Shot Through the Heart and I’m OK: Procainamide Cardioversion of Recent-Onset Atrial Fibrillation in the Emergency Department Optimist I’m in love. Heart Palpitations Pessimist I’m dying. Molly Curran, Pharm.D. PGY1 Pharmacy Resident Department of Pharmacy, University Health System, San Antonio, TX Division of Pharmacotherapy, The University of Texas at Austin College of Pharmacy Pharmacotherapy Education and Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio January 9, 2015 Learning Objectives 1. Describe the pathophysiology and treatment strategies for pharmacological management of atrial fibrillation 2. Identify electrophysiological effects of procainamide and its effects on cardiac conduction 3. Discuss patient outcomes in emergency department management of recent-onset atrial fibrillation patients with intravenous procainamide 4. Formulate an evidence-based recommendation for role of intravenous procainamide in recent-onset atrial fibrillation patients I. Atrial Fibrillation (AF) A. Introduction 1–4 1. Most common supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) 2. Characterized by a fast and irregular heart rhythm B. Incidence/Prevalence1,2,4,5 1. Between 2.7 and 6.1 million Americans are affected by AF 2. In US, overall prevalence 0.4 to 1% a. Increases with: i. Age (8% for patients >80 years old) ii. Heart failure (50% for patients in New York Heart Association [NYHA] Stage IV) 3. Aging population in US; prevalence will increase 4. Lifetime risk for those ≥40 years old is 1 in 4 C. Characteristics1,2,4 1. Results from multiple reentrant loops in atria a. In normal conduction, one impulse is spread throughout heart to create regular rhythm Figure 1. Mechanism of AF1,2,4 Multiple electrical wavelets appear simulataneously in atria Rapid and disorganized atrial activation No synchronized contraction of atria Variable AV activation Irregular ventricle activation Irregularly irregular Pulse Figure 2. Comparison of Conduction Pathways7 Normal electrical conduction Atrial fibrillation Reprinted from: http://www.yalesurgery.org 2. “AF begets AF”1,2,7 a. May be harder to terminate long episodes because long-term tachycardia may induce mechanical and/or electrical remodeling D. Complications1,2,4 1. Thromboembolic events (stroke) due to: a. Stasis of blood in atrial appendage b. Poorly adherent mural thrombi c. Risk higher for AF lasting >48 hours d. Validated tool for assessing risk is CHA2DS2-VASc score (Appendix A) 2. Hemodynamic instability with hypotension, acute coronary syndrome or pulmonary edema medical emergency 3. Worsening left ventricular diastolic dysfunction due to: a. Loss of atrial kick 4. Mortality rate with AF is approximately double that for patients in normal sinus rhythm (NSR) E. AF Classification 1. Based on duration of episode M. Curran | 2 Table 1. Atrial Fibrillation Classifications1,2,8 Recent-Onset AF <48 hours in duration Paroxysmal AF Terminates spontaneously or with intervention within 7 days of onset Recurrent AF Longstanding Persistent AF Persistent AF Two or more episodes Continuous AF of AF lasting >7 days Continuous AF >12 months of duration Permanent AF No more active attempts to restore/ maintain sinus rhythm F. Etiology 1. Often occurs in association with disease states that cause atrial stretch/distension1,2,4 a. Myocardial ischemia/infarction b. Hypertensive heart disease c. Valvular disorders d. Acute pulmonary embolism e. Congenital abnormalities f. Lung disease pulmonary hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) 2. High adrenergic tone is also associated with AF1,2,8 a. Thyrotoxicosis b. Surgery c. Alcohol withdrawal d. Sepsis e. Excessive physical exertion G. Clinical Presentation 1. May present with a variety of symptoms including:2,8,9 a. Light-headedness b. Fatigue c. Breathlessness d. Palpitations e. Chest-tightness/pain 2. Obtain a thorough history at presentation1,2,9–11 a. Time of onset b. Previous history of AF episodes/treatments c. Home medications - focusing on antiarrhythmic agents, anticoagulants d. Cardiac history including: i. Previous electrocardiogram (ECG) ii. Prior myocardial infarction iii. Congestive heart failure iv. Hypertension e. Assess thromboembolic risk factors via CHA2DS2-VASc score (Appendix A) 3. Clinical findings1,2,4,9,12 a. Irregularly irregular heart rhythm Figure 3. ECG Findings in AF13 Reprinted from: http://ambulancetechnicianstudy.co.uk b. Heart rate fluctuates between 110 and 180 beats per minute (BPM) c. Typically hemodynamically stable II. Pharmacological Management of AF A. Emergency Management11,12,14,15 1. Assess potential for hemodynamic instability 2. Identify and treat underlying/precipitating cause of AF 3. Assess patient history for risk of thromboembolism 4. Consider emergent cardioversion with expert consultation M. Curran | 3 B. Chronic Management: Rate v. Rhythm Control16–22 1. Rate control a. Target ventricular rate control i. Resting heart rate <80 BPM ii. Six minute walk test <110 BPM 2. Rhythm control a. Variety of antiarrhythmic agents available to maintain NSR 3. Evidence16–22 a. Does not address management of recent-onset AF b. Five randomized controlled trials examine rate v. rhythm for patients with chronic AF (Appendix B) i. Largest trial focused on patients ≥65 years old ii. No significant difference in mortality between rate v. rhythm management in any individual trial iii. Meta-analysis of results found a trend towards better outcomes with rate control driven by large patient population in atrial fibrillation follow-up investigation of rhythm management (AFFIRM) trial Figure 4. Odds Ratios for the End Point of All-cause Mortality in Major Rate v. Rhythm Control Trials16 Trial HOT CAFE PIAF RACE STAF AFFIRM Combined Rate 1/101 2/125 18/256 8/100 310/2027 339/2609 Rhythm 3/104 2/127 18/266 4/100 356/2033 383/2630 Percentage 13.0 14.6 OR, 0.87 (95% CI; 0.74 - 1.02), P = .09 0.1 1 Rate Control Better 10 Rhythm Control Better iv. Increased rates of hospitalization in rhythm control 1) Attributed to side effects of antiarrhythmic drugs v. Limitations of trials 1) Did not include patients with a) Paroxysmal AF at low risk of recurrence b) Recent-onset AF c) Low risk of thromboembolism d) Heart failure 2) All open-label trials 3) Compared treatment strategies, not treatment agents C. Anticoagulation 1. Initiate if AF lasts >48 hours and patient has risk factors for stroke with CHA2DS2-VASc score1 III. Clinical Practice - Guidelines A. