1. No category

DESIGNING LESSONS FOR
LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS IN NUMERACY
- 4 JUN 2014 Special Education Branch, MOE
APSN Katong School
APSN Tanglin School
AWWA School
Grace Orchard School
1
TEAM COMPOSITION
Special Education
Branch
 Chong Suet Ling
 Lee Yim Ping
 Liu Shu Zhen
 Yee Cai Ying
 Yeo Xiuting, Valerie
Special Education
Schools
 AWWA School
 APSN Katong School
 APSN Tanglin School
 Grace Orchard School
2
OUTLINE
Part 1 (10 min)
 Background
 Literature Review
 Methodology
Part 2 (40 min)
 Findings
 Conclusion
3
PART 1: BACKGROUND, LITERATURE
REVIEW & METHODOLOGY
4
NUMERACY PROJECT IN BRIEF

2012: Launch of Curriculum Framework for
SPED

2013: Numeracy Prototyping Project
Participation through invitation
 5 schools
 Spanned Feb–Sep 2013
 Learning by doing approach
 Structured as Professional Learning Teams

5
LITERATURE REVIEW:
LEARNING OF MATHS

Manipulatives were used to make learning
concrete (Kennedy & Barblett, 2010)

A diverse profile of learners requires
differentiated learning and customised learning
aides (Fuchs, Fuchs, Compton, Powell &
Seethaler, Capizzi, Schatschneider & Flectcher,
2006, 2006; Montague, 2007)
6
LITERATURE REVIEW:
LEARNING OF MATHS

Teachers' direct instruction was an important
approach to role model the learning
(Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003)

A safe and inclusive learning environment was
essential (Kavale & Forness, 2000)

Assessment activities encourage students'
demonstration of learning (Vaughn, 2003).
7
PROJECT QUESTIONS
1.
What are the pedagogical considerations that
guided teachers’ planning and design of
learning and teaching?
2.
What are the supports that facilitated the
prototyping efforts?
8
METHODOLOGY
Participants: 5 schools
Approach

Training-cum-consultation: 6 workshops and 2 consultations

Opportunity for participants to Learn : Do : Share
Project Outcomes

Teacher-constructed resources

Lesson try-out
9
PART 2: WHAT SPED TEACHERS DO
IN A NUMERACY LESSON?
(FINDINGS)
10
FINDINGS (S.T.A.R.T.)
 Students’ demonstration of learning, as part of
assessment of and for learning
 Teacher-directed instruction, has strong evidence in
developing basic numeracy in children with special
needs
 Association learning activated through the use of
multi-sensory manipulatives, songs, role play, etc.
 Relationship to peers as part of a safe and predictable
environment for learning together
 Task differentiation to accommodate diverse learners’
profiles through resource development
11
FINDINGS
Number sensibility as the foundation for
functional and practical daily living by AWWA
School
 Designing lessons to teach grouping and place
value in a sped classroom by Grace Orchard
School
 Igniting Counting in SPED students for 1 to 5 by
APSN Katong School
 Problem solving in Functional Contexts for
SPED Students by APSN Tanglin School

12
NUMBER SENSIBILITY AS
THE FOUNDATION FOR
FUNCTIONAL AND PRACTICAL
DAILY LIVING
AWWA School
13
BACKGROUND

Professional Learning Team formation
◦ Teachers from Numeracy Department

Team Composition
◦ Ms Thain Lee Ping (Subject Head,
Numeracy)
◦ Ms Ong Zeng Zi (Teacher)
◦ Ms Tan Li Siang (Teacher)
14
OBJECTIVE & STUDENT PROFILE
Team Objective:
 To develop teachers’ pedagogical and content
knowledge in teaching mathematical concepts
and skills
Student Profile:
 9 students (6 male, 3 female) with moderate to
low support needs, with a range of disabilities
including Global Developmental Delay,
Intellectual Disabilities, William’s Syndrome
 Ability level: 2 groups (MS-Moderate Support; LSLow Support)
 Age: Between 9 and 11 years old
15
WHY NUMBER SENSIBILITY?

