1. No category

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Clin Transplant 2014 DOI: 10.1111/ctr.12336
Clinical Transplantation
Review Article
Generic tacrolimus in solid organ
transplantation
Taube D, Jones G, O’Beirne J, Wennberg L, Connor A, Rasmussen A,
Backman L. Generic tacrolimus in solid organ transplantation.
Abstract: The availability of a wide range of immunosuppressive
therapies has revolutionized the management of patients who have
undergone solid organ transplantation (SOT). However, the cost of
immunosuppressive drugs remains high. This situation has led to the
development of generic equivalents, which are similar in quality, safety,
and efficacy to their approved innovator drugs. There are data available
for three generic brands, tacrolimus (Intas), tacrolimus (PharOS), and
tacrolimus (Sandoz). Bioequivalence has been demonstrated for generic
tacrolimus (Sandoz) within a narrow therapeutic range to its innovator
tacrolimus drug (Prograf) in both healthy volunteers and kidney
transplant patients. Clinical experience with this generic tacrolimus
formulation has also been established in both de novo and conversion
patients who have undergone kidney and liver transplantation, as well as
in conversion of other SOT patients, including lung and heart recipients.
D. Taubea, G. Jonesb, J. O’Beirnec,
L. Wennbergd, A. Connore,
A. Rasmussenf and L. Backmang
a
Imperial College Academic Health Science
Centre, bUCL Centre for Nephrology, Royal
Free Hospital, cShelia Sherlock Liver Centre,
UCL Institute of Liver and Digestive Health,
Royal Free Hospital, London, UK, dDepartment
of Transplantation Surgery, Karolinska
University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden,
e
South West Transplant Centre, Derriford
Hospital, Plymouth, UK, fDepartment of
General Surgery and Transplantation,
Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark and
g
Transplantation Surgery, Uppsala University
Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden
Key words: bioequivalence – conversion – de
novo – efficacy – generic – heart – kidney –
liver – safety – tacrolimus
Corresponding author: Prof. David Taube,
Imperial College Academic Health Science
Centre, Hammersmith Hospital, London W12
0HS, UK.
Tel.: 0207 589 5111; fax: 0203 3131374;
e-mail: [email protected]
Conflict of interest: None.
Accepted for publication 6 February 2014
Solid organ transplantation (SOT) has been an
area of rapid development over the last few decades and is the treatment of choice for many
patients with end-stage organ failure of vital
organs, including the kidney, liver, heart, and
lungs. Five-yr patient survival rates for most
organ transplant programs now exceed 50–70%
(1). The introduction of immunosuppressants for
the prevention and treatment of organ rejection
has been fundamental in the establishment of
SOT as a viable treatment option (2). SOT recipients typically receive lifelong treatment with
immunosuppressive drugs, with the ultimate aim
of prolonging patient and graft survival (2).
Immunosuppression for SOT is commonly based
on multiple drug regimens that often include an
antiproliferative agent, a calcineurin inhibitor,
and a period of steroid therapy. The classical calcineurin inhibitors, cyclosporine and tacrolimus,
are used for prevention, maintenance, and reversal of established rejection (2, 3).
The financial costs of immunosuppressive therapy remain high. This situation has led to the
development of generic equivalents, which are similar in quality, safety, and efficacy to their approved
innovator drugs. Tacrolimus, cyclosporine, and
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Taube et al.
mycophenolate mofetil are now all available as
generic drugs.
This article summarizes the available published
data for three generic tacrolimus brands, considering the bioequivalence and clinical experience
reported in de novo and conversion patients who
have undergone kidney, liver, and other SOTs.
These generic tacrolimus formulations are immediate release, twice daily, oral preparations licensed
for the prophylaxis of transplant rejection in liver,
kidney, or heart allograft recipients, and the treatment of allograft rejection resistant to treatment
with other immunosuppressive medicinal products
(4–7).
Bioequivalence of generic tacrolimus with
innovator drug
Licensing of generic drugs requires single-dose bioequivalence studies in healthy volunteers who typically receive the generic and innovator products in
a two-way crossover study. The volunteers
undergo blood testing throughout the dosing interval to facilitate the calculation of the mean maximal plasma concentration (Cmax) and the mean
area under the curve (AUC). AUC concentration
measurements represent the extent of absorption.