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS AF Guideline1 1. Initial rate control strategy is reasonable for many patients, but there are several considerations for selecting rhythm control a. Persistent symptoms b. Younger patients c. Difficulty achieving rate control d. First episode of AF e. AF precipitated by acute illness f. Patient preference 2. Recommendations for pharmacological cardioversion a. Flecainide, dofetilide, propafenone, or intravenous ibutilide are recommended for pharmacological cardioversion of AF provided contraindications to the selected drug are absent (Level of Evidence: A; Class Ia recommendation) b. Amiodarone is a reasonable option for pharmacological cardioversion of AF (Level of Evidence: A; Class IIa recommendation) 3. Changes from 2006 recommendations8 a. Procainamide/quinidine were removed b. Previously stated that both agents may be used for pharmacological cardioversion of AF, but that their usefulness was not established M. Curran | 4 c. Included the need to assess patient for contraindications to agents d. Removed definitive timeline for cardioversion effectiveness i. Previously within 7 days of AF episode onset B. 2010 AHA Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care11 1. Management of AF should focus on ventricular rate control, conversion of hemodynamically unstable AF to sinus rhythm or both a. Stable patients require ventricular rate control with IV beta-blockers or nondihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (such as diltiazem) 2. Electric or pharmacological cardioversion should not be attempted unless patient is unstable 3. Alternatively, may elect cardioversion after anti-coagulation with heparin and performance of transesophageal echocardiography to ensure absence of a left atrial thrombus 4. No specific agent recommendations for cardioversion i. Variety of agents are effective ii. Recommend consulting an expert C. Canadian Cardiovascular Society AF Guidelines 2010: Management of Recent-Onset Atrial Fibrillation and Flutter in the Emergency Department (ED)9 1. ED should assess instability, identify and treat an underlying or precipitating cause, and assess a patient’s risk of a thromboembolic event 2. May consider rate or rhythm control a. If choosing rhythm control, there are several drug options that may be considered Table 2. 2010 Canadian Cardiovascular Society’s Recommended Drugs for Pharmacologic Conversion in the ED9 Drug Procainamide Propafenone Flecainide Ibutilide Dose 15–17 mg/kg IV over 60 min 450–600 mg PO 300–400 mg PO 1–2 mg IV over 10–20 min; pretreat with 1–2 g IV magnesium sulfate Efficacy ++ +++ +++ ++ Risks 5% hypotension Hypotension, 1:1 flutter, bradycardia Hypotension, 1:1 flutter, bradycardia 2–3% torsades de pointes 3. Amiodarone and sotalol are not recommended for recent-onset AF a. No more effective than placebo in initial 6–8 hours b. Associated with adverse reactions IV. Recent-onset AF Management in the ED A. Strategies for ED management of AF 1. Aggressive treatment = rhythm control12,23,24 a. Methods utilized in the ED include 25 i. Direct current cardioversion (DCC)25 1) Preferred method for unstable patients 2) Requires use of procedural sedation and fasting ii. Pharmacological cardioversion 26 1) Typically lower conversion rates to sinus rhythm than DCC 2) Use limited by adverse effects of medications 3) Preferred agent varies by country a) IV procainamide preferred in Canada b) IV amiodarone preferred in US, UK, Australia 4) If successful, patient may be discharged home 5) Less commonly pursued in US than Canada (26% v. 65.9%) Table 3. Benefits and Risks of Aggressive Treatment Approach in the ED1,9,12 Benefits • Improved quality of life • No hospitalization • No tachycardiomyopathy Risks • Thromboembolic event • Ventricular arrhythmias 2. Conservative treatment = rate control or observation approach12,23,24 a. Pursue rate control with anticoagulation in patients at risk for thromboembolic event b. May alternatively consider allowing patient to convert spontaneously c. Many centers admit patients to inpatient cardiology service M. Curran | 5 Table 4. Benefits and Risks of Conservative Treatment Approach in the ED1,9,27 Benefits Risks • Lesser chance of ◦◦ thromboembolic event ◦◦ ventricular arrhythmia • Hospitalization • Symptoms of AF may continue • Tachycardiomyopathy B. Economic Perspective on ED Rhythm Control of AF 1. If successful, patients can be discharged home from the ED1,27,28 a. Benefits: minimal disruption of patient’s quality of life, reduced healthcare costs 2. Median costs for patients28 a. Cardioverted and discharged from the ED: $5,460 b. Admitted with no attempt at cardioversion: $23,202 C. ED Management Protocols 1. Canadian Cardiovascular Society AF Guidelines 2010: Management of Recent-onset Atrial Fibrillation and Flutter in the ED based on Ottawa Hospital protocol for AF management in the ED9,27 Figure 5. Details of Ottawa Protocol for ED Patients with Recent-onset AF27 Assessment Patient stable without ischemia, hypotension or acute CHF? Onset clear and less than 48 hours? Anticoagulated with warfarin and INR therapeutic? Severity of symptoms? Previous episodes and treaments? Rate Control