rather than hinder, cognitive performance (Pellegrini
2008).
Reducing playtime at school, some writers have argued, can also have implications for
children’s physical health. According to research carried out in north-west England, children
accomplish around a third of their recommended daily amount of physical activity during
school break times. The researchers conclude: ‘These data indicate that recess provided a
salient opportunity for children to take part in physical activity of different intensities and
provide them with a context to achieve minimum daily physical activity guidelines’ (Ridgers and
others 2005: 105).
Similarly, Mackett (2004 cited in Blatchford and Baines 2006) argues that school break times
are the primary opportunity for children to exercise and so physical activity will decrease if
school break times are reduced. He argues that the replacement of unstructured play with
structured activities outside of school hours will not balance this, as children are frequently
driven to and from these activities meaning that less physical activity is carried out.
Furthermore, break times seem to offer children a unique opportunity for peer interaction,
Blatchford and others (2002) found that playground games act as a ‘scaffold’ for building
and supporting social relationships. Elsewhere, Blatchford and Baines (2010) highlight the
importance of break time games for forming group identities.
The empirical evidence presented here illustrating the positive implications of break times,
not only for academic achievement but also in terms of social skills and physical development,
provides a strong argument that break times should be an important aspect of the school
day. Pellegrini argues that it is in children’s interests to extend the length of school break
times. Physical education classes, he argues, would not provide the same benefits, as the
children are under instruction without the kind of peer interaction and self-direction that
can only be achieved through play (Pellegrini 2008).
20
Conclusion
The evidence in this review underlines what many of us know both instinctively and through
our own life experiences that a world without play would be a much poorer place for
everyone. Play is not only important for children’s physical, psychological and social wellbeing and development but also for the wider community and society. The review highlights
the importance of children having access to play spaces in their local communities, and the
importance of adults having positive attitudes towards children playing freely outside, to a
wider sense of well-being. The report also illustrates the competing demands on children’s
time and how time to play freely is limited. This has serious consequences for children’s health
and well-being.
Proving a direct causal relationship between play, health, cognition and well-being is not
easy as there are many overlapping variables including genetic or environmental conditions.
However, there is a strong and growing body of evidence illustrating a link between these
factors, and play evidently has a beneficial role in children’s lives. The benefits of play are both
immediate and long term, and contribute to all aspects of children’s health and development
including their physical and mental well-being, their educational development, brain
development, and opportunities for language development, spatial and mathematical learning,
creativity, and identity formation (Coalter and Taylor 2001). It provides a place to ‘experiment
with the acquisition of new skills, the complexity of relationships, taking risks, and thinking
about complicated ideas’ (Hubbuck 2009: 128). Giving children the time and space for play
must be taken seriously. While the importance of education in childhood is widely recognised,
what is less acknowledged is that free play may be the most natural and effective form of
learning and is also vital for children’s happiness.
If children’s health and well-being is to be safeguarded through the provision of high quality
spaces and facilities for play, local authorities, voluntary organisations and their partners
must be careful not to lose or dispose of local outdoor facilities, and there should be greater
emphasis in planning and housing redevelopment on the preservation of good-quality
public space, where children feel safe and where they can congregate and play without
being considered a nuisance by neighbours and other users. If social barriers, such as fear,
embarrassment or discriminatory attitudes, as well as physical barriers, are addressed, then
accessible play spaces can be created for both disabled and non-disabled children (Dunn
2004).
Play is a fundamental human right for all children, regardless of age, gender, culture, social
class or disability. This must be reflected in a range of play environments that offer children,
who are otherwise disadvantaged, with experiences that help improve their quality of life.
Free staffed provision offers children a range of play experiences and relationships, and gives
parents the confidence to know that their children are safe and enjoying themselves. The
Marmot Review (2011) aims to minimise health inequalities by reducing the link between low
socio-economic groups and poor health. The report argues that intervention must start in
early years and continue throughout childhood. This involves high investment into early-years
settings and improving links between schools, families and communities, such as extended
school activities. Policy and practice should adopt a holistic approach to children’s well-being,
teaching them broader life skills and supporting them across all aspects of their lives.
21
However, the literature suggests that it is not enough to merely provide excellent play
opportunities for children. Adults must adopt a culture of tolerance towards children playing,
and children must be given the time they need to engage in free play. By understanding play
only as a tool for achieving other outcomes, such as learning or fitness, we are in danger of
losing sight of the essence of play itself, with the result that ‘play’ becomes transformed into
structured activities with clear goals and aims rather than something that is self-directed,
enjoyable and instinctive. It is only by following their own rules, in their own time, can children
fully reap the benefits of playing. As Lester and Russell conclude:
‘We must exercise caution and not make it too much an object of adult gaze. Children’s play
belongs to children; adults should tread lightly when considering their responsibilities in
this regard, being careful not to colonise or destroy children’s own places for play through
insensitive planning or the pursuit of other adult agendas, or through creating places and
programmes that segregate children and their play.
Adults should be aware of the importance of play and take action to promote and protect
the conditions that support it. The guiding principle is that any intervention to promote play
acknowledges its characteristics and allows sufficient flexibility, unpredictability and security
for children to play freely.’
(Lester and Russell 2010: 46)
A world that understands and supports children’s play is a world that is likely to be healthier,
more vital, more alive and happier than a world without play.
22
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