The Cmax and the time to Cmax (tmax) characterize
the rate of this absorption. For the majority of
generic products, bioequivalence is said to exist if
the 90% confidence intervals for these values fall
within the accepted range of 80–125%. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) has recommended
a tighter acceptance margin of 90–111% for certain
“critical dose drugs,” of which tacrolimus is one
example (8).
In addition, there is no requirement to determine
bioequivalence in the target population (i.e., transplant recipients) or to demonstrate efficacy, safety,
or effects of commonly co-prescribed medications.
Although bioequivalence between a new generic
product and the innovator product must be demonstrated, there is no requirement to show bioequivalence between the generic product and other
generic formulations already in use. Switching
between generic formulations should be undertaken in a planned fashion with appropriate monitoring and under the supervision of a transplant
clinician (9).
Bioequivalence studies in healthy volunteers
Bioequivalence of generic tacrolimus (Sandoz) and
innovator drug has been demonstrated in two
open-label, single-dose, randomized, two period,
two treatment, two sequence, two-way crossover
studies carried out under fasted conditions in 46
healthy male subjects, aged 19–43 yr (10). In these
studies, which assessed the 0.5 and 5 mg doses of
tacrolimus (Sandoz), the 90% confidence intervals
calculated for AUC0–t, AUC0–∞, and Cmax were in
agreement with those calculated by the marketing
authorization holder and were within the bioequivalence acceptance range of 80–125% (Table 1).
Based on the pharmacokinetic parameters of
tacrolimus under fasting conditions, it was concluded that generic and innovator drugs were bioequivalent with respect to rate and extent of
absorption, and fulfilled the bioequivalence
requirements outlined in the relevant Committee
for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP)
Note for Guidance. Bioequivalence for the 5-mg
capsules proved to be within the narrow range recommended by the EMA. However, due to insufficient patient numbers in the study that investigated
the 0.5 mg dose, the narrow therapeutic range was
not reached. As a result, a new open-label, singledose, randomized two treatment, two period, two
sequence, two-way crossover bioequivalence study
with an acceptance range of 90–111% was
Table 1. Bioequivalence of generic tacrolimus 5.0 mg in the 80–125% rangea
Treatment
(n = 43)
Dose
(mg)
AUC0–t
AUC0–∞
Cmax
tmax
t1/2
Test
0.5
5.0
0.5
5.0
0.5
5.0
0.5
5.0
34.3 18.6
402 211
32.2 19.6
388 207
1.10 (1.01–1.19)
1.05 (0.99–1.11)
22.7
15.2
37.2 19.1
424 219
35.5 20.2
410 214
1.06 (1.00–1.14)
1.04 (0.99–1.10)
19.3
14.0
3.25 1.19
39.2 13.5
3.21 1.27
39.3 14.5
1.03 (0.94–1.11)
1.01 (0.92–1.11)
23.3
27.0
1.25 (0.75–3.5)
1.5 (0.75–3.0)
1.5 (0.75–2.67)
1.75 (0.75–6.0)
–
36 34 35 36 –
Reference
Ratio (90% CI)b
CV (%)
–
8
7
4
8
–
AUC0–∞, area under the plasma concentration–time curve from time zero to infinity; AUC0–t, area under the plasma concentration–time curve from time zero
to t hours; Cmax, maximum plasma concentration; tmax, time for maximum concentration; t1/2, half-life; CV, coefficient of variation.
a
Non-transformed values; arithmetic mean SD, tmax (median, range).
b
ln-transformed values.
2
Generic tacrolimus in SOT
performed in 219 healthy male subjects, aged 19–
43 yr (10). This study confirmed that calculated
90% confidence intervals for AUC0–t, AUCinf, and
Cmax for tacrolimus were within the predefined 90–
111% acceptance range (Table 2).
Two other generic tacrolimus brands have been
investigated for bioequivalence in healthy volunteers. The 90% CIs for generic tacrolimus (Intas)
vs. innovator drug were 102.99–120.80% for Cmax
and 91.5–105.9% for AUC0–72 at the 0.5 mg dose;
and 110.6–121.0% for Cmax and 96.2–103.6% for
AUC0–t for the 5 mg dose (11). The 90% CIs for
generic tacrolimus (PharOS) vs. innovator drug
were 105.6–117.9% for Cmax and 93.06–104.74%
for AUC0–t at the 5 mg dose (12).