Necessary to prepare students for
functional and practical daily living

Focus on two concepts of number
sensibility:
◦ Counting up to 9 in ones
◦ Addition of single-digit numbers within 9
16
SEQUENCING THE LEARNING
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
•Number
Sense:
Quantity
up to 9
•Addition
within 3
•Addition
within 5
•Addition
within 7
•Addition
within 9
17
DIFFERENTIATING THE
LEARNING
• Consistency in key vocabulary
• More guided instructions for some
students
• Different materials used for different
groups according to their needs
• Different mode of expressing answers
18
USE OF MULTIMEDIA / ICT
• Use of computer, visualiser and projector
for teaching
• Use of iPad for games as reinforcement
• Use of camera to video lesson for
evaluation (lesson study)
19
PROJECT TAKEAWAYS

Professional Growth
◦ Peer observation and feedback
◦ Mutual trust and close collaboration
◦ Hands-on exploration &
experimentation
◦ Generate ideas for customisation/
modifications
◦ ‘Multiplier’ effect on peers
20
TEACHER-CONSTRUCTED
MATERIALS
Self-check Template
21
DESIGNING LESSONS TO TEACH
GROUPING & PLACE VALUE
IN A SPED CLASSROOM
PROFESSIONAL LEARNING TEAM OF
GRACE ORCHARD SCHOOL
Ms Low Ah Chin, Esther
Vice Principal
Ms Chua Poh Keng
Programme Head/Math Subject InCharge
Ms Shanice Liang/
Team Leader
Ms Koh Chew Peng/
Member
Ms Tamil Selvi/
Member
OBJECTIVE & STUDENT PROFILE
Team Objective:
• To develop teachers’ pedagogical and content knowledge in teaching
mathematical concepts and skills.
• To teach students to solve two-digit addition and subtraction with regrouping
and able to generalise it to real life situations.
• To develop students’ independence in self-learning and assessment
Student Profile:
• 10 students (5 males, 5 females), behavioural issue (1 male), chronic eczema (1
female), physical disability which causes speech difficulty and mobility issue (1
female)
• Diagnosis: Mild Intellectual Disability (8 students) & Down syndrome (2
students)
• Ability level: 3 groups (HS- High Support, MS- Medium Support, LS-Low Support)
• Age: 15 and 16yrs old
THE APIE APPROACH TO TEACH MATH
Assessment
Evaluation
Planning
Implementat
ion
Assessment
Evaluation
-Evaluation School written assessment
-To gauge student’s level
/ functional assessment
-Basic Number Screening
-Assessment tools (depending on the
tools, may usually be repeated on a
half-yearly basis or yearly basis)
-CMI (Classroom Mathematical
Inventory)
-TOMA (Test of Mathematical Abilities)
APIE
APPROACH
Planning
Implementation
-To Delivery based on your
understanding of your students’
dynamic
-The ‘I-do, We-do, U-do’ approach
-Use of concrete / abstract materials
-To provide resources for self-checking
-To provide resources for revision –
notes
SEQUENCING THE LEARNING
Stage 1
• Grouping
Stage 2
• Place values composer and
decomposer with Tens
and Ones
Stage 3
• Perform two-digit
addition and
subtraction with
regrouping Tens and
Ones
INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
I do (Modelling)
• Use clear and
simple language
• Modelling helps
students to know
what they are
expected to do
• Use verbal
Mathematical terms
and concepts in
words.
We do ( Guided
Practice)
You do (Independent
Practice)
• Give every student
the resources to
work on.
• Give adequate
processing time
(THINK TIME) for
student to think and
explore.
• Give the SAME type
of problems as used
in ‘We do’ stage.
STAGE 1
Lesson Objective:
Students will be to
• understand the concept of grouping and counting
in twos, fives and tens
5 groups of fives is 25. Altogether 25
EXPLICIT DIRECT TEACHING
Self-checking template
STAGE 2
Prerequisites of students:
Students are able to
• Understand value of 1 to 20
• Recognize numerals 1 to 50
• Count in groups of 10
Lesson Objective:
Students are able to
• compose and decompose numbers (11 to 15) using place value - tens