Diltiazem IV Metoprolol IV If highly symptomatic or not planning to convert Pharmacological cardioversion Procainamide IV 1 g over 60 minutes Hold if SBP <100 mmHg Electrical cardioversion Consider keeping patient NPO for 6 hr Procedural sedation/analgesia per ED physician 150–200 J biphasic, synchronized shock Anticoagulation No heparin/warfarin if onset clearly <48 hr or if therapeutic INR >3 weeks Disposition Home within 1 hour of cardioversion No antiarrhythmic prophylaxis or anticoagulation If 1st episode, arrange outpatient echocardiography/ cardiology follow-up For 2nd or future episodes, arrange cardiology follow-up Patients not treated with cardioversion Achieve rate control (HR <100 BPM) Discharge home on rate control medication/anticoagulation Arrange follow up outpatient echocardiography and cardiology for elective cardioversion M. Curran | 6 2. Retrospective cohort study evaluated the efficacy and safety of the Ottawa Aggressive Protocol a. Results cited in 2010 guidelines management recommendations Stiell IG, et al. Association of the Ottawa Aggressive Protocol with rapid discharge of emergency department patients with recent-onset atrial fibrillation or flutter. Can J Emerg Med 2010; 12:181-91.27 Overview Objective To examine the efficacy and safety of the Ottawa Aggressive Protocol for patients with recent-onset episodes of atrial fibrillation and flutter for patients treated between Trial design Retrospective consecutive cohort study using ED health records at Ottawa Hospital Civic Campus Patients Inclusion criteria • Primary diagnosis of recent-onset AF or flutter • Underwent aggressive attempt at cardioversion Exclusion criteria • Permanent AF diagnosis • Symptoms >48 hours/unknown duration • Other diagnosis requiring hospital admission Outcomes Primary • Proportion of conversion to sinus rhythm before discharge from the ED • Length of stay in the ED • Final disposition (home or hospital admission) • Adverse events: hypotension or arrhythmia Secondary • Death • Stroke • Relapse to AF within 7 days of index ED visit Interventions All patients were managed by ED physicians using the Ottawa Aggressive Protocol (see Figure 6) • Rate control was often omitted per protocol unless highly symptomatic • Pharmacological cardioversion with procainamide infusion 1g IV over 60 minutes ◦◦ Not used if patient is unstable or previous visits indicate resistance to agent • Electrical cardioversion if pharmacological cardioversion fails Results Baseline characteristics Primary outcomes • AF patients, N = 628 • Mean age (range): 64.6 years (19–92) • Primary presenting symptom, n (%): palpitations 491 (78.2) • Past medical history, n (%): previous AF, 526 (83.8); coronary heart disease, 267 (42.5) • Previous successful conversion with procainamide, n (%): 305 (48.6%) • Number of ED visits during study period: ◦◦ One, n = 341; two, n = 108; three, n = 54; four or more, n = 153 Efficacy of Ottawa Aggressive Protocol Table 5. Rates of Successful Cardioversion n (%) Procainamide only 376 (59.9) Procainamide and electrical cardioversion 203 (32.3) • Median (interquartile range, IQR) arrival to discharge, all AF patients, hr: 4.8 (3.3) • Median (IQR) arrival to discharge, AF patients successfully cardioverted with procainamide, hr: 3.9 (2.2) Table 6. Patient Disposition from ED Disposition Home in NSR Home Admitted to hospital n (%) 567 (90.3) 609 (97) 19 (3) Safety of Ottawa Aggressive Protocol • Hypotension (SBP <100 mmHg) in AF patients, n (%): 46 (7.3) • Arrhythmias, n (%) ◦◦ AV Block: 2 (0.3) ◦◦ Ventricular tachyarrhythmia: 1 (0.2) ◦◦ Atrial tachyarrhythmia: 2 (0.3) • No torsades de pointes observed M. Curran | 7 Secondary outcomes • No deaths or strokes were observed • AF relapse within 7 days, n (%): 55 (8.8) Conclusions Author’s conclusions • Recent-onset AF can be can be safely and quickly treated with medications or electrical cardioversion in the ED • Procainamide has an excellent safety profile • Rhythm control resulted in few adverse effects Strengths • Largest reported study of an aggressive ED treatment strategy for patients with recent-onset AF or atrial flutter • Reported outcomes separately for AF v. flutter patients • Majority of primary outcomes were objective variables that minimize potential bias • Reviewed relapse rates at 7 days • Evaluated adverse effects – thromboembolic event rate Limitations • Observational, retrospective study • Only reported results in descriptive statistics - proportions, means, medians, IQR ◦◦ No 95% confidence intervals or significance tests • Cardiology literature generally reports 30 day outcomes • Did not report cardioversion rates for patients with repeat visits • Limited information about excluded patients (n = 400) who did not receive aggressive management Take-home points • Ottawa Aggressive Protocol is highly effective for initial conversion of recent-onset AF patients • No thromboembolic events were reported with 660 ED cardioversions • Few new, dangerous arrhythmias observed • Majority of patients (97%) discharged home i. Provided evidence for IV procainamide as part of an aggressive management protocol ii. Many pharmacoeconomic implications for patients 1) healthcare cost 2) quality of life V. Focus on Antiarrhythmic Agents and Procainamide A. Cardiac Electrophysiology 1. Definitions2,29 a. Conduction velocity: speed with which an electrical impulse can be transmitted through the heart b. Refractory period: period of depolarization and repolarization of the cell membrane after excitation i. Cell is unable to respond to a second stimulus during this period c. Automaticity: capacity of cell to initiate an impulse without an external stimulus Figure 6. Ion Channels and the Effect of Class Ia Antiarrhythmic Agents on Cardiac Depolarization 2,30,31 0 mV –85 mV Na+ Ca2+ Na+ 3 Na+ Outside ATP Membrane