THIRD EDITION
PSYCHOLOGY
from inquiry to understanding
CHAPTER
14
Personality
WHO WE ARE
Slides prepared by Matthew Isaak
Copyright © 2014, © 2011, © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives
LO 14.1 Describe how twin and adoption studies
shed light on genetic and environmental
influences on personality.
LO 14.2 Describe the core assumptions of
psychoanalytic theory.
LO 14.3 Describe key criticisms of psychoanalytic
theory and the central features of neoFreudian theories.
LO 14.4 Identify the core assumptions of
behavioral and social learning theories of
personality.
Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition
Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf
Learning Objectives
LO 14.5 Describe key criticisms of behavioral and
social learning approaches.
LO 14.6 Explain the concept of self-actualization
and its role in humanistic models.
LO 14.7 Describe key criticisms of humanistic
approaches.
LO 14.8 Describe trait models of personality,
including the Big Five.
LO 14.9 Identify key criticisms of trait models.
Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition
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Learning Objectives
LO 14.10 Describe structured personality tests such
as the MMPI-2 and their methods of
construction.
LO 14.11 Describe projective tests, particularly the
Rorschach, and their strengths and
weaknesses.
LO 14.12 Identify common pitfalls in personality
assessment.
Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition
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Lecture Preview
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Personality
Psychoanalytic theory
Behavioral and social learning theories
Humanistic models
Trait models
Personality assessment
Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition
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Personality
LO 14.1 Describe how twin and adoption studies shed light on genetic and environmental influences
on personality.
• Relatively enduring predispositions that
influence our behavior across many
situations
• These traits account in part for
consistencies in our behavior across
time and situations.
• Nomothetic vs. idiographic
approaches to studying personality
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Causes of Personality
LO 14.1 Describe how twin and adoption studies shed light on genetic and environmental influences
on personality.
• Behavior-genetic methods try to
disentangle the effects of:
– Genetic factors
– Shared environmental factors
– Nonshared environmental factors
• Use twin and adoption studies to do
this
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Causes of Personality
LO 14.1 Describe how twin and adoption studies shed light on genetic and environmental influences
on personality.
• Numerous personality traits are
influenced by genetics – but all much
below a 1.0 correlation.
– Demonstrates nonshared environmental
influence
• Turns out that shared environment
plays little to no role in adult
personality
– Supported by twin and adoption studies
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A Note of Caution
LO 14.1 Describe how twin and adoption studies shed light on genetic and environmental influences
on personality.
• Remember, genes code for proteins,
not specific behaviors.
• Genes have indirect influence on traits,
while the environment influences how
these are displayed in our lives.
• Twin studies vs. molecular genetic
studies
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Sigmund Freud
LO 14.2 Describe the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory.
• Viennese
neurologist who
developed first
comprehensive
theory of
personality
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Psychoanalytic Theory
LO 14.2 Describe the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory.
• Developed by Sigmund Freud
• Rests on three primary assumptions:
1. Psychic determinism
2. Symbolic meaning
3. Unconscious motivation
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Figure 14.1 Freud's Model of Personality Structure. According to some authors, Freud’s conception of
personality is analogous to an iceberg, with the conscious mind being the tip barely visible above the surface and
the unconscious being the vast submerged area entirely underwater. Nevertheless, we shouldn’t take the iceberg
metaphor too literally (indeed, Freud himself apparently never used it), because according to Freud, different
aspects of personality are in constant interaction.
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Structure of Personality
LO 14.2 Describe the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory.
• Freud thought that the psyche
consisted of three components:
– Id – basic instincts; operates on
pleasure principle
– Ego – principal decision maker;
operates on reality principle
– Superego – sense of morality
• Conflict between these causes distress.
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Figure 14.2 Id, Ego, and Superego. Many works of art portray an individual trying to make a difficult moral
decision with a devil on one shoulder—urging immoral behavior—and an angel—urging moral behavior—on the
other. Freudians would say that such artwork captures the distinction among ego (the person trying to make the
decision), id (demon), and superego (angel).
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Psychoanalytic Theory
LO 14.2 Describe the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory.
• Freud thought that our dreams
reflected this unconscious struggle.
• Said all dreams reflected wish
fulfillments but that some were in
disguise.
• Contrary to pop psych, did not say that
all symbols mean the same to everyone
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Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms
LO 14.2 Describe the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory.
• The ego will try to minimize anxiety via
defense mechanisms.
• Although essential for psychological
health, Freud thought over-reliance on
one or two could cause problems
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Defense Mechanism Examples
LO 14.2 Describe the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory.
