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CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES
‘‘Oh No, We Are Just Getting to Know You’’:
The Relationship in Research With Children and Youth
in Indigenous Communities
James Allen,1 Gerald V. Mohatt,1 Carol A. Markstrom,2 Lisa Byers,3 and
Douglas K. Novins4
1
University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2West Virginia University, 3University of Oklahoma-Schusterman
Campus, and 4University of Colorado Denver Anschutz Medical Campus
ABSTRACT—This
article describes important elements in
the process of engaging with tribal communities in
research with children and youth and their families. In
particular, it emphasizes the need to understand the
research relationship with tribal communities through
the lens of kinship relations. Such an approach requires a
reexamination of the nature of research and the
researcher, with important implications for the research
processes, including design and organization, project
timelines, recovery from errors, and dissemination of
results. This approach also calls for a reexamination of
certain canons of research methods and research ethics,
along with a willingness to address new challenges, to
Preparation of this article was supported in part by awards from
the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National
Center for Minority Health Disparities, National Center for Research
Resources, and the National Science Foundation (R21AA0016098,
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, PI: James Allen;
R24MD001626, National Center on Minority Health and Health
Disparities, PI: James Allen; R21AA015541, National Institute on
Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, PI: Gerald V. Mohatt;
R01AA11446, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
and National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities, PI:
Gerald V. Mohatt; P20RR061430, National Center for Research
Resources, PI: Gerald V. Mohatt; ARC-0756211, National Science
Foundation, PI: James Allen; R34MH077872, National Institute of
Mental Health, PI: Douglas K. Novins).
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
James Allen, Department of Psychology and Center for Alaska
Native Health Research, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks,
AK 99775-6480; e-mail: [email protected].
ª 2011 The Authors
Child Development Perspectives ª 2011 The Society for Research in Child Development
DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00199.x
share control of the research process, and to be open to
new conceptual perspectives, including alternative
research strategies. Its repercussions hold promise for a
deepening of the research relationship with, and the role
of researcher in, the community.
KEYWORDS—Native American; Alaska Native; Canadian
First Nations; community-based participatory research;
tribal participatory research; youth; children
The title of our article comes from a tribal community member’s
response when one of the authors announced that he was leaving
the member’s Northern Plains Indian reservation after having
lived and worked there for 15 years. The community member’s
honest, spontaneous, and heartfelt response—‘‘Oh no, we are just
getting to know you!’’—crystallizes crucial elements in the relationship that forms when researchers engage with tribal communities on a research project. This response raises significant
questions about the meaning of engagement and participation in
research with tribal communities. The issue of its meaning is
important given that there is significant contemporary interest in
community-based participatory research (CBPR; Trickett &
Espino, 2004; Wallerstein & Duran, 2006) as a method for
successful engagement with tribal communities.
Numerous authors have framed several of the unique elements
of CBPR in tribal communities, also referred to as tribal participatory research (Fisher & Ball, 2003, 2005). These elements
include, but are not limited to, (a) recognition of the negative historical experience that many tribal communities have had with
research; (b) understanding and respecting tribal sovereignty,
including, among other things, the intellectual property rights of
tribes and tribal members with respect to the knowledge base
Volume 6, Number 1, 2012, Pages 55–60
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James Allen et al.
produced by the research; (c) establishment of community trust;
(d) ethical responsibility to the tribe collectively, in addition to
individual-based ethical considerations; and (e) an open and
receptive attitude regarding innovative qualitative (e.g., photovoice, videovoice) and mixed-methods approaches, which, with
more traditional qualitative methods such as ethnography and
participant observation, can assist in the development of deeper
understandings of the many intersecting contexts of child development in tribal communities (Baldwin, Johnson, & Benally,
2009; Burhansstipanov, Christopher, & Schumacher, 2005;
Canadian Institutes of Health Research, 2007; Manson,
Garroutte, Goins, & Henderson, 2004; Mohatt et al., 2007; Smith
& Davies, 2006; Strickland, 2006; Walters & Simoni, 2009).
Common to all these descriptions is engaging the community as
coresearcher in all phases of the research process (Allen et al.,
2006; Mohatt et al., 2004).