Inside K+ Channel currents K+ Ca2+ Pump Exchanger K+ Na+ Ca2+ “Leak” currents Adapted from: http://www.cvpharmacology.com M. Curran | 8 Table 7. Role of Ion Channels in Cardiac Depolarization2,30 Open Phase 0: Depolarization Closed • Fast Na+ channels: allow Na+ ions into cell Phase 1: Peak • Fast Na+ channels Phase 2: Plateau • L-type Ca++ channels: allow Ca++ ions to enter cell • Slow delayed rectifier K+ channels: allow K+ to exit cell Phase 3: Repolarization • Slow delayed rectifier K+ channels: allow K+ to exit cell • Rapid delayed rectifier K+ channels: allow K+ to reenter cell Phase 4: Automaticity • Slow delayed rectifier • Sodium-potassium pump (K+ pump): pumps one Na+ ion out for one K+ channels K+ ion in to maintain electrical gradient • Sodium-calcium exchanger (Ca++ exchanger): exchanges three Na+ ion • Rapid delayed rectifier K+ channels in for one Ca+ ion out to maintain electrical gradient • L-type Ca++ channels B. Vaughan Williams Classification System29 1. Most commonly used classification system for antiarrhythmic drugs 2. Categories are based on dominant electro-physiologic effect 3. Weaknesses32 a. Many antiarrhythmic drugs may fit into multiple categories b. Does not differentiate drugs based on efficacy for different types of arrhythmias c. Additional antiarrhythmic agents are not included in classification i. Digoxin, adenosine, magnesium sulfate Table 8. Vaughan Williams Classification of Antiarrhythmic Agents Studied in Recent-onset AF2,29 Class Drugs Conduction Velocity Refractory Period Automaticity Ion Block Ia Procainamide ê é ê Na (intermediate) K+ Ic Propafenone ê 0 ê Na+ (slow on-off) III Amiodarone Ibutilide 0 é 0 K+ + Adapted from: Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach, 9th Ed. C. Antiarrhythmic drugs utilized in acute management of AF Table 9. Properties of Key Agents Used in Recent-onset AF33 Drug Procainamide34,35 Properties Mechanism of action: Blocks fast sodium channels to prolong atrial conductive tissue recovery after repolarization decreasing impulse conduction velocity in atria, His-Purkinje system and ventricular muscle; also has variable effects on A-V node Pharmacokinetics: Only available as intravenous medication in US; metabolized by acetyltransferase; forms N-acetyl procainamide (NAPA): active metabolite cleared renally; half-life: 2–5 hours; renal elimination Black box warning: Fatal blood dyscrasias; cardiac arrhythmias; systemic lupus erythematosus Major side effects: Hypotension, QT prolongation Ibutilide36 Mechanism of action: Promotes influx of sodium through slow inward sodium channels prolonging action potential duration slowing sinus rate/AV conduction Pharmacokinetics: Intravenous agent; metabolized via oxidation in the liver; has 8 metabolites only one metabolite has antiarrhythmic properties; half-life: 6 hours; renal and fecal elimination Black box warning: Fatal arrhythmias Major side effects: Ventricular tachycardias (e.g. torsades), hypotension, QT prolongation M. Curran | 9 Amiodarone37 Mechanism of action: Inhibits potassium channels during plateau and repolarization phases delaying repolarization of the cell prolonging refractory period; mild inhibition of sodium fast channels slows cell depolarization and impulse conduction; direct depression of sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) node automaticity slowing conduction in His-Purkinje system Pharmacokinetics: Administered intravenously and orally; metabolized in liver via CYP450 enzymes: 3A4, 2C8; half-life: 53 days; hepatic elimination Black box warning: Cardiac arrhythmias; liver disease; pulmonary fibrosis/pneumonitis Major side effects: Hypotension, cardiac arrhythmias, hypersensitivity pneumonitis with long term use - corneal microdeposits, optic neuritis, skin discoloration, hepatic toxicity, thyroid disorders (hypo- and hyper-), peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, tremor Propafenone38 Mechanism of action: Inhibits fast sodium channels increase recovery period after repolarization decreasing conduction velocity and automaticity Pharmacokinetics: Oral agent; metabolized in liver via CYP450 enzymes: 2D6; half-life: ~10 hours; fecal and urine elimination Black box warning: Cardiac arrhythmias Major side effects: Cardiac arrhythmias, bronchospasm, congestive heart failure (CHF) VI. Literature review: Procainamide for Pharmacological Cardioversion of Recent-onset AF in the ED Stiell IG et al. Emergency department use of intravenous procainamide for patients with acute atrial fibrillation or flutter. Acad Emerg Med 2007; 14:1158-64.39 Overview Objective To examine the efficacy and safety of IV procainamide for acute AF or flutter Trial Design Retrospective, consecutive cohort study using ED health records at Ottawa Hospital Civic Campus Patients Inclusion criteria • Primary diagnosis of recent-onset AF or flutter • Received IV procainamide Exclusion criteria • Visits after index visit (1st episode) • Symptoms >48 hours/unknown duration • Chronic AF (permanent or long-standing) • Other diagnosis requiring hospital admission Outcomes Primary • Efficacy: ◦◦ Rate of conversion to sinus rhythm before ED discharge • Safety: ◦◦ Hypotension (SBP <100 mmHg) ◦◦ Bradycardia (HR <60 BPM) ◦◦ Syncope ◦◦ 2nd or 3rd degree heart block ◦◦ Ventricular tachyarrhythmia ◦◦ Atrial tachyarrhythmia ◦◦ Cerebrovascular accident ◦◦ Death Secondary • Time to conversion • Average dose of IV procainamide required • Admission to hospital • QTc prolongation Interventions All patients were managed by ED physicians using the Ottawa Aggressive Protocol (see Figure 5) • Rhythm control is routine care at Ottawa Hospital • Pharmacological cardioversion with procainamide infusion: 1g IV over 60 minutes ◦◦ Discontinued if hypotension persists or bradyarrhythmia occurred • Electrical cardioversion pursued if