BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT The Spectrum of Life Third Edition Eileen Kennedy Peter Aubusson Peter Hickman GLOSSARY A abiotic pertaining to non-living things absorption the transport of digested food particles from the intestine into the blood absorption spectrum (of water) the degree to which water absorbs the different wavelengths of light abundance the number of individual organisms in an area activation energy the energy that molecules need in order to collide and react with each other active site the part of the enzyme molecule to which the substrate binds active transport the movement of substances through a cell membrane requiring the expenditure of cellular (biological) energy acute disease disease with severe symptoms but does not last long acquired immunity immunity obtained by an organism during its lifetime acquired active immunity immunity found in individuals who are infected by a disease and then develop immunity to that disease active cells cells that act immediately acute disease disease with severe symptoms but does not last long adaptations characteristics that enable organisms to survive in an environment adaptive radiation the evolution of a variety of specialised kinds of organisms from a primitive relatively unspecialised ancestor adeno-associated virus (AAV) a harmless virus used to transfer genes into human DNA in gene therapy adenosine diphosphate (ADP) a compound that occurs in cells and is involved in processes requiring the transfer of energy adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a nucleotide that stores large amounts of energy in its third phosphate bond; this energy is used by cells for various purposes such as transport, synthesis and muscle movement adhesion the attraction between particles of different types adipose fat storage tissue in an animal aerobic using oxygen agglutination clumping or clotting of the blood alimentary canal the passageway through the digestive system from mouth to anus alleopathy a relationship in which one organism directly hinders the growth or development of another allele an alternative form of a gene allergy an immune response against a harmless antigen allergen substances that are antigenic to some (allergic) individuals 636 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE alveoli the air sacs that collectively form lung tissue and exchange respiratory gases with surrounding capillaries amino acid the nitrogen-containing, basic building block molecule of proteins; one of twenty naturally occurring varieties ammonotelic releases waste nitrogenous products as ammonia amylase a catabolic enzyme that decomposes complex sugars (e.g. starch) to glucose anabolic pertaining to the making (synthesis) of complex molecules by chemically joining simpler molecules anaerobic not using oxygen analogous structures superficially similar structures that have evolved independently angiosperm a flowering plant, one of several major plant groups anoxic doesn't contain oxygen antenna a jointed appendage present in arthropods; used for sensation (touch or feel) or swimming or attachment anthropoid resembles humans anthropology the science that is concerned with human origins in terms of physical and cultural evolution antibiotic a chemical that kills a bacterium antibody a protein (an immunoglobulin) formed by B-cells (B-lymphocytes) of the immune system which is directed against a specific antigen antibody-mediated immunity immunity that occurs when antibodies circulate in the blood plasma and combine and destroy antigens anticoagulant a substance that stops human blood from clotting antidiuretic prevents the loss of too much water in the urine antigen an organism or molecule that causes an immune response aorta the principal trunk artery of the body; it carries blood away from the heart to other parts of the body appendages structures that protrude from an organism appendix a small projection from the caecum aquatic (animal or plant) lives in water or a water environment arboreal lives in trees Archaea a superkingdom or domain of procaryotic organisms archaeology the science concerned with the cultures of ancient peoples as revealed by their artefacts, monuments and inscriptions arid dry environment arteriole a small (in diameter) artery artery a blood vessel that transports blood away from the heart artificial active immunity an immunity provided by an injected vaccine artificial passive immunity an immunity provided by antibodies from another immune individual asexual reproduction reproduction without gametes; no fertilisation ascomycetes the largest group of fungi which includes yeasts, moulds and mildews assimilation the conversion of food molecules into cellular structures or products atrium one of the two upper heart chambers audioreceptor a specialised hair cell of the inner ear cochlea; it converts mechanical energy into a nerve cell impulse autonomic pertaining to that portion of the peripheral nervous system of vertebrates that is made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves; it is involuntary, ie it acts automatically autoradiography the identification of substances that have been radioactively labelled and the radioactivity visualized by exposure to photographic film autosomes non-sex chromosomes autotroph an organism that can produce its own nutrients from non-living sources, e.g. from light, water and carbon dioxide axon the portion of a neuron that transmits a nerve impulse over a distance B base substitution mutation mutation where one base takes the place of another base in a DNA sequence benign pertaining to an abnormal growth (neoplasm) that stays in place and is relatively harmless bilateral symmetry having only one axis that will divide it into two halves bile a yellow-green fluid secreted from the gall bladder, which emulsifies fats and oils, creating a larger surface area for enzymes to act on binomial system a system of classifying organisms using the species and genus names biochemistry the chemistry of living things and its study biogeography the geographic distribution of organisms and its study biological membranes selectively permeable cell membranes which allow some substances through more easily than others biomagnification the accumulation of substances in a food chain biomass total mass of the organisms in an area or the mass of particular organisms, usually expressed as a percentage biomass pyramid a pyramid-like diagram showing the proportion of matter in different parts of the community biosphere that portion of the Earth’s surface, waters and atmosphere that includes life forms biotic pertaining to living things bipedal walking on two feet bladder the urine storage organ of the animal body blood a fluid that acts as a transport medium within an animal blood filtrate the blood plasma that is pressed through glomerular walls and collected by kidney capsules blubber fat layers between the skin and muscles of aquatic mammals, which act as thermal insulation body cells somatic cells i.e. all cells other than gametes Bowman’s capsule the fist-like structure surrounding the glomerulus contained within the nephron capsule that filters blood in the kidney brachiation locomotion using arms and grasping hands to swing from one object to another bronchioles smaller branches of the bronchus bronchus one of the two air passages that branch off from the trachea (windpipe) conducting air to and from the lungs Brownian motion random motion of particles due to the kinetic energy of the particles buoyancy the tendency of a material to keep an object afloat C caecum the blind pocket near the joining of the small and large intestine cambium a layer of meristem tissue in the roots and stems of plants that produces growth in diameter canopy the cover provided by the leaves and branches of the vegetation in an area capillary a narrow blood vessel with a thin wall across which nutrients and wastes are transported between blood and body cells capsule the portion of the kidney nephron that collects capillary plasma filtrate carbaminohaemoglobin red blood cell protein, haemoglobin, that is carrying carbon dioxide carbohydrate molecules a class of energy-storing molecules composed of the elements C, H and O carbonic anhydrase an enzyme that accelerates the formation of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water cardiovascular pertaining to the heart and blood circulation carnivore an organism that eats only animals carotenoids the yellow or red pigments that protect and transfer light energy to chlorophyll (the colours of fruits and dead leaves) catabolic the breaking down of complex molecules into simpler ones cataract the clouding or thickening of the lens of the eye cell differentiation the process that results in the development of different specialised cells in an organism cell division the process by which cells reproduce for growth or tissue