and ones
EXPLICIT DIRECT TEACHING
I do (Modelling)
Teacher selects student to do the
task to check student’s
understanding
We do (Guided Practice)
Teacher gives every student the same
resources and do the task together
EXPLICIT DIRECT TEACHING
You do ( Independent Practice)
Task 1- Pair Work
Must be SAME type of problems as
used in ‘We do’.
EXPLICIT DIRECT TEACHING
Task 2- Individual Work
To generalise it in real life situations
TEMPLATES FOR STUDENTS TO
PRACTISE AT HOME
STAGE 3
Lesson Objective:
Students will be to
• Perform two-digit addition and subtraction with
regrouping tens and ones
EVALUATION
• Informal Assessment
• Formal Assessment
• Post-lesson reflection
PROJECT OUTCOME / LEARNING
• Collective responsibility for changing pedagogical
practices through post-lesson observation discussion
and feedback
• Sharing of good practices with other teachers who are
teaching the school’s Numeracy Curriculum
• Development of broader mathematical skills in
problem-solving, reasoning and generalizing to real
life situation
• Improvement in students’ ability in self-assessment
DESIGNING LESSONS TO
TEACH GROUPING
& PLACE VALUE
IN A SPED CLASSROOM
Grace Orchard School
39
PROFESSIONAL LEARNING TEAM
 Team
Composition
 Ms Chua Poh Keng (Programme Head:
Mathematics Subject Group in charge)
 Ms Shanice Liang (Mathematics
Subject Group Team Leader)
 Ms Tamil Selvi (Mathematics Subject
Group member)
 Ms Kho Chiew Peng (Mathematics
Subject Group member)
40
OBJECTIVES
Team Objective:
 To develop teachers’ pedagogical and content
knowledge in teaching mathematical concepts
and skills
 To teach students to solve two-digit addition
and subtract with regrouping and be able to
generalise it to real life situations
 To develop students’ independence in selflearning and assessment
41
STUDENT PROFILE
Student Profile:
 10 students (5 males, 5 females), behavioural
issue (1 male), chronic eczema (1 female), physical
disability which causes speech difficulty and
mobility issue (1 female)
 Diagnosis: Mild Intellectual Disability (8 students) &
Down syndrome (2 students)
 Ability level: 3 groups (High Support, Medium
Support, Low Support)
42
 Age: 15 and 16yrs old
SEQUENCING THE LEARNING
 Based
on APIE approach, we planned
and designed the content
Stage 1
•Grouping
Stage 2
•Place
values:
composer
with tens
and ones
Stage 3
•Perform twodigit
addition and
subtraction
with
regrouping
tens and
ones
43
INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
I do
(Modelling)
• Use clear and
simple language
• Use verbal
mathematical
terms and
concepts in words
• Modelling helps
students to know
what they are
expected to do
We do
(Guided
Practice)
You do
(Independent
Practice)
• Give every student
the resources to
work on and
answer questions
simultaneously
• Give adequate
processing time
(THINK TIME) for
students to think
and explore
• Give the SAME
type of problems
as used in ‘We Do’
44
STAGE 1
 Lesson
objective: Students will be able
to understand the concept of grouping
and counting in twos, fives and tens
45
46
STAGE 2 (LESSON OBSERVED)
Lesson Objective:
 By the end of the lesson, students will be able
to compose and decompose numbers (11 to
15) using place value, tens and ones
Competencies of pre-requisites of students:
Students are able to:
 Understand value of 1 to 20,
 Recognise numerals 1 to 50, and
 Count in groups of 10
47
EXPLICIT DIRECT TEACHING
48
EXPLICIT DIRECT TEACHING
Task 1: Pair Work
49
EXPLICIT DIRECT TEACHING
Task 2: Individual Work
50
TEACHER-CONSTRUCTED MATERIALS
FOR STUDENTS’ HOME PRACTICE
51
STAGE 3
Lesson Objective: Students will be able to
perform two-digit addition and subtraction with
regrouping tens and ones
52
PROJECT OUTCOME / LEARNING
Takeaways
 Collective responsibility for changing
pedagogical practices through post-lesson
observation discussion and feedback