• Repression – motivated forgetting of
emotionally threatening memories or
impulses
• Denial – motivated forgetting of
distressing experiences
• Projection – unconscious attribution of
our negative qualities to others
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Stages of Psychosexual Development
LO 14.2 Describe the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory.
• Freud believed that we pass through
stages, each of which is focused on an
erogenous zone.
• Freud insisted that sexuality begins in
infancy.
• Individuals may get fixated in a stage
and have difficulty moving on.
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Table 14.5
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual
Development.
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Scientific Evaluation
LO 14.3 Describe key criticisms of psychoanalytic theory and the central features of neo-Freudian
theories.
• Very influential in our thinking about
personality, but there are major
criticisms:
– Unfalsifiable
– Failed predictions
– Questionable conception of unconscious
– Unrepresentative samples
– Emphasis on shared environment
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Neo-Freudians
LO 14.3 Describe key criticisms of psychoanalytic theory and the central features of neo-Freudian
theories.
• Differ from Freud's theories in two key
ways:
– Less emphasis on sexuality, more on
social drives
– More optimistic about personal growth
• Adler's style of life and inferiority
complex
• Jung's collective unconscious and
archetypes
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Behavioral Approaches
LO 14.4 Identify the core assumptions of behavioral and social learning theories of personality.
• Believe that differences in our
personalities stem largely from our
learning histories
• Personalities are bundles of habits
acquired by classical and operant
conditioning.
• View personality as under the control of
genetic factors and contingencies
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Social Learning Theories
LO 14.4 Identify the core assumptions of behavioral and social learning theories of personality.
• See learning as important, but believe
thinking to play a crucial role as well
• Emphasize reciprocal determinism
rather than Skinnerian determinism
• Focus on observational learning and
individuals' locus of control
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Scientific Evaluation
LO 14.5 Describe key criticisms of behavioral and social learning approaches.
• Placed psychology on firmer scientific
footing
• However:
– Radical behaviorists' neglect of cognition
is not supported by research.
– Social learning's emphasis on shared
environment is not supported.
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Humanistic Models of Personality
LO 14.6 Explain the concept of self-actualization and its role in humanistic models.
• Carl Rogers
rejected the notion
of determinism and
embraced free will.
• Proposed selfactualization as
core motive in
personality
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Roger's Model
LO 14.6 Explain the concept of self-actualization and its role in humanistic models.
• Three major components of
personality:
1. The organism (innate, genetic
blueprint)
2. The self (set of beliefs about who we
are)
3. Conditions of worth (expectations
we place on ourselves – can result in
incongruence)
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Self-Actualization
LO 14.6 Explain the concept of self-actualization and its role in humanistic models.
• Maslow said that self-actualized people
tend to be creative, spontaneous, and
accepting of themselves and others.
• May seem difficult to work with or aloof
• Prone to peak experiences
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Scientific Evaluation
LO 14.7 Describe key criticisms of humanistic approaches.
• Comparative psychology challenges
Rogers' claim that our nature is entirely
positive.
• His and Maslow's research was fraught
with methodological difficulties.
• Many non-falsifiable assumptions
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Trait Models
LO 14.8 Describe trait models of personality, including the Big Five.
• Interested primarily in describing and
understanding the structure of
personality
• Used factor analysis to reduce
diversity of personality descriptors to
underlying traits
• Based on a lexical approach
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Big Five Model
LO 14.8 Describe trait models of personality, including the Big Five.
• Five traits have repeatedly appeared in
such studies:
– Openness to Experience
– Conscientiousness
– Extraversion
– Agreeableness
– Neuroticism
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Big Five and Behavior
LO 14.8 Describe trait models of personality, including the Big Five.
• Predict many important real-world
behaviors
– Job performance and grades in school
– Physical health and life span
• Relatively similar traits seen across
cultures, but different prevalence rates
– Individualist vs collectivistic societies
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Tendencies vs Adaptations
LO 14.8 Describe trait models of personality, including the Big Five.
• Basic tendencies are underlying
personality traits; characteristic
adaptations are their behavioral
manifestations
• Same trait can manifest in very
different ways.
– Sensation seeking in firefighters and
criminals
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Can Personality Change?
LO 14.8 Describe trait models of personality, including the Big Five.
• Some variability prior to age 30, but
little thereafter
• Some evidence for changing of
personality psychopharmacologically,
but should we?
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Scientific Evaluation
LO 14.9 Identify key criticisms of trait models.