Community engagement, including building and maintaining
community trust, has become a recent focus of the literature on
CBPR (Christopher, Watts, McCormick, & Young, 2008). In this
article, we describe important elements in the process of engagement based on this author group’s collective work experience
with Native American, Alaska Native, and Canadian First
Nations tribal communities. We believe it is helpful for the
researcher to recognize ways in which CBPR in tribal communities can often be kinship based. Appreciating the unique dynamics of the kinship structures that form tribal communities can
enhance understanding of how and with whom to collaborate,
how to create a shared decision-making process, and how to
establish trust, which can be a long-term process (Mohatt et al.,
2007). We describe some elements of working in tribal communities, beginning with a delineation of CBPR as defined by kinship structures. The implications of this approach are discussed
relative to defining research questions, utilizing indigenous theories to guide research processes, managing timelines, and recovering from research errors. We conclude with comments on the
dissemination of findings.
We also wish to emphasize that we do not presuppose that
research work in a tribal community involves becoming ‘‘family
members.’’ Instead, more subtly, in noting that the social organization of many tribal communities is traditionally kinship based,
we believe it is important for researchers to understand how relationships are patterned in these communities. The researcher’s
entry into tribal communities often involves the development of a
sense of relatedness to a system of social organization defined in
kinship terms. Kinship determines responsibilities in relationships and frames the presence and interactions between the
researcher and tribal members. A limited appreciation of this
can lead to a lack of grounding with no sense of mutual responsibility, negating the initiation of CBPR. The kinship roles help
the researcher to understand the tribal system of relatedness. We
are not experts on all tribal communities, and each community is
different. Our goal here is simply to draw from our personal
experience to highlight some of the ways that kinship structures
influence CBPR in indigenous communities and to suggest how
to navigate effectively within these structures. We believe that
understanding the considerations associated with kinship relational structures are crucial for the development of culturally
competent research relationships in Native American, Alaska
Native, and Canadian First Nation communities. Such understanding is necessary because engagement with tribal communities in research on youth involves their most precious elements,
their children.
CBPR IN A KINSHIP STRUCTURE
Before considering the research implications of CBPR in a
kinship structure, we need to outline the multiple meanings of
kinship. Most indigenous groups live in families in which
expected behaviors are defined by kinship roles, with kinship in
these societies ultimately serving as a core feature of cultural
identity and a central organizing principle (Horse, 2001; Weaver,
2001). These kinship roles are reflected in the linguistic terms
used to define relationships (Hymes, 1974; Mohatt & Thomas,
2006; Trimble & Mohatt, 2006), which, in turn, contain implicit
expectations for the fulfillment of kinship responsibilities
(Garroutte, 2003). In some tribes, relationships defined by clan
are as significant as those defined by close biological relationships and can be the major force in shaping a child’s familial
and social environments (Hoxie, 1996). A child learns to identify
others linguistically as older or younger brothers, uncles, aunts,
grandparents, and teasing cousins. Cousins in Western kinship
terms may become brothers or sisters in indigenous terms. Words
for these relationships may also vary by gender. Rules for
interactions are often carefully specified in terms of to whom one
can speak, as well as when and how to speak to them. In many
traditional tribal settings, a younger person may not speak first
with an Elder or ask a direct question. Most critically for
researchers, kinship communities can always locate a person
within the kinship network. An individual within the network
will have had a long history with the person and the person’s
family. This includes a temporal point in a generational relationship and an expectation of continuity into the future.
Outsiders to the community—including researchers—have
specific kinship terms applied to them as relationships evolve.
As the researcher moves from the status of ‘‘stranger’’ and ‘‘different’’ to becoming embedded in the nexus of community,
acceptance follows—as when an Alaska community member and
Elder whom we have known for only 3 years says ‘‘Welcome
home’’ when we return to the village. The desire to establish kin
relationships is illustrated by the experience of one of the present authors who, while on leave on the Navajo Nation, was
assigned the nickname of ‘‘the in-law’’ by Dine´ College students
as a way of relating to her as kin. In some communities, gaining
an understanding of outsiders (including researchers) not only in
terms of professional roles but also in terms of their identities
within their own familial, historical, and geographic contexts is a
Child Development Perspectives, Volume 6, Number 1, 2012, Pages 55–60
Relationship With the Community
standard cultural practice. This way of understanding relationships requires researchers to talk about themselves in personal
ways not typical in mainstream research. Indeed, such sharing
and the ultimate acceptance of being identified in kinship terms
by research partners can present real challenges, as the canons
of research ethics would seem to consider it an ethically inappropriate dual relationship to work with one’s own family as
research participants (Trimble & Fisher, 2006). Again, what is
critical to understand is that being understood and accepted
within kinship terms is an integral part of the research process
itself, because it is only through the development of a strong,
trusting relationship with an Native American, Alaska Native, or
Canadian First Nation community that ecologically valid
research can be conducted.