 Sharing of good practices with other teachers
who are teaching the school’s Numeracy
Curriculum
 Development of broader mathematical skills in
problem-solving, reasoning and generalising to
real life situation
 Improvement in students’ ability in selfassessment
53
IGNITING COUNTING IN
SPED STUDENTS FOR
NUMBERS 1 TO 5
54
BACKGROUND
• Professional Learning Team formation
– Teachers from different levels and sessions
• Team Composition
– Mdm Choo Pee Ling (HOD, Math & Life Skills)
– Mrs Stella Ho (Teacher)
– Mr Jose Manuel (Teacher)
– Ms Kharissa Seah Lay Keng (Teacher)
– Ms Sheryll Gavino Eduria (Teacher)
55
OBJECTIVE & STUDENT PROFILE
Team Objective:
• To develop teachers’ pedagogical and content
knowledge in teaching number sense and to create
a teaching package for students with high support
needs.
Student Profile:
• 10 students (7 male, 3 female) with mild
intellectual disability (MID), as well as a range of
disabilities including Kabuki Syndrome, Down
Syndrome, etc.
• Ability level: High support needs
• Age: Between 9 and 10 years old (Primary level)56
DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBER
SENSE IN MID STUDENTS
• Pre-requisite for preparing students for
functional and practical daily living.
• Learning outcomes of project:
– Counting numbers from 1 to 5
– Representing, writing and comparing
numbers from 1 to 5
57
SEQUENCING THE LEARNING
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
• Counting
from 1 to 5
• Writing
numbers 1
to 5
• Comparing
numbers 1
to 5
58
ENHANCING STUDENTS’ LEARNING
Standardised teaching
strategies: UDL and
Direct Instruction
practices
Use of concrete
materials and handson activities
Triple-D and
Triple-T
Approaches
Overview
Of
Lesson
Units
Number Sense
of Numbers 1 to 5
59
USE OF MULTIMEDIA / ICT
 Powerpoint slides
(for attractive and focus presentation)
 Interactive whiteboards (IWB)
(for lively engagement of learners in
actions)
 On-line educational activities e.g., YouTube
videos
(for visual & audio engagement)
60
USING INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD
Lesson 9: More or Less
61
USING INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD
Lesson 9: More or Less
62
USING INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD
Lesson 9: More or Less
63
USEFUL LINKS
Sesame Street : 5 Dogs, 5 Bones
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yk702keoYzY
64
USEFUL LINKS
Subtising
http://sites.google.com/site/numbersense11/s
ubtizing
65
TEACHER-CONSTRUCTED
WORKSHEETS
Lesson 9
Lesson 5
66
PROJECT TAKEAWAYS
• Shared ownership of school improvement
• Reflective teaching
• Pride in professionalism
67
LEARNING POINTS
• Student-centric approach to be effective in
developmentally equipping students to acquire
more advanced math concepts [Following the
natural developmental progression for math
learning in children with special needs]
• Common math vocabulary to name the thinking
and actions for learners to hear, say and do.
• Engaging and interesting lesson delivery with
relevant and meaningful visual cues for joy in
learning and reference for learning.
68
GOING FORWARD
•
Continually review Math Curriculum to ensure the
intended/designed curriculum is delivered effectively
by teachers and successfully received by the learners
•
Ensuring assessment is valid and reliable through
reviews on processes, item setting and student
performance
•
Professional Learning Team to build ownership and
sustain the drive to build pride in professionalism
through reflective practices and collaborative learning
culture
69
PROBLEM SOLVING IN
FUNCTIONAL CONTEXTS FOR
SPED STUDENTS
APSN Tanglin School
70
ABOUT APSN TANGLIN SCHOOL
Students
Vision
Mission
Curriculum
Aims
(4 “C”s)
Age: 13 – 16 years
Mild Intellectual Disability
Leading Independent & Meaningful Lives;
Valued in the Community
To Equip Students with