pharmacological cardioversion failed Results Baseline characteristics • AF patients, N = 316 • Mean age (range): 68 years (19–92) • Primary presenting symptom, n (%): palpitations, 236 (74.7) • Past medical history, n (%): previous AF, 214 (67.7); coronary heart disease, 104 (32.9) • Previous successful conversion with procainamide, n (%): 45 (14.2) M. Curran | 10 Primary outcomes Efficacy of IV procainamide • Successful cardioversion of AF patients with procainamide only, n (%): 165 (52.2) • Successful cardioversion of AF patients with procainamide and electrical cardioversion, n (%): 116 (36.7) ◦◦ Median (range) total number of shocks given: 1 (1–5) • AF patients discharge home in normal sinus rhythm, n (%): 281 (88.9) • AF patients discharged to home, n (%): 299 (94.6) Safety of IV procainamide • Hypotension (SBP <100 mmHg) in AF patients, n (%): 27 (8.5) • Arrhythmias, n (%) ◦◦ Bradycardia (HR <65 BPM): 2 (0.6) ◦◦ AV block: 2 (0.6) ◦◦ Ventricular tachyarrhythmia: 1 (0.3) ◦◦ Atrial tachyarrhythmia: 2 (0.6) • No syncope, cerebrovascular accidents, torsades de pointes, myocardial infarction, or death observed Secondary outcomes • Median (range) time to conversion, min: 55 (2–390) • Mean (range) procainamide dose, mg: 863.9 (250–1,500) • QTc interval mean, ms ◦◦ Pre-conversion: 405.9 ◦◦ Post-conversion: 428 • Admission to hospital, n (%): 17 (15.4) • AF relapse within 7 days, n (%): 9 (2.9) Conclusions Author’s conclusions • IV procainamide is a safe and effective option for treating acute AF in the ED • Procainamide use resulted in median time to conversion <1 hour and brief ED visits • Few significant adverse effects occurred Strengths • Largest review of IV procainamide for AF conversion in the ED • Reported outcomes separately for AF versus flutter patients • Majority of primary outcomes were objective variables that minimize potential bias Limitations • Observational, retrospective study • Only reported results in descriptive statistics: proportions, means, medians ◦◦ No 95% confidence intervals or significance tests • Cardiology literature generally reports 30 day outcomes • May have missed adverse events that occurred after hospital discharge • No comparator antiarrhythmic agents studied Take-home points • Use of IV procainamide in the ED was effective with >50% conversion rate • Procainamide use does not preclude electric cardioversion • Few clinically significant adverse events were reported Volgman AS, et al. Conversion efficacy and safety of intravenous ibutilide compared with intravenous procainamide. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31:1414-9.40 Overview Objective To compare the safety and efficacy of IV ibutilide with IV procainamide for the termination of recent-onset AF or flutter Trial Design Multicenter, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group, active control, repeated-dose design study Patients Inclusion criteria • ≥18 years old • Weighed between 132–300 lb. • No previous exposure to IV ibutilide • Ratio of 6 men:4 women at each study center • AF/flutter persisting >3 hours and <90 days • Hemodynamically stable with QTc interval ≤440 ms • If AF/flutter >3 days, appropriate anticoagulation or transesophageal echocardiography to confirm no atrial clot present • All females were surgically sterile or post menopausal Exclusion criteria • Symptoms of unstable angina or CHF • Abnormal serum Na+ or Mg++ • Serum K+ <4.0 mEq/L • Liver function tests >2x upper limit of normal • SCr >2 mg/min • History of myocardial infarction (MI) in last 30 days, torsades, 2nd or 3rd degree heart block or any serious medical condition that could interfere with results • Amiodarone therapy M. Curran | 11 Outcomes Primary efficacy outcome • Conversion rates of AF and flutter Primary safety outcomes • Mean change from baseline for systolic and diastolic blood pressure • Significant 12-lead ECG changes from baseline • Adverse events requiring termination of study infusions/occurring up to 72 hours after infusion Methods Interventions • 10-minute baseline period before 1st infusion • Treatment initiated for patients still in AF/flutter at end of baseline period • During 30-minute infusion period ◦◦ Blood pressure and HR recorded every 5 min ◦◦ Continuous ECG monitoring • Post-infusion period lasted for 1st 24 hours from end of infusion Ibutilide group • Up to two 10-minute IV infusions of 1 mg ibutilide, separated by 10-minute infusion of dextrose 5% in water (D5W) Procainamide group • Up to three 10-minute IV infusions of 400 mg procainamide Other Considerations • Treatment infusions were discontinued at time of arrhythmia termination or adverse event ◦◦ Threatening arrhythmias or changes in AV conduction, hypotension (decrease in SBP >20 mmHg or SBP <80 mmHg) • AV node blockers (Ca-channel blockers, beta-blockers, digoxin) were permitted for rate control • Class I or Class III antiarrhythmic medications were discontinued at least 5 half-lives before infusion of study medicine • Administration of additional antiarrhythmic medications delayed for 6 hours after end of infusion Results Baseline characteristics • No significant differences between patient populations Table 10. Characteristics of Ibutilide Versus Procainamide Treatment Groups Characteristics Ibutilide group (n = 60) Procainamide group (n = 60) 64.3 67.7 22.3 ± 24.7 9.4 17 ± 23 4.6 22 (38.3) 32 (53.3) Age (years) Mean duration of arrhythmias (days) Median Coronary artery disease, n (%) • Other variables evaluated included: weight, cardiovascular history, gender Efficacy outcome Figure 7. Rate of Successful Conversion of AF and Flutter in the Ibutilide and Procainamide Groups Success rate (%) Primary outcomes 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ** * *** Ibulide Procainamide Combined Fluer Fibrillaon (*p < 0.0001 **p = 0.0001 ***p = 0.005) M. Curran | 12 Primary outcomes (continued) Safety outcomes • Three patients discontinued ibutilide secondary to adverse ECG changes - extra systole, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia, QT prolongation • Three serious medical events occurred in ibutilide group, but all were excluded from analysis ◦◦ Sustained polymorphic ventricular tachycardia ◦◦ Pre-syncope ◦◦ Acute delirium Mean change from baseline (mmHg) Figure 8. Mean Change from Baseline in Systolic Blood Pressure Systolic Blood Pressure 5 Ibutilide Procainamide 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 60 1.5 2 4 6 8 16 24 Time in minutes to 60 minutes, then hours • Statistically significant changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure seen with procainamide infusion until 1.5 hours • Three patients discontinued procainamide due to severe hypotension Conclusions Author’s conclusions • Ibutilide is significantly more effective than procainamide in the acute conversion of AF/flutter • Hypotension is a major adverse effect seen with IV procainamide • Incidence of serious arrhythmias with ibutilide is low Strengths • Prospective study comparing IV procainamide to IV ibutilide with strict inclusion/exclusion criteria • Multicenter study involving 16 hospitals across the US • 72 hour post-infusion adverse effect follow-up Limitations • Included patients with AF up to 90 days in duration • Hypotensive changes from baseline may have been due to aggressive procainamide administration • Post-hoc analysis excluded patients suffering major adverse events from ibutilide group • Hypotension based on change from baseline blood pressure not actual blood pressure readings Take-home points • May have over reported hypotensive effect • Lacks external validity to readily apply results to patients presenting in first 48 hours due to inclusion of patients with longer duration atrial fibrillation • Ibutilide was associated with more serious pro-arrhythmias relative to procainamide Kochiadakis, et al. A comparative study of the efficacy and safety of procainamide versus propafenone versus amiodarone for the conversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 2007; 99:1721-25.41 Overview Objective To compare the safety and efficacy of IV procainamide, propafenone, and amiodarone v. placebo in the restoration of recent-onset AF to NSR Trial Design Randomized, placebo-controlled study Patients Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria • AF <48-hour duration • Cardiac history including recent MI, heart surgery in last 6 months, unstable angina, acute myocarditis/pericarditis, hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy, severe uncontrolled HF, cardiogenic shock • Baseline SBP <100 mmHg • Other comorbidities: COPD, pulmonary embolism, pneumonia, liver or kidney failure, thyroid disease, electrolyte disturbances, digoxin intoxication • Antiarrhythmic therapy (other than digoxin) within <5 half-lives of study drug Outcomes Primary efficacy outcome • Progression rate to sinus rhythm Primary safety outcomes • Adverse events/drop outs during study period M. Curran | 13 Methods Interventions • Patients randomized to receive procainamide, propafenone, amiodarone, or placebo Procainamide group • 1 g IV over 30 minutes, followed by 2 mg/min IV over 24 hours Propafenone group • 2 mg/kg IV over 15 minutes, followed by a total of 10 mg/kg IV over 24 hours Amiodarone group • 300 mg IV over 1 hour, followed by a total of 20 mg/kg IV over 24 hours Placebo group Received an identical amount of IV saline solution over 24 hours Other considerations • All patients received digoxin ◦◦ Initial 0.5 mg IV dose, followed by 0.25 mg after 2 hours and 0.25 mg every 6 hours until completion of anti arrhythmic infusion • Treatment infusions were discontinued at time of arrhythmia termination or adverse event ◦◦ Threatening arrhythmias or changes in AV conduction, hypotension (decrease in SBP >0 mmHg or SBP <80 mmHg) • If NSR not achieved after study drug use, other antiarrhythmic drugs or electric cardioversion attempted after 21 days of anticoagulation therapy • All patients underwent continuous ECG and blood pressure monitoring • Kept under observation ≥2 days before discharge from hospital Results Table 11. Characteristics of Patients Enrolled Baseline characteristics Procainamide (n = 89) Characteristics Age (years) Underlying heart disease, n (%) No. of episodes Amiodarone (n = 92) Placebo (n = 90) 64 ± 10 64 ± 11 65 ± 11 66 ± 9 37 (41.6) 36 (39.6) 39 (42.4) 37 (41.1) 5±5 6±5 5±6 6±6 Efficacy outcome Figure 9. Cumulative Progression of Conversion to NSR 100 80 Drug propafenone 60 % NSR Primary outcomes Propafenone (n = 91) procainamide 40 amiodarone 20 placebo 0 censored 0 6 12 18 24 30 Hours Table 12. Conversion to NSR by group Procainamide (n = 89) Conversion to NSR, n (%) Mean Time to NSR (hours) Propafenone (n = 91) Amiodarone (n = 92) Placebo (n = 90) 61 (68.53) 73 (80.21) 82 (89.13) 55 (61.11) 9 8 12 17 • All 3 drugs superior to placebo in conversion and rate to progression (p < 0.001) M. Curran | 14 Primary outcomes (continued) Safety outcomes • Study treatment discontinued in: ◦◦ One amiodarone patient (allergy) ◦◦ Four propafenone patients (excessive QRS widening) • Significant decreases in blood pressure (SBP <90 mmHg) occurred in 15 amiodarone patients and six procainamide patients ◦◦ All responded to fluids • Phlebitis in 17 amiodarone patients continued treatment at more central site • No proarrhythmic events in any treatment group Conclusions Author’s conclusions • All three agents are effective and safe for restoration of NSR in recent-onset AF • Amiodarone and propafenone are more efficacious than procainamide or placebo • Procainamide and propafenone act more quickly than other agents studied • Lack of serious arrhythmias may be due to stringent