Therefore, of the three generic products investigated, tacrolimus (Sandoz) is the only product to
achieve the EMA requirement for both AUC and
Cmax.
Bioequivalence studies in transplant patients
Regulatory approval of generic products requires
only the demonstration of bioequivalence with the
innovator drug in healthy volunteers. However,
kidney transplant recipients are known to exhibit a
higher rate of tacrolimus clearance than healthy
volunteers (13), and the need for robust pharmacokinetic data for the use of new generic formulations in this patient group has previously been
highlighted (14, 15). In addition, both the USA
(16) and European (9) transplant societies, as well
as other expert groups (17, 18), have noted the limitations of extrapolating data from healthy volunteers to transplant populations.
Tacrolimus pharmacokinetics are characterized
by a high degree of interpatient and to a lesser
extent intrapatient variability. Factors affecting tacrolimus pharmacokinetics include patient demographics, liver function, diurnal variation,
concomitant immunosuppressant administration,
gastrointestinal disturbances, coexisting diabetes
mellitus, and genetic differences in CYP3A4 and Pglycoprotein expression (19). In transplant
patients, the key contributors to intrapatient variability in immunosuppressant dosing are usually
drug–drug, drug–disease, and food–drug interactions (20).
A prospective, multicenter, open-label, randomized crossover study to compare the steadystate pharmacokinetics of generic tacrolimus
(Sandoz) and innovator drug in stable kidney
transplant patients was carried out by Alloway
et al. (20). During a 14-d screening period, eligible patients continued to receive their current
tacrolimus formulation at an unchanged dose.
Following re-evaluation for inclusion/exclusion
criteria, patients were then randomized to remain
on their current tacrolimus preparation or to
switch to the alternative formulation on a mg:mg
basis. The primary objective of the study was to
estimate the ratio of AUC0–12 h and Cmax at
steady state for generic vs. innovator drug in stable kidney transplant patients using data from
Day 14 and Day 28 of the study. A total of 71
patients were recruited to the study; 68 were
evaluable for pharmacokinetics; and 65 completed the study. The mean (SD) tacrolimus dose
at baseline was 5.7 (4.2) mg/d (median 4.0 mg/d,
range 0.5–20.0 mg/d). All patients received an
unchanged dose throughout the study, and all
measured tacrolimus trough concentrations were
above the lower limit of quantification (approximately 0.10 ng/mL). The drug concentration profiles for generic tacrolimus and innovator drug
are shown in Fig. 1 (20). Importantly, there were
no statistically significant differences in AUC0–
12 h, C0, Cmax, or tmax between generic tacrolimus
and innovator drug based on mean values of
data obtained on Day 14 and Day 28. Correlations (r values) between C12 and AUC0–12 h at
Day 14 and Day 28 for generic tacrolimus and
innovator drug were 0.837 and 0.917 vs. 0.773
and 0.887, respectively. Means of individual subject’s coefficient of variation values for AUC0–
12 h, Cmax, and C0 across all four pharmacokinetic assessments (Days 7, 14, 21, and 28) were
similar for both treatment groups.
Table 2. Bioequivalence of generic tacrolimus 0.5 mg in the 90–111% rangea
Treatment (n = 207)
AUC0–t
AUC0–∞
Cmax
tmax
t1/2
Test
Reference
Ratio (90% CI)b
CV (%)
32.8 16.7
31.6 16.4
1.05 (1.02–1.08)
19.2
41.0 22.8
39.8 22.6
1.04 (1.01–1.07)
20.3
3.47 1.35
3.71 1.39
0.93 (0.90–0.97)
22.0
1.5 (0.75–4.0)
1.5 (0.5–3.0)
–
–
36 10
37 11
–
–
AUC0–∞, area under the plasma concentration–time curve from time zero to infinity; AUC0–t, area under the plasma concentration–time curve from time zero
to t hours; Cmax, maximum plasma concentration; tmax, time for maximum concentration; t1/2, half-life; CV, coefficient of variation.
a
Non-transformed values; arithmetic mean SD, tmax (median, range).
b
ln-transformed values.
3
Taube et al.