repair in multicellular and unicellular organisms. It includes mitosis and cytokinesis GLOSSARY 637 cell-mediated immunity immunity that occurs when T-cells combine with antigens/pathogens (or cells infected with a pathogen) leading to the destruction of antigens and their accompanying pathogens cell membrane plasma membrane that surrounds and protects a cell; it controls the transport of substances in and out of the cell cell surface molecules chemicals on the surface of a cell membrane that are used for recognition of foreign cells central nervous system the part of the nervous system that coordinates all neural functions i.e. the brain and spinal cord centriole one of two cellular organelles that form the ‘poles’ of a cell’s spindle fibres during cell division centromere a small structure that holds single-stranded chromosomes (chromatids) together cerebellum the portion of the animal hindbrain that coordinates voluntary movements and body balance cerebrospinal fluid the fluid contained within the brain and spinal tissue spaces; it absorbs shocks, distributes nutrients and removes wastes cerebrum the largest, most anterior portion of the mammalian forebrain; it records information and controls voluntary movements, sensations and mental activity (thinking) chemokines chemicals released as part of the immune response chemoreceptor a specialised cell in the oral and nasal cavities that stimulates nerve cell impulses in response to the presence of certain chemical compounds or molecules chemosynthesis the production of organic molecules such as sugars using the energy of chemical reactions in the environment chemosynthetic bacteria bacteria that obtain energy from inorganic substances chlorophyll a green substance in plant chloroplasts that absorbs light energy in photosynthesis chloroplast a cell structure (organelle) that contains the chlorophyll pigments and enzymes that carry out photosynthesis cholesterol a steroid fat molecule contained in many fats chromatin the stainable substance making up chromosomes (DNA and histone proteins) chromoplast a cellular organelle that contains a coloured pigment other than chlorophyll chromosome a long strand of DNA (a DNA double helix) containing genes chromosome map a diagram of a chromosome showing the position of its genes chromosome mutations changes in the chromosome number or arrangement of genes on chromosomes chronic disease long-term course of a disease usually with less severe symptoms than an acute disease chyme the semifluid mass of partially digested nutrients that moves from the stomach to the duodenum of the small intestine 638 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE cilia hair-like structures found on the surface of some unicellular organisms and in parts of some multicellular organisms; they stimulate movement of some kind ciliary body structure that extends from the cornea and the sclera and attaches to both the iris and the lens cladistic classification classification based on lines of descent i.e. evolutionary relationships cladodes stems modified to take on the function of a leaf classification the organisation of organisms into groups climate a general description of the weather conditions in a region clonal selection the selection by a pathogen/antigen of a specific B-cell or T-cell from small numbers of a variety of B-cells and T-cells; the B-cell or T-cell is then cloned and can combine with the antigen and destroy it cloning producing identical copies of something cochlea a spiral shaped, fluid-filled cavity that forms the inner ear and contains the audioreceptors co-dominant where two alleles are expressed as separate unblended phenotypes codon a set of three bases in RNA (or DNA) that codes for an amino acid or provides a signal in the production of polypeptides, e.g. a stop code coenocytic cell a large cell with many nuclei coenzyme an organic compound that helps an enzyme to function cofactor an inorganic compound or ion that helps an enzyme to function cohesion the attraction between particles of the same type colloid a cloudy mixture containing large insoluble molecules colony a group of cells that survive together; they may or may not be joined but maintain a degree of independence from each other commensalism close relationship between two species of organisms in which one benefits and the other is not disadvantaged community the set of interacting organisms of different species within an area comparative anatomy the similarity and differences in anatomy (organs, bone structure etc.) of different organisms, and its study competition a relationship in which two organisms compete for a limited resource complementary bases bases that can pair with each other – adenine and thymine (or uracil) and cytosine with guanine complement systems a system of proteins that destroys a pathogen in response to the antibody–antigen complex being formed complete protein a food protein that contains most or all of the amino acids required by the body concentration gradient (sometimes called the diffusion gradient) the difference in concentration of a substance in two areas that may be separated by a barrier such as a membrane cone cell one of the two photoreceptors that make up the retina of the eye and provide normal day and colour vision conjunctiva thin layer of epithelial cells that cover the cornea and sclera of the eyeball and keep the outer surface of the eye moist connective tissue tissue that connects organs to each other consumer see heterotroph continental drift theory that the continents have been joined, separate, move and collide contractile vacuole an organelle in some protozoans that actively pumps water out of the cell convergent evolution organisms of different ancestry evolving similar characteristics coordination operation of different parts of an organism in a harmonious manner copulation the insertion of the penis into the vagina core temperature the temperature of the body’s core organs cornea the transparent, outer protective coating of the eye cortex the outer layer of an organ; an outer tissue layer of a plant stem or root cotyledons seed leaves that provide food for the plant embryo cristae internal membranes of mitochondria cross-fertilisation fertilisation between gametes from different individuals crossing over the breaking and crossing over of genetic material between homologous chromosomes crystallins folded proteins that make up the lens fibres of the eye cusps projections on the surface of molars and premolars used to grind and crush food cuticle a waxy coating on the outside of leaves cutin a waxy compound forming a transparent layer on the outer surface (cuticle) of leaves and insects cyanobacteria a group of photosynthetic procaryotes that carry out photosynthesis similar to that of green plants; they are classified within the domain Bacteria cytokine a chemical produced by lymphatic cells that acts as a signal to other lymphatic cells. An example is interleukin. cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm following division of the nucleus cytoplasm a general term for all the contents of a cell outside the nucleus and within the cell membrane cytosine one of the five base molecules composing nucleic acids cytoskeleton a system of microtubular structures that extend throughout the cell D deamination the decomposition of amino acids by removal of amino groups (which are then synthesised into urea) deciduous a plant (tree) that sheds its leaves in winter decomposer bacteria or fungi which bring about the decay of organic material defecation the process of removing solid wastes from the body through the anus deletion (chromosome mutation) when genes are lost from the chromosome denaturation the process of unravelling an enzyme’s structure so that the active site can no longer function dendrite that end portion of a neuron that receives a chemical stimulus and initiates a neuronal impulse density (of organisms) the number of organisms per unit area deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) the nucleic acid molecule that stores the hereditary information of the organism and is indirectly responsible for cellular structure and metabolism dialysis the filtration of waste products out of the blood, e.g. in an artificial kidney diapause dormant state of lowered metabolic rate diaphragm the dome-shaped muscular partition that separates the lung cavity from the abdominal cavity and helps move air into and out of the lungs diastolic pressure blood pressure reading obtained when the ventricles of the heart relax dichotomous key a type of flow diagram that continuously branches into two and is used to identify objects/organisms dicotyledon a plant having two nutrient seed-leaves (cotyledons) in the seed differentiation the change of an unspecialised cell into a specialised cell diffusion movement of material from an area where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated without using cellular (biological) energy diffusion gradient the difference in concentration of a substance between two sites digestion the breaking down, both chemically and physically, of food particles so that they can be absorbed dihybrid cross a genetic cross in which two characteristics are considered diploid chromosomes occur in pairs i.e. two sets of chromosomes disaccharide a sugar molecule made up of two simpler monosaccharide sugars disease any condition that impairs the proper physical, mental and/or social well-being of an organism distribution the region inhabited by an organism i.e. the area/s where a species of organism is found diuresis the loss of water in the urine divergent evolution the evolution of a variety of different kinds of organism from a common ancestor diversity great variation DNA see deoxyribonucleic acid DNA fingerprinting DNA technology which detects blood, tissue or semen DNA of an individual and identifies the individual usually as part of a criminal or paternity case DNA ligase an enzyme that can join pieces of DNA together GLOSSARY 639 DNA polymerase an enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of DNA DNA replication conversion of single-stranded chromosomes to double-stranded chromosomes in a living cell at interphase between one mitosis and the next i.e. duplication of a DNA double helix into two double helices DNA sequencing the mapping of the nucleotide sequence of DNA Domain the first level of classification also called the superkingdom level dormancy a state during which cellular metabolism, hence organism activity, is minimal dormant in a resting state dorsal pertaining to an organ or tissue that is located towards an animal’s back (as opposed to its front or belly) dorsal root a major sensory nerve cord that enters the spine double helix two polynucleotide chains twisted together into a spiral (or helix) duodenum the first part of the small intestine duplication (chromosome mutation) when extra copies of genes are added to a chromosome E ecology the study of the relationships between organisms and their non-living surroundings ecosystem a self-sustaining set of organisms and their non-living environment ectotherm an animal that controls its body temperature externally; its body temperature approximates the external environment ectoparasites parasites that live on the surface of a host’s body effector something that causes an effect electrophoresis a technique in which fragments of biological molecules are placed on a gel and an electric field applied; the fragments move along the gel under the influence of the electric field embryo a developing organism embryology the study of embryonic development enantiostasis the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the environment endocrine pertaining to the body glands that secrete their hormone products directly into the bloodstream endodermis an inner layer of cells endoparasites parasites that live inside a host’s body endoplasmic reticulum an extensive network of membranes within the cell that may have ribosomes attached (rough) or have no ribosomes (smooth) endoskeleton a hard covering on the inside of the body endosymbiosis the engulfing of smaller cells by larger cells and their survival in a symbiotic relationship endotherm an animal that controls its body temperature internally; its body temperature remains relatively constant whatever the external temperature endothermic pertaining to chemical reactions that are 640 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE accompanied by an absorption of heat energy pyramid a pyramid-like diagram showing the proportion of energy in different parts of the community environment the living and non-living surroundings of organisms enzyme a highly specialised cellular protein that reduces the amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction and therefore speeds up the reaction while remaining unchanged itself epidemiology the study of the incidence of disease and the factors that influence its incidence epidermal layer see epidermis epidermis the outermost cell layer epigenetics the process by which genes are expressed in cells and the inheritance of the results of these processes i.e. the inheritance of characteristics by processes not involving changes in the DNA base sequence epiglottis a valve-like, cartilagenous structure that closes the opening to the air passage (trachea) when swallowing epithelium any tissue that covers a surface (outermost tissue) epitope a selected part of an antigen to which the antibody binds erythrocyte a red blood cell or corpuscle ester linkage fatty acids bonded to glycerol (by an ester bond) forming a lipid; characteristic of Bacteria and Eucarya ether linkage hydrocarbon molecules bonded to glycerol (by an ether bond — two hydrocarbon groups with an oxygen bonded between them) forming a lipid; characteristic of Archaea eucaryote an organism with a nucleus and membranebound organelles in its cells Eustachian tube a canal that extends from the middle ear to the pharynx region of the throat and helps to maintain an equal air pressure on both sides of the eardrum eutrophication the depletion of oxygen in water bodies due to the excessive growth of cyanobacteria and their decomposition (that uses oxygen) evolution the gradual changes that have transformed the earliest forms of life into the diversity of life found today evolutionary theory theory that states that all organisms have evolved from pre-existing organisms by gradual changes over a long period of time excretion removal of wastes from an organism exon a coding part of DNA exoskeleton a hard covering on the outside of the body exothermic pertaining to any chemical change that is accompanied by a release of heat exotic not native expression (of a gene) the conversion of the information on a gene to a protein product resulting in a cell characteristic external fertilisation fertilisation outside the body extracellular fluid the fluid in the spaces between the cells F faeces solid waste that is discharged from the large intestine through the anus feedback the provision of information about changes to a set value that must be maintained for homeostasis to exist or the provision of information so that the set value is restored feral domestic animals that have escaped and gone wild fermentation respiration without using oxygen (anaerobic) fertilisation the union or joining of a male and female gamete fibre the undigested cellulose from plant food fibre cells thick-walled cells that provide support in plant vascular bundles fibrinogen the protein in blood that forms a clot first-order consumer an animal that eats plants fission splitting up flaccid a semi-collapsed condition due to the loss of water flagellum a long, whip-like appendage that provides locomotion for some unicellular and colonial organisms fluid mosaic model the currently accepted model of cell membrane structure flukes tail flippers of aquatic mammals focal point point at which an object is focused focal length the distance between the focal point and the centre of the lens (e.g. in the eye) food chain a flow chart showing a single sequence of the feeding relationships of organisms and the flow of matter and energy through this sequence food web a flow chart showing the feeding relationships of organisms and the flow of matter and energy through a community foramen magnum a large hole in the base of the skull enabling the passage of nerves from the brain to the spinal cord fossil fuels naturally occurring carbon-based fuels, formed from the fossils of plants and animals, e.g. coal, oil, natural gas fossil record the complete record of the earth’s geological history and the evolution of living organisms during that time based on fossil fuels fossilisation preservation of parts – or vary rarely whole – organisms fossils the preserved remains, traces or imprints of dead organisms fovea a small pit in the eye retina; it contains massed cone cells that provide sharp vision frame-shift mutation where the number of bases added to or deleted from DNA is not divisible by three fucoxanthin a brown pigment in plants fusion joining together G gametes haploid cells that can undergo fertilisation gametocytes cells that are the precursors of gametes (sex cells) ganglia units of nerve grey matter (massed cell bodies) found outside the spinal cord and brain gas exchange organisms gaining gases from and losing gases to the environment gene a section of DNA on a chromosome that contains information for the synthesis of a polypeptide gene cascades turning genes on in sequence where the proteins produced by genes regulates the expression of the next gene in the sequence gene cloning the transfer of genes into bacteria that reproduce copies of these genes gene homologues genes with similar DNA base sequences present in many eucaryotes that carry out similar functions