In addition to understanding kinship connections in the present day and the kinship quality of his or her relationship to the
community, the researcher must also be aware that core kinship
values can reach back to ancestors and forward to future generations and extend to the surrounding animate and inanimate creation (e.g., Brown & Cousins, 2001; Cooper, 1998; Markstrom,
2008). As a source of creation stories, this dimension of kinship
often finds expression in ceremonial practices, and may have
implications for the research process. For example, many Native
peoples speak of making decisions today while being mindful of
the seven generations to follow—an ideology originating from
the Gai Eneshah Go’ Nah, or Iroquois Great Law of Peace (Chief
Oren Lyons, Haudenosaunee Faithkeeper, as cited in Ewen,
1993). Researchers should consider the implications of communities’ weighing the potentially pervasive impacts of their
research activities beyond the here-and-now.
These kinship distinctions in the research relationship call for
an understanding of how research and researchers are contextualized in community understandings. Research-related tasks are
only one aspect of a broader, long-term relationship between
people. Whereas the researcher often views publication and
theory as the endpoint of research, communities tend to view
things in quite different ways, starting with an understanding,
and an expectation, that the relationship will continue beyond
the conclusion of a particular study. Similarly, community members, especially parents and caregivers, may be much more interested in new knowledge as a means of serving immediate needs
in their community than as a means of developing generalizable
knowledge or advancing the researcher’s goals, and they may
even be interested in addressing questions different from those
of the researcher. Once trust is established, researchers may also
be approached for the unique skills they have to offer the community. One researcher was asked to review a tribal member’s
college application essay, with the comment, ‘‘We heard you
know how to write these kinds of papers.’’
Researchers must be responsive to such concerns and requests
and approach their role in the community in flexible and adaptive ways. Beyond the time duration of the research relationship,
we have found that there is also an expectation of consistency in
57
contact, and of giving back to the community through research
products of practical use to community members. Many of our
research projects start with a steering committee consisting of
community coresearchers, whose first task is often to develop
guiding principles for the project largely focused on the commitment to a collaborative relationship, continuity, and local needs.
This defines the contexts, processes, and expected outcomes; it
also defines a set of roles and expected behaviors for the
researchers.
IMPLICATIONS OF CBPR IN A KINSHIP STRUCTURE:
THE RESEARCH QUESTION NEGOTIATED WITHIN A
KINSHIP STRUCTURE
One of the important implications of CBPR as a kinship-based
process is that it requires recognition that when researchers are
outsiders, the community will expect to become involved in the
formulation of the research question in a way that addresses local
community needs and concerns. It also requires acknowledgment
that generating research questions often involves long negotiations, which may result in changes to preexisting research protocols. These negotiations involve developing close, power-sharing
relationships with a community’s most trusted members, typically
Elders or other cultural knowledge bearers. This requires a substantial time commitment to building relationships, listening to
varying opinions and expressions of needs and concerns, and
developing a mutually determined research process. In two of
the authors’ works developing a community-based prevention
trial for youth and their parents, 15 years were spent generating
research questions, identifying methods that came out of and
made sense to an oral-based culture, and engaging community
members and participants in cointerpretation of the data (Mohatt
et al., 2004).
It is critical to determine with the community their decisionmaking preferences, including areas where they want input and
areas they want to control without researcher involvement.
Because we are not naturally members of the kinship network,
and cannot presume to always know the rules of the structure,
this is something we must negotiate.
INDIGENOUS THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT TO
GUIDE RESEARCH
This essential issue of the relational world in which children
from indigenous cultures are embedded raises the fundamental
question, what theories of human development underpin the
investigator’s research planning? Indigenous cultures possess
developmental theories that bear some similarity to Western theories, replete with concepts such as lifespan stages and critical
periods of development (Markstrom, 2008), These can be
accessed in indigenous and anthropological writings, as well as
in the cultures’ oral traditions. For example, Begay (1983) articulated stages of development among the Navajo, including
Child Development Perspectives, Volume 6, Number 1, 2012, Pages 55–60
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James Allen et al.