Fig. 1. Drug concentration profiles for generic and innovator
tacrolimus (20). Generic/brand ratios and 90% CI intervals:
Area under the curve (AUC)0–12 h, 1.02 (90% CI 97–108%,
p = 0.486); Cmax, 1.09 (90% CI 101–118%, p = 0.057); Cmin,
1.02 (90% CI 95–109%, p = 0.651).
Application of bioequivalence testing to both
the generic and the innovator drug, comparing
the ratios of geometric means for AUC0–12 h and
Cmax at different time points one wk apart, illustrated that both formulations showed variability
even within the same treatment period. The ratio
of geometric means for both formulations varied
between 0.96 and 1.06 at Day 7 vs. Day 14 and
Day 21 vs. Day 28, but was not significantly different from each other. The study concluded that
generic tacrolimus had a similar pharmacokinetic
profile to innovator tacrolimus and was bioequivalent in kidney transplant recipients according to US Food and Drug Administration and
EMA guidelines.
Clinical evidence for de novo use
A number of publications have reported the use of
generic tacrolimus de novo in transplantation. All
studies have so far used tacrolimus (Sandoz).
A transplant group in Utah compared the dose
requirements of generic tacrolimus with innovator
drug to achieve similar tacrolimus exposure (C0)
over the first 28-d post-transplant (21). They took
the first 40 kidney transplant patients treated with
generic tacrolimus and compared them with the
next 40 patients who received innovator drug. In
the generic group, 33 patients met the inclusion criteria vs. 34 innovator drug-treated patients. Mean
dose (mg/kg/d) and C0 were similar for all time
points for both formulations, but renal function
(glomerular filtration rate) assessed by CockcroftGault was significantly higher with innovator drug
at Day 28 (73 29 vs. 67 20 mL/min;
p = 0.02). Other safety parameters were not
included. The group concluded that initial dosing
strategies were similar for both formulations as
similar doses achieved comparable tacrolimus drug
concentrations.
4
Driven by the opportunity to reduce costs, a
UK transplant center introduced generic tacrolimus in place of the innovator drug in their de
novo transplant program and subsequently
sought to evaluate the relationship between C0
and AUC in a cohort of 16 patients (22). In the
13 patients who received donation after cardiac
death organs and in whom induction was with
basiliximab, generic tacrolimus was commenced
at 0.1 mg/kg/d divided into two equal doses with
target blood levels of 8–10 ng/mL. In the three
patients who received living donor organs, induction was with alemtuzumab and generic tacrolimus administration at 2 mg twice daily was
delayed until Day 3 post-transplantation with
target blood levels of 5–7 ng/mL. Serial tacrolimus concentrations were measured on Day 4 or
5 (Day 5 in the three alemtuzumab patients)
post-transplantation. Efficacy and safety were
not reported. The linear regression coefficient of
multiple determination [r2] for the relationship
between C0 and the AUC was 0.92. Comparable
to the best available data for the innovator drug,
these results support the use of C0 as a reliable
marker of AUC (total tacrolimus exposure) with
generic tacrolimus.
The same center subsequently reported its clinical outcome data. A retrospective single-center
clinical comparison of innovator drug (n = 48) and
generic tacrolimus (n = 51) in de novo kidney
transplant recipients found no statistically significant differences in the rates of patient survival,
graft survival, biopsy-proven acute rejection, calcineurin inhibitor toxicity, cytomegalovirus infection, delayed graft function, and transplant
function between the two comparable treatment
groups at six months, indicating therapeutic equivalence (23).
Heldenbrand et al. (24) compared the pharmacokinetics and clinical outcomes in 55 de novo kidney and liver transplant recipients administered
either generic tacrolimus or innovator drug. The
patient group comprised 34 kidney and 21 liver
patients, of whom 16 kidney/11 liver patients were
initiated on generic tacrolimus and 18 kidney/10
liver patients were started on innovator drug. Tacrolimus dose and whole blood levels were
recorded at two wk and monthly for the first
three months after transplantation. Outcomes
were compared by combining kidney and liver
patients for both formulations. Acute rejection
occurred in 7% of patients for both formulations.
Both tacrolimus mean dose and blood concentration were significantly higher with generic tacrolimus at two wk but were statistically similar by
Month 3. No safety data were provided. It was
Generic tacrolimus in SOT
concluded that the ability to achieve and maintain
therapeutic tacrolimus concentrations, and the
incidence of rejection episodes were similar.