Skills, Knowledge & Attitudes
through A Holistic Curriculum
• Build Competence - Academic, Vocational, Social
• Shape Character
• Foster Pro-social Connections
Make Positive Contributions to Self, Family,
Community & Society
BACKGROUND
 Professional Learning Team formation
o 4 lead teachers, a level head from each year
level
 Team Composition
o Ms Ho Lai Mern (HOD/Numeracy; Sec 3 Level
Head)
o Mrs Fanny Ong (HOD/ICT; Sec 4 Level Head)
o Ms Suhaini (Teacher; Sec 2 Level Head)
o Mr Anthony Tan (Teacher; Sec 1 Level Head)
72
OBJECTIVE & STUDENT PROFILE
Team’s Objective:
 To design and develop a student-centric
lesson package for teaching problem
solving in functional contexts.
Student Profile:
 12 students (6 males, 6 females) with Mild
Intellectual Disability (IQ level between 50
to 70); including two students with Down’s
Syndrome
 Age: 14 years old
PROBLEM SOLVING IN
FUNCTIONAL CONTEXTS
 Application of numerical concepts and skills
to perform real-world tasks and solve
problems encountered in everyday life;
 Number sense (counting) is fundamental to
numeracy learning.
IDENTIFIED FOCUS AREA
Counting Strategies: Skip Counting
 Given up to 100 objects, the student will
count by 2s, 5s and 10s
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
The class was divided into 3 groups
according to their level of support needs:
High Support
Needs Group
(HSN)
•4 students
•1 teacher
Medium
Support Needs
Group (MSN)
•4 students
•1 teacher
Low Support
Needs Group
(LSN)
•4 students
•1 teacher
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
The class was divided into 3 groups
according to their level of support needs:
High Support
Needs Group
(HSN)
•4 students
•1 teacher
Medium Support
Needs Group
(MSN)
•4 students
•1 teacher
Low Support Needs
Group (LSN)
•4 students
•1 teacher
1. Preparation
Plan lessons based on
objectives, students’
prior knowledge,
strengths, limitations,
interests and attitudes
towards Numeracy.
3. Reflection
Professional
conversation following
the lesson observation
(audio- recorded).
Insights arrived at from
the reflection sessions
will be incorporated into
the next cycle of lesson
planning.
Professional Learning
Cycle @ APSN Tanglin
School
MODIFIED
LESSON
STUDY
APPROACH
2. Observation
Main teacher conducts
the lesson.
Other teachers monitor
& observe a specific
group of students
(based on support
needs) guided by items
in a checklist.
SEQUENCING THE LEARNING
Pre-test
Lesson 1
(Counting in 2s)
Lesson 2
(Counting in 2s
& 5s)
Lesson 5
(Counting in 2s,
5s & 10s)
Lesson 4
(Counting in
10s)
Lesson 3
(Counting in
10s)
Lesson 6
(Performing
Inventory Check)
Lesson 7
(Using a 10Template)
Post-Test
SEQUENCING THE LEARNING
 Explicit instruction was used to deliver the lesson
content.
 There are four phases involved:
a. Introduction / Advance Organiser
b. Modelling / Demonstration
c. Guided Practice
d. Independent Practice
Explicit Instruction
1.
Advance
Organiser
2.
Demonstration/
Modelling
3.
Guided
Practice
4.
Independent
Practice
SEQUENCING THE LEARNING
 The Read, Understand, Needs, Imitate and Solve
(RUNIS) approach was used.
DIFFERENTIATING THE
LEARNING
 A ‘Teacher Observation Checklist’ was used in
every lesson to track and monitor the student’s
progress and performance.
 There were differentiated activities to allow
students to experience success as they complete
tasks that catered to their level of support needs.
 Content: Quantity of items to be counted
 Process: Time allocated for the task
 Product: Different Inventory Checklist
SUPPORTING THE LEARNING
Use of
Visual Aids
Use of
Multimedia
/ ICT
Use of SelfChecking
Template
Use of
Task
Sheets
USE OF VISUAL AIDS
Guide for skip
counting
USE OF MULTIMEDIA / ICT
 PowerPoint slides and videos were used to facilitate
discussions and for demonstration purposes during
instruction time.
USE OF MULTIMEDIA / ICT