Honitse´kees Nı´ lı´ inii Hazli˛i˛’ or ‘‘One Begins Thinking,’’ in which
the child demonstrates advancement in logical thought processes
corresponding to those of early adolescence described in
Western theory. Life-cycle beliefs of a Native culture find
expression in particular rituals and ceremonies. For example,
one of us was visiting with a Navajo friend who pulled out her
infant daughter’s ‘‘first laugh party’’ photo album. The researcher
was perplexed, being unaware of this important ceremonial event
in the life cycle that celebrates and affirms the child’s emotional
potential for human relationships and connections to a kinship
network. Indicators of pubertal maturation and growth in boys
and girls in many Native cultures are likewise recognized and
ritualistically celebrated first and foremost by the kin group to
ensure continued success in life-cycle endeavors.
Similarly, as two of the authors have grown to understand
Yup’ik concepts of development, indigenous theory has come to
guide interventions. In one community, the point of departure for
developing the intervention was a community-wide meeting in
which members of three age cohorts spanning youth to late adulthood answered certain questions about their life experience. The
focus of this meeting was on understanding the context of development so that resulting intervention activities could address the
realities youth face today while also remaining integrated with
traditional Yup’ik cultural values and practices.
Researchers must make efforts to understand the meaning and
significance of recognized developmental milestones of a particular culture. They must also ascertain specific values for desired
outcomes of child and adolescent development and for the perceived mechanisms for achieving such outcomes. For example,
the role of rituals and ceremonies in Native cultures as mechanisms for fostering optimal adolescent development should be
considered (Markstrom, 2008). As researchers strive to develop
and implement successful interventions, it is important that they
consider the implicit wisdom of desired socialization practices
that are internally consistent to a culture and incorporate traditional rituals and ceremonies within intervention efforts. One of
the authors worked with a Southeastern tribe for several years to
meld traditional tribal concepts and rituals with Western-based
psychotherapeutic approaches, achieving an important synthesis
of Native and non-Native concepts of child development and
healing processes (Novins, 2010).
MANAGING TIME: RESEARCHER AND COMMUNITY
TIMELINES
We have clearly learned how research priorities, including
research timelines, are not necessarily community priorities. For
example, one of the authors returned to a community after the
death of a respected Elder and was informed that no data collection could begin until after the Elder’s burial. Research plans
are dependent upon relationship events that occur within the
defined kinship structure. In our experience, the critical issue in
timelines is to understand their contextual relationship determi-
nates, which leads the researcher back to the crucial dimensions
of sharing power through negotiation of relationships. The
suicide of a young person may delay work in one community, yet
in another community, we were requested to come immediately
to begin the work so people could, as they put it, go ‘‘beyond our
grief.’’ For all circumstances, we have learned never to assume
and to always ask when it would be permissible to engage in
research activities.
Researchers also need to be sufficiently flexible in their
approach to timelines to allow for important rituals and events in
the everyday life of tribal communities that can become key
parts of an ongoing research project. This became apparent when
a large number of beluga whales came into the bay in a tribal
community that was the site of a prevention research project.
Adults and youth immediately gathered to hunt, to help land the
whales onto the beach, and to process the meat. This unanticipated event took precedence over a planned prevention-program
activity that went unattended. The experience taught us that it is
crucial for researchers to see that such culturally significant
events can be serendipitous opportunities for serving the goals of
the research. The arrival of the belugas could have served as an
opportunity for the project leader to change plans, participate in
the hunt, and then integrate the event into a later activity and
debriefing.
RECOVERING FROM ERRORS AND RESEARCH
‘‘FAILURES’’
As should already be apparent, researchers should expect to
make errors that can often define the research relationship in
positive ways that move the project forward or, alternatively,
foreclose possibilities. We have made errors and frustrated a
community, but over time, were able to reestablish trust.
After the beluga whales incident, the director of the youth prevention project responded to the timeline setback by abruptly
leaving the community, frustrated and angry, without discussing
the issue or notifying local project staff. The principal investigator contacted the leadership of the community to consider
options. The project manager was willing to resign or be fired.
We asked the community leadership what they wanted us to do.
Following a discussion among the leadership, the community
reported they had a relationship with this project manager and
felt that the current difficulty would resolve itself over time. The
project manager had developed a trusted relationship with their
youth, had given much, and was liked and respected. They
wished to repair the trust. After an agreed-upon break in the
project director’s work, he returned and completed the project,
emphasizing that a sense of shared comembership (Erickson,
1975) can facilitate recovery from these types of cross-cultural
miscommunications and errors.