In the largest de novo experience in liver transplantation, Cheung et al. (25) described the outcome of 48 patients initiated on generic tacrolimus
and compared this to 46 similar patients commenced on innovator drug. In this study, total tacrolimus doses and C0 levels were similar in both
groups, and there were no significant differences in
the rates of biopsy-proven rejection, cytomegalovirus infection, acute kidney injury, sepsis, or graft
loss between groups.
Clinical evidence for conversion
There is limited published experience for conversion of any branded immunosuppressive drug to a
generic equivalent. However, a number of studies
investigating the conversion of patients to generic
tacrolimus (Sandoz) from its innovator drug have
now been published. The results from these studies
should be viewed in context as they are limited by
the fact that they are largely non-randomized and
non-placebo controlled and assess only one generic
formulation.
Kidney
As has been discussed above, in the prospective,
randomized, two period (14 d per period), crossover, and steady-state pharmacokinetic study
undertaken by Alloway et al. (20), generic tacrolimus showed a similar pharmacokinetic profile
to innovator tacrolimus (as assessed by a comparison of AUC0–12 h, Cmax, and C0 concentration) in stable renal transplant patients. Clinical
outcomes were also similar across the two
groups. There were no graft losses or episodes
of rejection during this short study. Eight
patients (11.9%) experienced a total of nine
adverse events (AEs) while receiving generic tacrolimus, compared to 12 patients (17.9%) who
experienced 21 AEs during administration of the
innovator drug. The only AE to occur in more
than one patient under generic tacrolimus was
oropharyngeal pain (n = 2). During treatment
with innovator tacrolimus, vomiting (n = 4),
nausea (n = 2), diarrhea, and headache (n = 3)
occurred in more than one patient. No unexpected AEs were observed, and most AEs were
mild and transient. One patient experienced three
serious AEs (headache, mild rash, and squamous
cell carcinoma) during treatment with the innovator drug. None were considered to be related
to study drug.
In a study by McDevitt-Potter et al. (26), a
mixed cohort of 70 stable transplant patients converted to generic tacrolimus, including 37 kidney
recipients, were examined. Patients in whom stable
trough tacrolimus levels had been achieved on an
unchanged dose of innovator drug during the previous four wk, and in whom the target level
remained constant and no medications known to
interact with tacrolimus were started or stopped,
were switched to generic tacrolimus on a mg:mg
basis. The average time from transplant was
70 months, and the average time from last change
in tacrolimus dose was 20 months. The mean tacrolimus trough level was 5.8 2.1 ng/mL prior
to switch and 5.9 2.7 ng/mL after the switch
(p = 0.81). The mean tacrolimus dose was 4.4 3.2 mg/d prior to the switch and 4.5 2.9 mg/d
afterward (p = 0.89). Of the 70 patients switched
to generic tacrolimus, 79% required no dose
adjustment, 10% required an upward titration,
and 11% a downward titration. There were no
cases of acute rejection, and only four new AEs
were reported (nausea, mouth sores, rash, and
vision changes). The authors concluded that dose
requirements and trough concentrations were similar between innovator and generic tacrolimus but
that additional drug monitoring post-conversion
should be recommended as one of every three to
four patients may require dose titration.
Momper et al. (27) reported a retrospective,
non-randomized, analysis of innovator to generic
tacrolimus substitution in 103 stable transplant
recipients, including 55 kidney recipients. Transplant recipients had been stable for at least
three months post-transplant. In the kidney group,
the mean post-transplant time was 48 months and
the mean observation period prior to conversion
was 47 d and post-conversion 50 d. Target whole
blood tacrolimus levels in the kidney recipients
were 9–10 ng/mL for the first three months posttransplant and 5–7 ng/mL thereafter. The mean
weight adjusted daily dose did not significantly
change after conversion (0.087 vs. 0.091 mg/kg/d,
p > 0.05), but the mean tacrolimus concentration/
dose was significantly reduced after conversion
(125.3 vs. 110.4 (ng/mL)/(mg/kg/d), p < 0.05).