• Mischel's argument concerning
behavioral inconsistency
• Response was that traits are predictors
of aggregate, not isolated, behaviors
• Primarily describe individual differences
rather than what causes them
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Personality Assessment
LO 14.10 Describe structured personality tests such as the MMPI-2 and their methods of
construction.
• Plagued by number of dubious
methods:
– Phrenology (head shape)
– Physiognomy (facial characteristics)
– Sheldon's body types
• All lacked two key criteria – reliability
and validity
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Structured Personality Tests
LO 14.10 Describe structured personality tests such as the MMPI-2 and their methods of
construction.
• Paper-and-pencil tests consisting of
questions you answer in one of a few
fixed ways
• The Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the
most researched test.
– 567 true-false questions
– 10 basic scales
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MMPI
LO 14.10 Describe structured personality tests such as the MMPI-2 and their methods of
construction.
• Developed using empirical method of
test construction, so it has low face
validity
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MMPI
LO 14.10 Describe structured personality tests such as the MMPI-2 and their methods of
construction.
• Contains three validity scales designed
to detect various types of distorted
responses:
– L (Lie) detects impression
management.
– F (Frequency) detects malingering.
– K (Correction) measures defensive
responding.
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Figure 14.5 An MMPI-2 Profile. MMPI-2 scores of 50 are average, and scores of 65 or above are abnormally
high. This individual received elevated scores on several MMPI-2 clinical scales, namely, Hs (Hypochondriasis), D
(Depression), Hy (Hysteria), Pt (Psychasthenia—Anxiety), and Sc (Schizophrenia), suggesting high levels of
physical and mental anxiety, sad mood, and disturbed thinking. (Source: Adapted from the MMPI®-2 (Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory®-2) Manual for Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation, Revised Edition.
Copyright © 2001 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota. Used by permission of the University of
Minnesota Press. All rights reserved. “MMPI-2” and “Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2” are
trademarks owned by the Regents of the University of Minnesota.)
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MMPI Evaluated Scientifically
LO 14.10 Describe structured personality tests such as the MMPI-2 and their methods of
construction.
• Most scales are both reliable as well as
valid for differentiating among mental
disorders.
• Problematic in several ways:
– Redundant scales
– Not used for formal diagnosis
– Scales can be misused.
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Rational/Theoretical Method
LO 14.10 Describe structured personality tests such as the MMPI-2 and their methods of
construction.
• Requires test developers to begin with
a clear-cut conceptualization of a trait
and then write items to assess that
conceptualization
• Some have strong reliability and
validity (NEO PI-R) but others do not
(Myers-Briggs).
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Projective Tests
LO 14.11 Describe projective tests, particularly the Rorschach, and their strengths and weaknesses.
• Ask examinees to interpret or make
sense of ambiguous stimuli
• Based on projective hypothesis:
– When interpreting ambiguous stimuli,
people project aspects of their
personality onto them.
• Controversial, because reliability and
validity are in dispute
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Rorschach Inkblot Test
LO 14.11 Describe projective tests, particularly the Rorschach, and their strengths and weaknesses.
• Ten symmetrical inkblots, five blackand-white and five with color
• Respondents say what each inkblot
resembles.
• This supposedly reveals respondent's
traits.
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Figure 14.6 An Inkblot Similar to That on the Rorschach Inkblot Test. Although widely used, the
Rorschach appears not to possess the magical powers often attributed to it by its most enthusiastic proponents.
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Rorschach: Scientific Evaluation
LO 14.11 Describe projective tests, particularly the Rorschach, and their strengths and weaknesses.
• Unknown test-retest and problematic
interrater reliability scores
• Little evidence that it detects features
of mental disorders
• Lack of incremental validity
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Thematic Apperception Test
LO 14.11 Describe projective tests, particularly the Rorschach, and their strengths and weaknesses.
• Requires subject to construct a story
based on pictures
• Little evidence for adequate reliability
or validity for most applications
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Other Projective Tests
LO 14.11 Describe projective tests, particularly the Rorschach, and their strengths and weaknesses.
• Human figure drawing tests require you
to draw a person(s) in any way you
wish.
• Graphology – analysis of handwriting
– is another projective test.
• Neither has scientific support.
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Pitfalls in Personality Assessment
LO 14.12 Identify common pitfalls in personality assessment.
• The PT Barnum effect and the
tendency to accept high base rate
descriptors as accurate
– Astrology and tarot readings
• Overall, personality assessment can be
useful, but only if using valid, reliable
instruments.
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