exclusion criteria Strengths • Prospective study comparing three commonly used antiarrhythmic agents including amiodarone • Post-hoc Bonferroni analysis conducted to minimize error associated with multiple measurements Limitations • Results possibly confounded by digoxin use • No post-study follow-up regarding adverse event rates • All patients were admitted to hospital for ≥36 hours to complete study Take-home points • Less serious adverse effects with procainamide • Safety of agents may be due to stringent exclusion of cardiac patients • Similar efficacy rate of IV procainamide to studies in AF <48 hours • Administration of fluids may help counteract hypotensive effect of procainamide VII. Summary of Literature A. Efficacy 1. IV procainamide may used for pharmacological cardioversion of recent-onset AF in the ED a. Conversion to NSR occurs ~50 to 60% of patients if used within 48 hours of onset b. Literature supports slow 1 g infusion over 30 to 60 minutes rather than many, smaller, rapid infusions over 10 minutes i. No standardized dosing available ii. Generally administered at rates of <20 mg/min and rate should not exceed 50 mg/min due to risk of hypotension/decreased cardiac output 2. Use of IV procainamide does not prevent immediate use of direct current cardioversion for patients who fail to cardiovert with medication alone 3. If successful, allows for discharge home from the ED within a median time of 3.9 hours B. Safety 1. IV procainamide associated with hypotension a. Literature reports using IV fluids to maintain adequate blood pressure if significant decrease b. Decreases in blood pressure may not always be clinically significant c. Should have close cardiac monitoring during infusion period 2. Few serious arrhythmias noted with procainamide administration compared to other IV antiarrhythmic agents 3. Lower event rates in studies that excluded patients with active cardiovascular disease C. Other Considerations 1. Literature largely driven by Ottawa Hospital and one author, I.G. Stiell 2. No long-term follow-up studies available for patients who undergo pharmacological cardioversion in the ED VIII.Future Directions A. Chemical v. Electrical Cardioversion for Emergency Department Patient with Acute AF 1. Randomized, double-blind clinical trial to compare IV procainamide v. electrical cardioversion in order to determine ED length of stay, conversion rates to sinus rhythm, adverse events up to 30 days after treatment (clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01994070) B. Trial of Electrical Versus Pharmacological Cardioversion for Recent-onset Atrial Fibrillation and Flutter (RAFF) in the ED (RAFF-2) 1. Randomized, single blind trial of 468 RAFF patients to determine if a drug (procainamide) then shock if necessary strategy will lead to more patients being converted to NSR than shock only and additionally, study heart rhythm at discharge, need for hospital admission, ED length of stay, adverse events, patient satisfaction and 14-day follow-up (Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01891058) M. Curran | 15 IX. Conclusions A. No universally accepted approach for the management of acute AF in the ED B. Limited evidence for rhythm control in recent-onset AF patients C. Outcomes in limited trials suggest potential benefit of IV procainamide may outweigh risks (hypotension, arrhythmia in select patients D. Fully consider the risks and benefits of an aggressive approach to management of patients with recent-onset AF in the ED 1. Benefits of rhythm control a. Effects of prolonged AF on quality of life b. No hospitalization c. Reduced healthcare costs d. Tachycardiomyopathy due to long standing AF e. Younger patients f. Patient preference 2. Risks of rhythm control a. Thromboembolic event i. Consider duration of AF 1) If unknown or >48 hours, must rule out atrial thrombi before pursuing aggressive therapy ii. Proarrhythmic episodes due to use of antiarrhythmic agents E. Recommendations 1. Consider IV procainamide in select patients presenting to ED with recent-onset AF 2. Must inform patient of benefits and risks associated with each approach a. Patient preference should be taken into account Figure 10. Proposed Algorithm for Use of IV Procainamide in the ED Hemodynamically stable with symptomatic AF YES Duration > 48 hours or unknown? Proceed with anticoagulation and rate control YES Collect thorough patient history Significant cardiac history? Proceed with anticoagulation and rate control YES Evaluate need for anticoagulation NO NO Identify/address precipitating factors Normal sinus rhythm? NO Consider cardioversion with IV procainamide M. Curran | 16 X. References 1. 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Managing emergency department patients with recent-onset atrial fibrillation. J Emerg Med. 2012;42(2):139-48. 24. Stiell IG, Clement CM, Brison RJ, et al. Variation in management of recent-onset atrial fibrillation and flutter among academic hospital emergency departments. Ann Emerg Med. 2011;57(1):13-21. 25. Burton JH, Vinson DR, Drummond K, et al. Electrical cardioversion of emergency department patients with atrial fibrillation. Ann Emerg Med. 2004;44(1):20-30. 26. Rogenstein C, Kelly AM, Mason S, et al. An international view of how recent-onset atrial fibrillation is treated in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2012;19(11):1255-60. M. Curran | 17 27. Stiell IG, Clement CM, Perry JJ, et al. Association of the Ottawa aggressive protocol with rapid discharge of emergency department patients with recent-onset atrial fibrillation or flutter. CJEM. 2010;12(3):181-91. 28. Sacchetti A, Williams J, Levi S, et al. 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Volgman AS, Carberry PA, Stambler B, et al. Conversion efficacy and safety of intravenous ibutilide compared with intravenous procainamide in patients with atrial flutter or fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;31(6):1414-9. 