in different organisms gene mutations changes in the DNA base sequence of a gene gene therapy the treatment of a disease by replacing a harmful gene with a healthy gene genetic engineering the alteration of the chromosome by removing and/or adding genes (‘gene splicing’) genetic immunity immunity with which an individual is born genetics the study of heredity genome the entire set of genes in a species genotype the genes present that control a characteristic genus a group of species that have a number of characteristics (of the genus) in common germ-line cells a type of somatic cell (body cell) that will be converted to a gamete (sex cell) germination the bursting of embryonic plant shoot and root through the seed coat and its growth into a seedling globins a group of oxygen-carrying proteins, e.g. haemoglobin globulin a group of soluble, blood plasma proteins consisting of enzymes and circulating antibodies glomerular filtrate the fluid that has been filtered out of the blood into the kidney tubule glomerulus the knotted blood capillary contained within the nephron capsule that filters blood glottis narrow opening in the trachea glycogen a polysaccharide found in liver and muscle tissue that temporarily stores glucose glycolipid a lipid with carbohydrate attached glycolysis the partial enzymatic breakdown of food molecules without the presence of oxygen, resulting in the production of a small amount of chemical energy (ATP) glycoprotein a protein with carbohydrate attached golgi body a semicircular membrane system with vesicles attached at the ends; it processes, stores and secretes substances (usually proteins) gonads male and female sex organs e.g. ovaries and testes grana chlorophyll-containing stacks of thylakoids (discs) in chloroplasts where the light phase of photosynthesis takes place grasslands an ecosystem consisting mainly of grass GLOSSARY 641 greenhouse effect the trapping of heat radiated from the earth by gases in the atmosphere (e.g. carbon dioxide, methane etc.,) and its re-radiation back to earth (as in a greenhouse) guanine one of five nucleic acid bases guard cells the two cells surrounding leaf surface openings (stomata) that open and close this opening H haem a carbon ring structure with an iron atom in the centre that binds to oxygen haemagglutinin (HA) a glycoprotein which can adhere to red blood cells, causing them to agglutinate haemoglobin the iron-containing, reddish protein of red blood cells that attracts and carries oxygen haemorrhage bleeding hair cells cells in the cochlea of the ear that send neurotransmitters to the auditory nerves halophiles a group of Archaebacteria that live in salty environments haploid when chromosomes occur singly, one set of chromosomes (in sex cells) health defined by the World Health Organization as a ‘state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of infirmity’. heavy metals metals with a high atomic mass herbaceous herb-like, with non-woody, green stems herbivore an animal that eats only plants heredity the transfer of characteristics from one generation to the next hermaphrodite an organism that produces both male and female gametes heterocysts specialised cells which have thick cell walls to exclude oxygen heterotroph any organism that consumes other organisms in order to satisfy its nutrient requirements heterozygous different alleles for the same characteristic hierarchy a system organised into different levels; the system of ranking in a graded order from species to kingdom histamine a chemical involved in hyperactivity of the immune system (allergies) or inflammation responses histone small protein that binds to DNA forming nucleosomes homeostasis the constant internal composition of a cell or an organism and the mechanisms that maintain it hominid a member of the family of humans (Hominidae); human-like homologous pairs corresponding pairs homologous structures structures with common evolutionary origins but different functions and dissimilar superficial structures. They show similarity in their structures homozygous the presence of two identical alleles for a gene hormone a chemical produced by an endocrine gland; it travels in the blood to a target organ where it has an effect 642 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE horticulture the cultivation of garden plants host an organism on which a parasite lives humus dead and decaying organic material in and on soil hybrid an individual carrying heterozygous genes hydrolysis a type of chemical reaction in which a molecule is lysed (broken down) into smaller molecules by the breaking of bonds and a molecule of water is added for each bond broken hypertension higher than normal blood pressure hypertonic having a higher concentration of solutes than another system hyphae thread-like, tubular filaments that make up the nutrient absorbing mycelium of most fungi hypothalamus an area of the brain that acts as a control centre for maintaining homeostasis hypothesis a possible explanation based on a minimum amount of evidence hypotonic having a lower concentration of solutes than another system I ileum the coiled long section of the small intestine imago the adult stage of metamorphosis in an insect immunisation the production of immunity immunity the ability to resist disease immunochemical pertaining to the internal defence system (white blood cells—antibodies) of the body immunoglobulins antibodies made by B-cells immunological memory the ability of the immune system to ‘remember’ an antigen and to respond to it faster and more massively than the first time; this is due to the retention of memory B-cells and T-cells in the immune system immunological tolerance the ability of some organisms to tolerate cells other than their own provided that they are introduced to the organism during the early stages of the organism’s development incubation period the time between the entry of a pathogen into the body and the appearance of symptoms induced fit model a model of enzyme-substrate interaction in which the substrate induces (stimulates) a change in the shape of the enzyme’s active site so that it fits the substrate infarction death of muscle tissue due to an absence of oxygen infectious can be passed from one individual to another ingestion taking in inhibition a type of competition in which one organism directly hinders the growth of another insulation a protective layer that reduces heat loss interferons a group of proteins produced by cells invaded by viruses internal fertilisation fertilisation inside the body interneuron a nerve cell in the spine and brain that relays nerve impulses between neurons intron a non-coding part of DNA inversion (chromosome mutation) the order of some genes on the chromosome is reversed iris the external, coloured part of the eye; it regulates the amount of light passing through the retina isolation the separation of members of a population so that they do not interbreed isotonic having the same concentration of solutes as another system J joule the basic measurement unit of work or energy jumping genes see transposons K key a table or flow diagram showing characteristics and the organisms that have them kidney tubule tubule in which fluid that has been filtered from the blood flows. Krebs cycle the enzyme-regulated cycle in cell respiration that completes the catabolic breakdown of food molecules producing a maximum amount of chemical energy (ATP) and carbon dioxide L lacteals lymph vessels that transport absorbed lipids and release them into the blood lenticels gaps in the bark filled with parenchyma cells that allow gas exchange in stems leucocyte a white blood cell leucoplast a colourless (non-pigmented) storage organelle found in some cells, e.g. starch leucoplasts in plant cells lignin a chemical, cement-like compound that, together with cellulose, is found in the walls of xylem. It provides support for the plant and is a major component of the wood of woody plants lignotuber thickened roots that sprout after fire limb buds groups of cells in the embryo that begin the formation of limbs limiting factor a resource that determines the maximum abundance in an area linked genes genes on the same chromosome lipid a class of cellular organic molecules, fats, oils, waxes lipid bilayer two lipid layers, one on top of the other lock and key model a model of enzyme-substrate interaction in which the substrate and enzyme fit together like a lock and key locomotion movement from place to place locus the position of a gene on a chromosome lumen space within the walls of a blood vessel lymph a watery fluid that has similarities in composition to blood plasma; it travels in lymph vessels lymph node a specialised area of the lymphatic system where lymphocytes are matured and stored lymphatic system network of lymph vessels and nodes lymphocyte a leucocyte that produces a specific immune response, either a B-lymphocyte or a