We have also received complaints from community members
about the exclusion of someone or some group from the research
process. For example, one of the authors formed a solid research
Child Development Perspectives, Volume 6, Number 1, 2012, Pages 55–60
Relationship With the Community
partnership with key community members only to discover that
long-standing divisions within the community had led to the
exclusion of several key tribal members. Because we take such
things seriously, a complex set of discussions ensued to collaboratively create a carefully thought out response.
We are thankful for the gracious understanding and correction
of our Native friends. For example, while conducting research,
one of us was closely observing the building of a structure for an
Apache girl’s puberty ceremony. An Apache female acquaintance explained that this was men’s activity and women (including the researcher) should keep an appropriate distance.
Correspondingly, there are activities in which men should not be
involved, such as the pubescent Apache girl’s construction of
her wickiup. A further consideration for the female researcher is
to be aware that if she is experiencing her monthly cycle, or ‘‘her
moon,’’ she may not attend certain ceremonies. These illustrations underscore the importance of acquiring knowledge of the
protocol of a particular culture and ⁄ or ceremony and following
the family, community, and tribal processes of social interaction.
These illustrations suggest just how important it is to consider
what constitutes an ‘‘outsider,’’ as well as the fact that mistakes
will be made. The researcher, even one who shares ethnic or
tribal group identification, must always understand that he or she
is entering a community where people know each other as kin.
Community relationships are complex and require a balance of
interests that extend back generations, and that occasionally
involve ongoing intracommunity conflicts. Leaving some people
out of important aspects of the research process, or taking shortcuts in seeking permission, gaining access, or making decisions,
inevitably backfires. As ethnographers know, it is essential to
understand community structure and dynamics to ensure that all
community stakeholders and power brokers are consulted. In our
own work, we have found it helpful to keep daily field book
entries of questions that arise that should be addressed in collaboration with our community coresearchers. This open process
reveals the strength of tribal communities in accepting our struggles and shortcomings and their willingness to work through
them once trust is established.
DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS WITHIN A
KINSHIP STRUCTURE
Research results can have an impact on an extended kinship
community in unique ways—the results of research, after all, are
about relatives. This is an important issue in understanding community sensitivities regarding reporting of results as well as the
history of negative research experiences that tribal groups have
often endured. Community collaborators must be consulted to
determine the nature of dissemination and the degree to which
anonymity of the indigenous community should be maintained in
reporting results.
Another key area for research within a kinship structure is
publication and authorship. In our work, we determine what level
59
of review the community wishes for publications and presentations. We also discuss with the community the question of
ownership of data. In one seemingly minor example of the myriad of complexities that can arise in data ownership, Institutional
Review Boards typically require data storage for a set time, after
which data are destroyed. In one of our studies, Elders regarded
it as ‘‘odd’’ that we would destroy data once it had been analyzed.
We have found that Elders often view researchers as stewards
and feel that the words they have imparted to us are for the benefit of communities. So why, they wonder, would we violate this
role and destroy their words, perhaps making them inaccessible
to future generations? This example reflects the keen sense of
kinship responsibility, encompassing all activities, that is
embedded in a forward relationship to grandchildren and to
future events, perhaps long after we are all gone.
DEEPENING THE RESEARCH RELATIONSHIP
All of us can attest to the quality of relationships that we have
formed with community partners and coresearchers while doing
our work. Native researchers in particular may seek to return to
a community where a certain degree of connection exists, fulfilling an important role as a bridge between the indigenous culture
and the mainstream research institution.
On the other hand, this form of community embeddedness
raises concern about what may be relinquished through sharing
control over the research process and findings. Is basic objectivity
compromised, increasing risk of bias and threats to internal validity? Depending on the nature of the study (e.g., experimental vs.
ethnographic), control may or may not be of key importance. We
believe that, done correctly, this process enhances both external
and ecological validity. Recent methodological literature highlights this conclusion, through techniques such as member checking (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000), in which interpretations of findings
are scrutinized by those who are being written about, yielding
interpretation that includes culturally informed perspectives.
In summary, conceptualization of tribal participatory research
as kinship-based allows for deeper understanding of tribal communities and of the nature of research itself. This can require
rethinking of some of our research ethics and a willingness to
address new challenges, share control of the research process,
and be open-minded to conceptual perspectives outside our own.
The end result can be a broadened understanding of research
and our role as researchers, as well as the provision of greater
service to tribal communities.
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