Actual trough concentrations declined by an
average of 1.98 ng/mL in liver and 0.87 ng/mL in
kidney transplant patients following the switch,
after accounting for all significant covariates. No
appreciable change was observed in biochemical
indices of liver function or kidney function following substitution, and there were no cases of acute
rejection. Despite the drop in tacrolimus concentrations, the study investigators concluded that the
conversion to generic tacrolimus appeared to be
5
Taube et al.
safe when coupled with vigilant therapeutic drug
monitoring.
The same study center later reported on a larger
cohort, which included 180 kidney recipients (28).
These patients were followed for a mean of 104 d
prior to and for 422 d after conversion from innovator to generic tacrolimus. There was no statistically significant change to the concentration to
dose ratio (ng/mL)/(mg/d) after conversion. Liver
function values remained stable but the mean
serum creatinine increased from 1.5 to 1.8 mg/dL
(p = 0.0002). Acute rejection occurred in 12/180
(6.7%) patients after conversion, although 46
rejection episodes were experienced by this cohort
prior to therapy with generic tacrolimus.
Betmouni et al. (29) reported the conversion of
100 stable kidney and pancreas transplant recipients from innovator drug to generic tacrolimus in a
UK single-center study. The initial indicator for
conversion was cost efficiency, and the cohort was
considered as a single group for safety assessments
after conversion. After exclusion of eight patients
(four received interacting medicines, three reconverted to innovator drug, and one was non-compliant), 92 patients were included for analysis. Mean
tacrolimus dose, C0, and serum creatinine
remained stable throughout the study. AEs
included one case each of rash, headache, and flulike symptoms, and these were the three patients
reconverted back to innovator drug. The authors
did not report any cases of acute rejection.
A further retrospective UK single-center study
by Shui et al. (30) reported on planned conversion from innovator tacrolimus to generic tacrolimus in 100 stable kidney transplant recipients
who were an average of 4.8 yr (range 0.7–23 yr)
post-transplant. Ninety-eight patients switched
tacrolimus brand, two patients did not consent,
and two patients subsequently switched back
within two wk due to new symptoms. Postswitch, there was no significant change in mean
daily dose (4.7 mg/d pre and 4.8 mg/d post) or
C0 level (6.3 ng/mL pre and 6.2 ng/mL post).
There were no episodes of rejection, and renal
function remained stable. Four patients developed symptoms of dizziness, and seven patients
had an increase in blood pressure requiring further treatment.
Spence et al. (31) reported a retrospective analysis of the conversion of 234 clinically stable kidney,
liver, and heart transplant recipients to generic tacrolimus six months after transplantation. The 193
kidney transplant recipients had a mean tacrolimus
trough concentration (SD) of 6.79 1.62 ng/
mL before conversion and a mean trough concentration (SD) of 6.97 2.37 ng/mL after conver-
6
sion, equating to a difference of 0.17 2.33 ng/
mL (p = 0.299). Mean follow-up was 106 25 d
for all 234 patients. Serum creatinine concentration
was 1.33 0.48 mg/dL before conversion and
1.36 0.82 mg/dL after conversion; a difference
of 0.04 0.53 mg/dL (p = 0.302). There were no
cases of biopsy-proven acute rejection and no
deaths. Of 234 (1%), three patients reported new
AEs: headache and dizziness, abnormal dreams,
and mental slowing. These three patients were also
included in the six (of 234) patients who reconverted back to innovator drug.
Rosenborg et al. (32) conducted a prospective
study to investigate conversion from innovator
tacrolimus to generic tacrolimus in 42 stable kidney
transplant patients. The mean ratio of trough concentrations of tacrolimus after compared to before
conversion was 1.0 (90% confidence interval, 0.93–
1.07). A change of >10% in estimated glomerular
filtration rate occurred in eight patients. Changes
>20% were not reported in any patient.
Jogia et al. (33) have reported outcomes in 106
stable kidney transplant patients converted to generic tacrolimus from innovator drug. The mean tacrolimus dose was 4.3 2.6 mg/d and 4.1 2.5 mg/d (p = 0.001) pre- and post-conversion,
respectively. The mean trough levels at six months
pre- and post-conversion were 6.6 1.9 ng/mL
and 6.8 1.6 ng/mL (0.161), respectively. No episodes of rejection related to the switch were
observed.