T-lymphocyte lysis breakdown lysosome a small organelle that contains lysozymes (enzymes that break down proteins and other molecules) lysozyme enzymes that break down proteins and other molecules M macromolecule a very large, complex molecule, e.g. a nucleic acid, protein or lipid molecule macronutrient any mineral ion or compound required by plants in relatively large amounts macrophage a type of phagocyte that can also present antigens to B-cells and T-cells macroscopic parasites pathogens that are visible to the naked eye major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs) recognition or marker molecules on the surface of cells malignant any abnormal tissue growth that spreads and has the potential to cause death malnutrition a general state of poor health caused by a diet lacking in one or more required nutrients Malpighian tubules excretory organ of insects mammal a vertebrate that has mammary glands mandible an appendage in arthropods for biting and crushing food; it is also used to describe the lower jaw in vertebrates marsupial a mammal containing a pouch for developing young mast cell a specialised cell of connective tissue that secretes histamine and hepanin mechanoreceptor a specialised sensory cell that is responsive to pressure, sound and movement in animals medulla the soft centre of an organ or body structure medulla oblongata the hindmost portion of the brain that is continuous with the spinal cord megafauna mostly extinct fauna larger than but similar to present-day organisms meiosis cell division during which the chromosome number is halved; gametes are formed membrane thin barrier between the cell and its external environment memory cells cells that remain in the system but are not immediately active meninges the three membranes that surround and protect the brain meristem the plant tissue in stem tips, buds and root tips that produces plant growth by mitosis mesophyll cells (palisade and spongy) the photosynthetic cells in a leaf mesophyte a plant that is adapted to an adequate water supply messenger RNA an RNA molecule formed by transcription from a DNA molecule. It then directs polypeptide synthesis by translation GLOSSARY 643 metabolic pathway a series of reactions in which the product of one reaction is the substrate (reactant) for the next; the purpose of a metabolic pathway is to make an endproduct that is useful in the cell metabolic rate rate of metabolism metabolic reactions/metabolism all the chemical reactions that take place in an organism metabolism all the chemical reactions that take place in an organism methanogens a group of Archaebacteria that produce methane microbe (microorganism) an organism too small to be seen with the naked eye microflora microbes that have a symbiotic relationship with humans micromolecule a very small molecule, e.g. glucose, amino acid micronutrient any mineral ion or compound required by plants in relatively small or ‘trace’ amounts microorganism an organism that is microscopic in size microsphere a small sphere containing biological compounds that have been surrounded by a lipid membrane microvilli tiny projections on the surface of the villi mid-ocean ridge a ridge of slowly erupting volcanoes in the ocean crust along diverging plate margins mineral an inorganic ion (charged particle) mitochondria cellular organelles that produce ATP energy (via cellular respiration) mitosis the division of the nucleus of cells Monera in a former classification system, the kingdom to which the procaryotes belong monocotyledon a plant having one nutrient seed-leaf (cotyledon) in its seeds monohybrid cross type of genetic cross where only one characteristic (one pair of alleles) is considered and the identical heterozygous individuals (for the characteristic) are crossed monomer a small molecule bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer monosaccharide a simple sugar molecule, e.g. glucose, fructose, ribose monotreme a mammal that lays eggs morphology the study of the structure, shape, general appearance or form of organisms as distinct from anatomy, which involves dissection to discover structure motile self moving motor neuron a nerve cell that transmits an impulse away from the central nervous system to an effector (muscle or gland) m-RNA see messenger RNA mucus a slippery protein used for lubrication and tissue protection throughout the body multicellular composed of many cells mutagen an environmental factor that can increase the natural rate of mutation such as chemicals, X-rays and ultraviolet light 644 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE mutant organism which contains a mutation and is different from wild type mutation a change in a gene; chromosome arrangement or chromosome number mutualism the close relationship between organisms of different species in which both benefit mycelium a mass of thread-like, nutrient-absorbing, tubular filaments that make up the main body of a fungus myelin a specialised fat that coats nerve cell axons and insulates them from one another in nerves myocardial infarction heart attack myocardium muscle area of the heart that surrounds the atria and ventricles myoglobin protein that provides oxygen to muscle cells in insects and is also present in vertebrate muscle N nastic movement stem, leaf or flower movements due to changes in cellular turgor pressures natural selection the process of interaction between organisms and their environment that results in different success in survival and reproduction natural immunity immunity where there is no human or outside intervention (such as injections) natural passive immunity occurs when there is no human intervention and antibodies are supplied from another individual e.g. when antibodies from a mother cross to an unborn child. negative feedback a response to a change that is in opposition to (negative to) the change neoplasm an abnormal tissue growth nephron the functional unit of the kidney cortex that separates blood nutrients from wastes neutrophil a phagocyte found in the blood of vertebrates niche the place occupied by an organism in an ecosystem nitrogen fixation the conversion of nitrogen in the air into fixed forms such as ammonium ions and nitrate nitrogenases the enzymes that catalyse the reactions of nitrogen fixation nitrogen-fixing bacteria bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates nocturnal active at night non-disjunction the failure of an homologous pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis non-infectious cannot be passed from one individual to another normal distribution bell-shaped curve in which most values fall near a central point nucleic acid a cellular macromolecule that is a polymer of nucleotides (DNA or RNA), DNA contains the genetic information for an organism and RNA is the molecule involved in the transfer of this genetic information for the synthesis of proteins nucleic acid hybridisation a process for determining the similarity of two DNA or RNA molecules by the amount of base-pairing between single strands of each molecule nucleolus a small, rounded body within the cell nucleus; it is the site for the synthesis of RNA nucleotide a basic unit of a nucleic acid molecule, consisting of a phosphate group, simple sugar and one of five bases nucleus a relatively large, membrane-bound structure in the cell that contains most of the cell’s nucleic acids nucleosomes a structure in which DNA is wound round a protein core made of histone proteins O occlusion the blocking of a vessel or duct oesophagus the muscular tube that moves food from the mouth to the stomach oestrus cycle a reproductive cycle in eutherian (placental) mammals with a period during which the female will accept mating with males; this period is called oestrus omnivore an animal that eats both plants and animals ontogeny embryonic development operculum protective covering over gills optimum temperature the temperature at which an enzyme is most active organ a body structure composed of different tissues that collectively serve other body tissues and organs in a specific way, e.g. heart, liver, kidneys organelle a specialised microstructure or area within a cell, e.g. mitochondrion, chloroplast organic molecules molecules containing carbon present in living organisms (with the exception of carbon dioxide and carbonates) osmoconformer organisms in which the internal concentration of fluids is the same as that of the surrounding environment osmoregulation the regulation of water and salt concentration in body cells to maintain homeostasis osmoregulator organisms that actively maintain an internal fluid concentration different from that of the surroundings osmotic balance the tendency for cells to maintain solute concentrations on either side of the cell membrane at a value that prevents excessive water from entering the cell osmosis the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane ossicles the