41. Kochiadakis GE, Igoumenidis NE, Hamilos ME, et al. A comparative study of the efficacy and safety of procainamide versus propafenone versus amiodarone for the conversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99(12):1721-5. Appendix A. CHA2DS2-VASc Score1 Condition Points C Congestive heart failure (CHF) (or left ventricular dysfunction) 1 H Hypertension: blood pressure consistently >140/90 mmHg (or on anti- hypertensive medication for hypertension treatment) 1 A2 Age ≥75 years 2 D Diabetes mellitus 1 S2 Prior stroke or transient ischemic attack or thromboembolism 2 V Vascular disease (e.g. peripheral artery disease, MI, aortic plaque) 1 A Age 65–74 years 1 Sc Sex category (i.e. female sex) 1 Score Risk Anticoagulation Therapy 0 Low No antithrombotic therapy (or aspirin [ASA]) 1 Moderate Oral anticoagulant (or ASA) 2+ High Oral anticoagulant M. Curran | 18 Appendix B. Evidence Table Rate v. Rhythm Control17,19–22 Trial Pharmacological Intervention in Atrial Fibrillation (PIAF) n = 252 Year Patient Population Intervention 2000 18 to 75 years • Rate control using old with diltiazem 90 mg two symptomatic or three times a persistent AF day with additional between 7 and therapy at discretion 360 days of treating MD • Rhythm control using pharmacological and electrical cardioversion, if necessary followed, by antiarrhythmic therapy with amiodarone 600 mg daily for 3 weeks Endpoints Major Results Limitations • Improvement in AF symptoms (palpitations, dyspnea, dizziness) • Assessment of 6-min walking tests • Change in mean heart rate during AF • Number of hospital admissions • Quality of life • No significant differences in symptomatic improvement between 2 groups • Significantly more hospital admissions in rhythm • Small sample size • Variable rhythm control strategy dependent on amiodarone therapy • No validated scoring system for assessing AF symptoms Strategies of 2003 18 years or Treatment of Atrial older with Fibrillation either: AF for >4 weeks, (STAF) left atrial size n = 200 >45 mm, CHF, NYHA class II or greater, LVEF <45%, 1+ prior cardioversion • Rate control used beta-blockers, digitalis, calcium channel blockers or AV-node ablation/modification with or without pacemaker implantation • Rhythm control cardioverted by external or internal methods and then, with the use of antiarrhythmic therapy including sotalol, class I antiarrhythmic or amiodarone if impaired LV function Rate Control versus Electrical Conversion (RACE) n = 522 • Rate control using • Morbidity (death, • Morbidity did not • Can not generalize digitalis and/or a calheart failure, serious differ at a mean to patients who have cium channel blocker side effects of drugs, follow-up of 2.3 years not undergone elecand/or a beta blocker thromboembolic trical cardioversion • No significant differto target resting complications, ence in quality of life heart rate <100 beats bleeding, pacemaker between groups per minute placement) • Serial electrical • Differences in quality cardioversion with of life antiarrhythmic therapy using sotalol, flecainide or propafenone; or amiodarone with relapses 2002 Persistent AF and atrial flutter with an index episode shorter than one year with prior cardioversion • Composite of death, • No difference in • Compared treatment stroke/transient ischcomposite endpoint strategies not specific emic attack, systemic between rate and therapies embolism, cardiopulrhythm control • Few patients mainmonary resuscitation groups (p = 0.99) tained normal sinus • Syncope • Significantly more rhythm at the end of hospitalizations in the study • Bleeding rhythm control group • Can not be applied to • Quality of life than rate control asymptomatic AF or • Echocardiograph group recent-onset AF parameters • Higher rate of cere• Resting HR brovascular events in • Maintenance of sinus rhythm control group rhythm (5 v. 1) M. Curran | 19 Appendix B (continued) Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management (AFFIRM) n = 4,060 2002 Age ≥65 or other risk factors for stroke or death with a diagnosis of AF requiring long-term treatment • Rhythm control • Overall mortality using choice of combining death, amiodarone, disopydisabled stroke, ramide, flecainide, disabling anoxic enmoricizine, procaincephalopathy, major amide, propafenone, bleeding, cardiac quinidine, sotalol, arrest and combinations of • Secondary analyses these drugs conducted to adjust • Rate control using primary end point beta-blockers, diltifor baseline characazem and verapamil teristics to target heart rate (<80 BPM at rest and <110 BPM during 6-min walking test) How to Treat Chronic Atrial Fibrillation (HOT-CAFE) n = 205 2004 Age 50 to 75 years and AF had to be known for 7 days, but not >2 years • Rate control group with target HR between 70–90 beats/ min during rest • Rhythm control underwent electrical cardioversion with antiarrhythmic drug therapy including propafenone, disopyramide, or sotalol • More deaths occurred in rhythm control group than rate control group (p = 0.08; hazard ratio 1.15 [95% CI 0.99 to 1.34]) • Significantly more hospitalization and adverse drug events in rhythm control group • Results can not be generalized to younger patients without risk factors for stroke or paroxysmal atrial fibrillation • Composite of death • Composite end point • Small sample size from any cause, is not significantly • Use of anticoagulathromboemboldifferent between tion was low ic complications, rate and rhythm conintracranial or other trol group (p > 0.71) major hemorrhage • Significantly more • Rate control hospitalizations in rhythm control group • Rhythm maintenance (p = 0.001) • Hospitalization M. Curran | 20
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