During lessons, some photographs and short videos of
students performing the counting tasks were taken. Some
of these photographs or videos were used, where
appropriate, as anchors for discussions or instruction by
the main teacher, in subsequent lessons.
USE OF SELF-CHECKING TEMPLATE
USE OF TASK SHEETS
LEARNING POINTS
Observations from Pre-test:
 Students were mostly counting in 1s.
 Students could improve on their planning and
organisational skills when counting.
1. To introduce different counting strategies (counting in 2s, 5s
& 10s)
2. To show students how to organise their objects when
counting
LEARNING POINTS
Observations from Classroom Lessons 1 to 5:

Students were able to use counting in 2s, 5s & 10s.

The MSN and LSN groups preferred to use
‘counting in 10s’.

Students were able to bundle their objects into
groups of 2s, 5s or 10s on their table in a more
organised manner.
To apply their counting skills by performing a simulated
inventory check @ TS Mart using any of the counting
strategies learnt.
LEARNING POINTS
Observations from Lesson 6 @ TS Mart:
 Students were very engaged and the ‘inventory check’ task
was authentic & meaningful to them.
 Organisation of some objects was challenging
for certain students (eg. bulky items, difficult
to stack up). Bigger work area could be
provided.
 Students were given the choice to choose an appropriate
counting strategy but it could be a difficult decision for
them.
To provide more structure to guide students in their counting –
by introducing a ‘10’ template.
LEARNING POINTS
Observations from Post-Test @ TS Mart:
 Students were able to use the template
provided to perform counting in 10s
more confidently and accurately.
 Students were able to organise the real objects
more efficiently and neatly in groups of 2s & 5s on
the bigger work area provided.
 Students found it useful when the counting strategy
was specified for them (eg. Trial #1: Count in 10s,
Trial #2: Count in 5s, etc)
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
• Important to provide a clear structure to help students
perform their counting more accurately and with
greater confidence (e.g. by using a template).
• Students should be given enough time to learn and
practise the use of visual support provided.
• There must be systematic and scaffolded transition
from classroom activities to simulated (authentic)
contexts to promote students’ application and
generalization of skills learnt within the classroom to
simulated (authentic) environments.
PROJECT TAKEAWAYS
 Peer Observation
“… have benefited from the observations made
during the lesson for each of the ability groups.”
 Reflective Teaching & Peer Collaboration
“… able to plan for the next lesson based on these
observations, and we were more conscious in
planning differentiated activities to cater to
students with different levels of abilities.”
CONCLUSION
95
FINDINGS (S.T.A.R.T.)
 Students’ demonstration of learning, as part of
assessment of and for learning
 Teacher-directed instruction, has strong evidence in
developing basic numeracy in children with special
needs
 Association learning activated through the use of
multi-sensory manipulatives, songs, role play, etc.
 Relationship to peers as part of a safe and predictable
environment for learning together
 Task differentiation to accommodate diverse learners’
profiles through resource development
96
OVERALL FEEDBACK
Category
Feedback
Content
• Different schools to focus on different topics and strategies.
• More application of the concept.
Pedagogy
(instructional
strategies)
• Importance of modelling (I do, We do, You do).
• Use of concrete materials to let students feel / touch.
• Provide structure (notes) to guide students in their learning.
Assessment
• Assessment For and Of learning.
a) Knowledge and
skills building
• Workshops built up participants’ knowledge from prior
knowledge.
• Share sample lessons/activities in Singapore context.
• Give clear requirements for lesson observation so that learning
can be focused.
a) Resource
development
Students’ Learning
• Always have the learner’s perspective in mind and know the
students’ abilities.
• Give self-check template or simple notes for students to bring
home (for parents to reinforce concepts learnt).
97
REFERENCES






Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., Powell, R. S., Seethaler, P.M. Capizzi, A.
M., Schatschneider, C. & Flectcher, J. M. (2006). The cognitive correlates of
third-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word
problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 29-43.
Kavale, K. A. & Forness, S. R. (2000). Policy decisions in special education: The
role of meta-analysis. In R. Gersten, E. P. Schiller, & S. Vaughn (Eds.),
Contemporary special education research (pp. 281-326). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum,
Kennedy A. & Barblett L.. (2010) Early Childhood Australia Research in Practice
Series, “Learning and Teaching through Play”. Canberra: Early Childhood
Australia Inc.
Kroesbergen, E. H. & Van Luit, J. E. H. (2003). Mathematics interventions for
children with special needs: A meta-analysis. Remedial and Special Education,
24, 97-114.
Montague, M. (2007). Self-regulation and mathematics instruction. Learning
Disabilities Research and Practice, 22, 75-83.
Vaughn, S. (2003). What is special about special education for students with
learning disabilities? The Journal of Special Education, 37(3), 140-147.
98