three tiny bones of the middle ear that transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the oval window of the cochlea overnutrition a condition of poor health resulting from an excessive intake of food or a particular kind of food oxic containing oxygen oxyhaemoglobin haemoglobin saturated with oxygen P palaeontology the scientific study of fossils and all aspects of extinct life paleoanthropology the science concerned with primitive pre-human and human ancestral types palisade the chloroplast-containing layer of leaf cells just under the upper epidermis pancreas a small organ near the stomach and duodenum which secretes three categories of enzymes in pancreatic juice during digestion; it also produces and secretes the hormone insulin into the bloodstream parasite an organism that lives in or on the body of another organism and derives nourishment, shelter, protection or means of reproduction from its host. It may or may not be pathogenic parasitism relationship in which one organism lives in or on another organism and feeds from it. parasympathetic pertaining to that part of the peripheral (autonomic) nervous system that works in opposition to the sympathetic system by inhibiting organ action parthenogenesis growth of an organism from an unfertilised egg passive transport the movement of a substance that does not require the expenditure of cellular energy, e.g. osmosis and transpiration pathogen a parasite, organ or virus that causes disease in the host pentadactyl limb the forelimb of vertebrates peptide bond the chemical bond that joins the acid group of one amino acid to the amino group of another perfluorocarbons compounds used as blood substitutes perforin a protein (enzyme) released by T-cells when they attach to a infected cell that makes holes in the target cell’s membrane pericycle a cylinder of parenchyma surrounding root vascular tissues, capable of producing secondary roots peristalsis wavelike muscular contractions pesticides chemicals used to control pests pH a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance; it relates to the relative concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution phagocyte a cell that engulfs foreign particles or cells pharynx the back portion of the oral cavity that leads to the oesophagus phenotype the physical appearance of an organism phloem a living tissue that transports plant nutrients (e.g. sucrose); composed of sieve tubes and their companion cells phospholipid a fat molecule that contains phosphate groups (PO4), e.g. cell membrane lipid photoperiodism the behavioural response of an organism to the length of uninterrupted darkness or light photophosphorylation part of the ‘light phase’ of photosynthesis; uses light energy to convert ADP into ATP photoreceptor a specialised energy sensory cell that responds to light, e.g. rod and cone cells of the retina photosynthesis the chemical process by which chlorophyll-containing plant cells use light to make organic compounds from inorganic ones. The solar energy is then trapped as chemical energy in the organic compounds e.g. sugars GLOSSARY 645 phycoerythrin a red pigment in plants phyllode a leaf stalk that flattens to reduce water loss phylogeny the evolutionary history of a species physiology the study of body organ and tissue functioning phytoplankton microscopic aquatic plants pigment a coloured substance pituitary a pea-sized endocrine gland attached to the base of the brain; it secretes a variety of hormones that generally regulate body metabolism placenta a tissue for the nourishment of the embryo or foetus placental a mammal that forms a placenta during pregnancy plasma the liquid portion of the blood; it transports soluble nutrients, wastes and proteins plasma cells B-cells that act immediately when an antigen is present plasmolysis the shrinking of the cell membrane as it pulls away from the cell wall due to the loss of water into the external (hypertonic) environment plate tectonics theory that the Earth’s crust is made of plates that float and drift pneumatophore roots that protrude into the air, providing a surface for gas exchange e.g. in mangroves polar having one positive end and one negative end pollination transfer of pollen to the stigma of flowers polygenic controlled by more than one gene (pair of alleles) polymer a large molecule composed of a number of small molecules (called monomers) bonded together polymerase chain reaction technique where many pure copies of a piece of DNA are made polymorphism different types of organisms of the same species with distinctive characteristics , e.g. race or the differences male and female birds where the male is often larger and more colourful than the female. polynucleotide a polymer composed of nucleotide monomers polyploidy multiple whole sets of chromosomes per cell polysaccharide a complex carbohydrate, e.g. starch; a polymer of monosaccharides (simple sugars) polysome a series of ribosomes that move along the mRNA so that the genetic code is translated into a polypeptide – a polypeptide at each ribosome pons a band of nerve fibres connecting the lobes of the midbrain, medulla and cerebrum positive feedback a response to a change that re-enforces the change predator-prey relationship see predation predation a relationship on which one organism eats another. Also called ‘predator-prey relationship’ predator an organism which preys on other organisms prehensile a limb or hand that is adapted for grasping or wrapping around something prehominid an animal possessing a few human-like physical characteristics that may have directly or indirectly contributed to the evolution of humans 646 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE prey the animal which is killed and eaten by another animal primate an animal with forward facing eyes, limbs with five digits (fingers and toes), an opposable thumb, grasping forelimbs and a relatively large brain. It has nails instead of claws and four types of teeth primer a piece of a molecule that acts as a starting point for the synthesis for more of the molecule principle of superposition principle that states that as rocks formed, older rocks were buried by newer rocks prion an infective protein that causes the degeneration of brain tissue procaryote an organism with no nucleus nor membranebound organelles in its cells producer see autotroph prostaglandins group of chemicals released by damaged tissues and by some leucocytes during an inflammatory response protease an enzyme that breaks down (digests) protein proteasomes a structure in the cytoplasm of cells that degrades or breaks down unwanted proteins protein a polymer of amino acids that may be folded into a specific shape proteoid roots fine roots, an adaptation to nutrient poor soils Protists the kingdom containing the mainly unicellular eucaryotic organisms and organisms that are difficult to classify protoplasm the cytoplasm and the nucleus of a cell pseudopods ‘false feet’ pulmonary circulation blood circulation from the heart, passing through the lungs and returning to the heart punctuated equilibrium the theory that evolution has proceeded in rapid bursts followed by periods of little change pure bred see homozygous pyrogens chemicals that set the body’s temperature at a higher level to cause fever Q quadrats measured sample areas used for data collection in field studies quarantine a period of isolation to allow time for the infectious stages of a disease to pass and/or treatment to be completed R radiometric dating the dating of rocks and/or organisms using radio active isotopes rainforest a distinctive ecosystem of tall flowering trees, palms, ferns and a dense canopy (70–100% cover) random segregation (independent assortment) independent separation of chromosome pairs with respect to other chromosome pairs in meiosis reabsorption the absorption of substances (that have been lost by filtration) back into the blood from the kidney tubule receptors molecules or cells that detect a stimulus recessive an allele that is only expressed in the absence of the dominant allele recombinant DNA DNA that has DNA from another species spliced into it refraction the bending of light renal relating to or affecting the kidneys renal system kidney system reproduction production of a new organism and the passing on of characteristics form one generation to the next reproductive cells see gametes residual magnetism the magnetic orientation of rocks retained since their formation resolution (resolving power) the ability of a lens to separate two close objects so that they can be seen as separate objects and not as a blurred image or the minimum distance apart that two objects can be and still be seen as separate objects. resource anything used by an organism resource partitioning the use of scarce resources by a number of species that require them - by using them at different times, in different places or in different