Liver
The aforementioned Momper study (27) included
48 liver transplant patients with stable graft function who were at least six months post-transplant.
The tacrolimus target concentration in this group
was 10–12 ng/mL for the first three months posttransplant, 8–10 ng/mL for months 4–6, and
6–8 ng/mL thereafter. Mean follow-up time preand post-conversion was 49 and 58 d, respectively.
The mean weight adjusted daily dose did not
change significantly (0.039 vs. 0.041 mg/kg/d,
p > 0.05), but the mean tacrolimus concentration/
dose was significantly reduced after conversion
(184.1 vs. 154.7 (ng/mL)/(mg/kg/d), p < 0.05).
Renal function and liver function values remained
stable, and there were no reported episodes of
acute rejection.
A larger cohort involving 203 liver recipients
was later reported by the same center (28). This
subgroup was followed for a mean of 213 d prior
to and for 424 d after conversion. The concentration to dose ratio (ng/mL)/(mg/d) did not significantly change after conversion. Renal function and
Generic tacrolimus in SOT
liver function values remained stable. There were
no acute rejection episodes after conversion,
although 66 cases occurred prior to therapy with
generic tacrolimus.
In the study by Spence et al. (31), 29 stable liver
transplant recipients who had been converted to
generic tacrolimus six months after transplantation had trough tacrolimus concentrations of 6.50
1.53 ng/mL before conversion and 6.98 2.14 ng/mL after conversion (p = 0.279). One liver
transplant recipient experienced headache and dizziness and switched back to innovator drug. There
were no cases of biopsy-proven acute rejection and
no deaths.
Other organs
Betmouni et al. (29) reported the conversion of
100 stable kidney and pancreas transplant patients
from innovator drug to generic tacrolimus.
Although the number of pancreas-alone patients
was not stated, it would seem that the conversion
was uncomplicated.
The study by McDevitt-Potter et al. (26)
included five mixed organ stable transplant recipients, including combined liver-kidney, pancreas
after kidney, and kidney-pancreas-liver transplants. The results were not provided separately
for these subgroups.
In the Spence study (31), 12 patients with stable
heart transplants who were converted to generic tacrolimus six months post-transplant had trough
tacrolimus concentrations of 6.36 1.73 ng/mL
and 6.73 1.64 ng/mL before and after conversion to generic tacrolimus, respectively (p = 0.215).
Dhungel et al. (34) have performed a retrospective analysis of 21 consecutive patients who were
treated with generic tacrolimus following heart
transplant and compared rate of biopsy-proven
acute cellular rejection to historical controls who
were treated with innovator drug. No significant
difference in biopsy-proven acute cellular rejection
was noted between the groups, and rates of opportunistic infection and death were comparable.
Although limited by the single-center, retrospective
design, these preliminary data may be useful to
clinicians facing the option of initiating generic
tacrolimus following heart transplant.
<2 ng/mL. Thus, 73% patients maintained stable
tacrolimus trough levels within 2 ng/mL of the
pre-conversion value (29). Of the 25 (27%) patients
with a change in excess of 2 ng/mL, nine (10%)
developed levels outside the target range of 5–
8 ng/mL.
This experience was mirrored by Shui et al. (30),
who found that 15% of patients had a >40%
change in level post-switch, although dose changes
required to achieve pre-switch levels were small
with most patients only requiring a 1–2 mg/d dose
change.
In the McDevitt-Potter study (26), dose titrations occurred in five patients (7%) in the control
arm and 15 patients (21%) in the study arm
(p = 0.028). Fig. 2 shows the number of patients
per absolute change in dose and change in tacrolimus trough levels.
In the Momper study (27), there was marked
variability between kidney and liver transplant
patients in the weight-adjusted tacrolimus dose
before and after conversion to generic tacrolimus.
However, the mean weight-adjusted daily tacrolimus doses administered to maintain therapeutic
trough concentrations were not significantly different between the innovator drug and generic tacrolimus groups in the liver transplant cohort (0.039 vs.
A
B
Dose changes and variability after conversion
In the cohort of 92 stable kidney and pancreas
patients converted from innovator drug to generic
tacrolimus, Betmouni and colleagues reported that
14 patients (15%) had an increase in tacrolimus
level >2 ng/mL and 11 (12%) had a decrease of
Fig. 2. Change in dose (panel A) and change in tacrolimus
trough level (panel B) before and after conversion to generic
tacrolimus (26).