ways respiration the breakdown of glucose, or some other fuel molecule, using oxygen to produce energy in the form of ATP respiratory surfaces surfaces at which gas exchange occurs such as alveoli, gills restriction enzyme (endonuclease) an enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sites restriction endonucleases enzymes that can restrict the growth of another organism by cutting its DNA retina inner layer of the eye which contains the photoreceptors, a pigment layer and nerves and blood vessels retranslocation the transport of carbohydrate from storage sites to other parts of the plant retrovirus a virus with genetic information as RNA. It codes for an enzyme, reverse transcriptase, which transcribes the RNA into DNA Rh factor an antigen that may (or may not) be present on the membrane of human blood cells (and that of some related species) ribonucleic acid (RNA) a single stranded nucleic acid concerned with the synthesis of proteins ribosomes the organelles found throughout the cell which function as sites for protein synthesis RNA see ribonucleic acid RNA polymerase an enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of RNA rod cells photoreceptors present in composing the retina of the eye, which provide vision under dim light conditions (night vision) root pressure the hydrostatic pressure of water that forces water across the plant root rough endoplasmic reticulum see endoplasmic reticulum ruminants animals that digest their food in a three- or four-chambered stomach, which is specialised for a herbivore's diet S saprophyte an organism (bacterium, fungus) that takes its nutrition from dead organisms scanning electron microscope an electron microsope in which electrons are bounced off a specimen to produce a three-dimensional image sclereid cells supporting plant tissue consisting of cells with thick, lignified walls sclerophyll vegetation with tough leaves and thick cuticle reducing water loss scrub dense low-lying vegetation 2-5 metres tall as distinct from heath in which the plants are less than 2 metres tall seafloor spreading the extension of the sea floor outwards caused by volcanic activity at sea floor vents. sebaceous gland oil-secreting gland in the skin secondary tissue secondary xylem and phloem produced by the cambium in woody plants causing an increase in root and stem diameter second-order consumer an animal that eats first-order consumers secretion the release of substances from one area to another in plants or animals sedimentary rock rock produced in layers as sediment falls. Fossils are mainly found in sedimentary rock seed a plant embryo and its food supply seedling a young plant grown from seed segmented containing sections selective breeding the choosing of pairs to mate in order to produce offspring with particular characteristics selectively permeable barriers allowing some substances through and not others (usually applied to a membrane) self-fertilisation fertilisation between gametes from the same individual sensory neuron a nerve cell that relays chemoelectrical information from a sensory receptor to the central nervous system serum blood plasma without fibrinogen sexual with male and female gametes sex cells see gametes sex linkage where some genes for non-sexual characteristics are linked to genes for sexual characteristics by being on the same chromosome (one of the sex chromosomes usually the X chromosome) shrubland an ecosystem consisting mainly of shrubs (about 2–10 m tall) that is more open (less dense) than scrub sieve tube a column of living phloem cells that transport sugar-rich nutrients (sap) single-stranded polynucleotide a polymer of nucleotides that is a single-strand and not a double helix smooth endoplasmic reticulum see endoplasmic reticulum GLOSSARY 647 soil erosion the movement of soil from one place to another Southern blotting a technique used to identify a sequence of DNA by transferring bands (DNA fragments) from a gel to a membrane then visualising the bands somatic cells diploid cells species a group of interbreeding organisms that share the same gene pool sphincter a circular band of muscle that regulates the passage of food or solid wastes from one area of the digestive tract to another, or to the outside of the body sphygmomanometer instrument used to measure blood pressure spindle a structure composed of fibres that develops during mitosis and is responsible for the separation and migration of chromosomes spiracle openings to respiratory tubes in insects spleen an elongated organ near the stomach; it produces white blood cells, stores red blood cells and destroys old blood cells spongy mesophyll layer of cells in a leaf, with large air spaces between cells spontaneous generation the theory that living matter spontaneously arises from non-living matter spore a cell that can produce a new organism without fertilisation; also used to describe the dormant stage of bacteria sporoza a type of protozoan that has no motion and reproduces by spores but also by gametes steroid a group of cyclic carbon compounds that are fatsoluble and not water soluble and therefore classed as lipids stimulus something that causes a response stomates or stomata the pores on the surface of a leaf surrounded by two guard cells (singular—stoma) stratigraphic correlation a comparison of rock strata that contain similar indicator fossils. Strata or layers that contain similar fossils are considered to be the same age. stroma the matrix surrounding the grana in a chloroplast stromatolites colonies of cyanobacteria that have been trapped in calcium carbonate deposits and, in this way, have been fossilised structural characteristics characteristics based on body structures (or morphology) subduction zones sites where plates collide, with one plate being destroyed as it moves beneath the other substitution mutation see base substitution substrate the substance on which an enzyme acts succession the natural process in which communities replace previously existing communities succulents fleshy plants that store water in their stems or leaves sugar sink site where sugar is required in a plant sugar source site where sugar is made in abundance in a plant surface area the total area of the surface of an object 648 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE sweat glands glands that release water; which are part of the cooling system in mammals symbiosis a close long-term association between organisms of different species sympathetic the part of the autonomic nervous system that stimulates organ or tissue activity and is opposed by the parasympathetic nerves symptoms the outward signs of the presence of a disease synapse a microscopic gap between two nerve cells, across which the nerve impulse is transmitted by a chemical transmitter substance synthesised made systemic circulation blood circulation that begins with the contraction of the left ventricle of the heart, passing through body arteries, capillaries and veins, to the right atrium of the heart systolic pressure blood pressure reading obtained when the ventricles of the heart contract T taxonomy the science of the classification of living things template a molecule that acts as a model for the synthesis of another molecule terrestrial (animal or plant) living on land or a land environment territorial behaviour behaviour in which an animal establishes and defends an area tetraploid a cell with four sets of chromosomes thalamus the ‘gatekeeper’ of the brain i.e. the relay centre through which nerve impulses pass to the cerebral cortex theory a highly probable explanation of something based on a large amount of evidence thermoacidophiles a group of Archaea bacteria that live in hot springs and very high temperature environments thermoreceptor sensory receptors that respond to temperature changes thrombosis clotting thylakoids stacks of disk-shaped structures that contain chlorophyll found inside a chloroplast thymine one of five bases composing nucleic acid nucleotides tissue a group of cells with the same structure and function tissue culture growth of groups of similar cells extracted from organisms in an artificial medium torpor dormant state of lowered metabolic rate toxin a harmful chemical produced by some microbes trachea the principal tubular passageway (windpipe) that conducts air between the oral-nasal cavity and the lungs tracheae (in insects) network of tubes transporting gases; it's how air enters their bodies tracheid long, tapered xylem cells with pitted walls that transport and distribute water and mineral ions; found mostly in conifers transcription the transfer of the genetic code on DNA to the genetic code on m-RNA transcriptor factors substances that turn on genes in sequence during limb development transect straight line cross-section of an area transgenic species species that have had genes artificially inserted from other species transition fossils fossils