7
Taube et al.
0.041 mg/kg/d, p > 0.05) or the kidney transplant
cohort (0.087 vs. 0.091 mg/kg/d, p > 0.05). A total
of 43 (42%) patients experienced a dose adjustment after the substitution, with 51.2% of these
patients having an increase in tacrolimus dose and
48.8% experiencing a dose reduction.
In the Spence study (31), the mean SD daily
tacrolimus dose was 4.98 3.37 mg for the innovator drug and 4.99 3.51 mg for generic tacrolimus (p = 0.877). Dosage titrations occurred in 36/
234 (15.4%) patients, with 18 titrations downward
and 18 upward.
Conversion protocol and individualizing dose
requirements
There is published experience describing various
conversion protocols of innovator drug to generic
formulations in stable kidney and liver transplant
patients maintained on innovator drug with substitution to generic tacrolimus (16, 20, 26, 27, 29–
31, 35).
Cost effectiveness
A number of reports have investigated the costs of
using generic tacrolimus vs. innovator drug.
McDevitt-Potter et al. (26) and Momper et al. (27)
discussed various cost savings achieved by switching to generic tacrolimus from innovator drug in
liver and kidney transplant recipients. The mean
monthly drug costs per patient were found to be
US$645 for innovator drug vs. US$593 for generic
tacrolimus ( 8%) (26). Drug acquisition costs for
generic tacrolimus were also found to be 26% less
than innovator drug (27). When assessing the costs
of therapy in kidney and pancreas patients on a
per annum basis, one UK study reported equivalent savings of US$136 000 per 100 patients per
year (29). In addition, Spence et al. (31) reported
savings in drug acquisition costs of US$45 per
patient per month. In all centers, the perceived cost
savings need to be balanced with necessary therapeutic drug monitoring, and the additional health
care resources needed to safely and effectively transition patients to generic immunosuppressants. It
should be noted that cost savings will be country
dependent.
Discussion
Tacrolimus is a calcineurin inhibitor and is a cornerstone in most immunosuppressive regimens
today. Pharmacological bioequivalence has been
demonstrated for the immediate release, twice
daily formulation of generic tacrolimus (Sandoz),
8
with 90% confidence intervals for the relevant
parameters falling within the 90–110% range that
is required by the EMA for critical dose drugs.
Both de novo and conversion clinical experience
with generic tacrolimus have been reported in
renal, liver, and other SOT patients.
Current opinion among the transplant community is that the use of generic immunosuppressive
therapy in preference to branded drugs is safe, but
that certain precautions are needed (36). It is imperative that clinicians are aware of the lack of proven
bioequivalence between different generic compounds, and that stringent therapeutic drug monitoring is in place during the initial switch phase
(15). In addition, the increasing prevalence of generic immunosuppression dictates that patient education and information are paramount in order to
avoid medication errors arising as a result of a lack
of clarity regarding an individual patient’s medications and to ensure adherence to therapy (17, 36).
The narrow therapeutic index of tacrolimus and
the severity of the potential adverse consequences
of subtherapeutic and toxic concentrations necessitate close monitoring of patients’ exposure to the
drug. Units introducing the generic formulations
of tacrolimus must therefore implement measures
to prevent the inadvertent or unsupervised substitution of different formulations, particularly given
that immediate- or prolonged-release tacrolimus
formulations are both available. Aside from deliberate conversions, patients should be maintained
on a single formulation of tacrolimus (9).
Guidance intended to reduce the risk of medication errors with tacrolimus advocates that prescribers use either the exact and full pharmaceutical
form (capsules or granules; intermediate or prolonged release) or the brand name, including the
dose and frequency in both cases (37). Patients
should be advised to note the brand name of their
tacrolimus medicine (37).
Summary
The use of generic immunosuppression is increasing. This article has reviewed the existing literature
regarding the use of generic tacrolimus in transplantation, illustrating that its use is increasingly
widely considered to be safe, efficacious, and cost
effective in both de novo and stable transplant
patient groups, but that conversion programs
require increased therapeutic drug monitoring.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Vanessa Lane for her
expert assistance in the preparation of this manuscript.
Generic tacrolimus in SOT
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