that appear to have the characteristics of two different groups of organisms translation the conversion of the information in the genetic code into the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide translocation the movement of sugars and small amounts of other nutrients through the phloem vessels in a plant translocation (chromosome mutation) the genes from one chromosome are added to another chromosome transmission microscope an electron microscope which transmits electrons through a specimen to produce a two-dimensional image transpiration the loss of water from the leaves of plants transpiration pull the pull or tension on water in the xylem vessels due to water being lost by transpiration from the leaves transpiration stream the movement of water up through the xylem vessels of a plant transposons sections of DNA that move to other parts of the same chromosome or other chromosomes trilobite an extinct organism with the characteristics of an arthropod triplet code groups of three bases (codons) that code for an amino acid triploid three complete sets of chromosomes per cell trisomy three homologous chromosomes rather than the normal two trophic level the level occupied by a consumer in a food chain; also known as a feeding level tropism a directional growth in response to an external stimulus turgor pressure the pressure directed against the cell wall after the cell has swollen due to osmosis U undernutrition a condition of poor health resulting from an insufficient intake of nutrients unicellular consisting of a single cell uracil a nucleic acid base that substitutes for thymine in RNA molecules urea a type of nitrogen waste ureter one of two tubes that conduct urine from the kidney pelvis to the bladder urethra a small canal that drains the bladder, eliminating urine to the outside of the body uric acid a nitrogenous waste product urinary system system involved in the elimination of urine urine the urea-rich fluid (or semi-solid in reptiles and birds) excreted by the kidneys and temporarily stored in the bladder urogenital surfaces linings of the excretory and reproductive systems V vaccination the administration of a vaccine to produce immunity vaccine a serum or plasma sample containing weakened or dead pathogens vacuole a cellular, membrane-bound cavity containing fluid or a nutrient solid or waste variation differences in a population of organisms varicose veins swollen veins, usually in the legs, that often protrude vascular any tubular tissue that transports a liquid around the body vascular bundle structures containing xylem, phloem and supportive cells; bundles transport water, mineral ions and sucrose vector an organism that transfers a disease to another organism vein a blood vessel that transports blood towards the heart vena cava one of the two major veins that deliver blood to the right atrium of the heart ventricle one of the two lower heart chambers venule a small vein vernalisation the cold treatment required by some plants or their seeds before they can produce new growth or flower in the correct season vessel cells thick-walled, tubular xylem cells or vessels villi tiny, finger-like structures that extend from the inner lining of the small intestine and absorb digested nutrients virion a single virus particle viroid an RNA molecule that can invade plant cells and cause disease virus a microscopic particle composed of a central core of either DNA or RNA surrounded by an outer protein coat. viscosity the tendency of a material to resist movement through it W waste useless products remaining after the use of resources waste heat heat energy that is put to no use water potential the tendency of a system to donate water; it is a measure of the degree of/amount of water held in a system wild type phenotype or genotype most commonly found in the natural population of any given organism woodland a distinctive ecosystem with a sparse canopy of trees (10–30% cover) X xerophyte a plant that is adapted to low water conditions xylem the water and mineral conducting hollow tubes extending from roots to leaves Z zooplankton microscopic aquatic animals zygote a cell formed by the fusion of a male and female gamete GLOSSARY 649 INDEX A Abbe, Ernst 70 Abiotic Defined 11 Factors in the environment 18–19 Terrestrial and aquatic environments 21–4 Abomasum 99 Absorbance spectrum of water 25–6 Abundance Animal 55–6 Capture-marking-recapture technique 15–16 Defined 13 Estimating 15–16 Factors determining 18–20 Of organisms 13–16, 18–20 Plants in ecosystems 53–4 Accommodation of the eye lens 587 Acidity 453 Activators (protein) 562 Active Cells 81, 462 Transport 82, 331 Acute 435 Adaptation Animal 7, 26–7 In arid environments 340–3 Behavioural 6 Defined 9 Organisms in your environment 6–9 Physiological 6 Plants 8, 343 Adaptive immune response (See specific immune response) Adaptive radiation 374 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 75, 93 Aerobic metabolism 178–82 African sleeping sickness 435 Agglutination 464, 514 Agricultural ecosystems 43 AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) 433 Air, and disease transmission 425 Air pollution 44 Aldosterone 333, 336 Algae Green, red and brown 26 Single celled 71 Alimentary canal 97, 453 650 Alleles 382 Allelopathy 33 Allergens 438 Allergy 438 Amino acids 86, 161, 394 Ammonia 126–7 Amoebic dysentery 435 Anaerobic metabolism 176–8 Anantiostasis 337–9 Angina pectoris 485 Animals Abundance 55–6 Adaptation 7, 26–7 Australian 218–22 Cells 83, 131–3 Defined 194–5 Distribution 55–6 Gas exchange 101–7 Heat loss and gain 300–1 Infectious diseases in 430–9 Light receptors in 593–4 Nutrition 96–100 Quarantine 446 Transport 113–15 Anorexia nervosa 480–1 Anoxic environment 176–8 Anterior cavity 584 Antibiotics 490–1 Antibodies 438, 460 Antibody-mediated immunity 460 Anticoagulant 441 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 333–5 Antigens 436, 455 Aphids 439 Aquatic Ecosystems 45 Environments 21–4, 25–7 Organisms and waste products 126–7 Aqueous humour 584 Archaea 180, 187–9 Archaea domain 186 Archaeopteryx 362 Arid ecosystems 227–8 Arteries 309–10 Arterioles 309 Artificial blood 314–15 Artificial insemination 401–2 Artificial pollination 402 Ascomycetes 439 Asexual reproduction 247–8, 263, 557–60 Assimilation 85 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE Asthma 437 Atherosclerosis 484 ATP (See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)) Auditory association area 612 Auditory nerve 602 Auricle 601 Australia’s origins 212–17 Autoradiography 533 Autotrophs 85, 171 Axons 607 B B-lymphocytes 459, 463–4 Bacon, Francis 160 Bacteria Cause of disease 432–5, 439 Chemosynthetic 85 Deep sea 191 Environments 189 Evolution 178 Nitrogen-fixing 179, 189, 191 Resistance to antibiotics 371–2 Balance and the ear 604–5 Banksias 8, 232–3 Base substitution mutation 551 Basophils 456 Bateson and Punnet 526–7 Beadle and Tatum 394 Bernard, Claude 294 Binge eating 481 Biochemical similarities of living things 365–66 Biodiversity 245–6 Biological levels of organisation 64–5 Bioluminescence 26 Biomagnification 44–6 Biomass pyramids 40 Biotic 11 Birds Circulatory system 113–15, 116–17 Excretion in 127–8 Black rot 439 Blood Artificial 314–15 Cells 309, 349–51 Gas analyser 318 Groups 514–13 Haemorrhage 485 Movement in circulatory system 113–15, 119 Oxygen and carbon dioxide levels 316–18 Pressure 484–5 Products 310–11 Regulation of salt and water 333–6 Rh factor 514 Transport of substances 307–11 Type 474 Vessels 309–10 Blubber 301 Bone marrow 460 Borers 439 Boveri, Theodor 385–6 Bowman’s capsule 330 Breathing 105–7 Breeding 255–6 Brown, Robert 64, 81 Brownian motion 64, 81 Bubonic plague 468 Bulimia 481 Buoyancy 21 Burnett, Sir Macfarlane 465 Butterflies 439 C Cairns-Smith, Alexander 176 Cambium 133 Candidiasis 436, 437 Cannon, Walter 294 Capillaries 118, 309–10, 321 Capture-marking-recapture technique 15–16 Carbohydrate molecules 82–3, 87 Carbon, chemistry of 85 Carbon dioxide 22, 307 Carbon-oxygen cycle 30 Cardiac arrest 485 Carnivores 29, 39, 96–7 Cataracts 588–90 Cell differentiation 72–3 Cell-mediated immunity 460 Cell organelles 74–5 Cell surface molecules 473 Cell theory 64–6, 69–70 Cells Active 81, 462 Animal 83, 131–3 Autotrophic 171 Body 519–20, 606 Cycle 131 Diploid 249, 519–20, 550 Division 129, 131–4, 395 Eucaryotic 78, 171–3 Gametes 248, 250 Germ-line 520 Growth 129 Haploid 249, 519–20, 550 Heterotrophic 171 Membranes 75, 77–8, 79–83 Memory 465 Movement of substances in and out 79–83 Nucleus 74 Nutrition 91 Passive 81 Photoreceptor 593–4 Plant 83, 94, 108 Plasma 462 Procaryotic 78, 171–3 Reproductive 380, 519–20 Somatic 248, 552 Surface area to volume ratio 89–91 Wall 78 Waste products of 91 Cellular respiration 22 Centromere 520 Cerebral artery disease 485 Chemical compounds In cells and their function 85 Tests for 142–3 Chemicals On earth before cells 157 From outer space 157 Chemokines 458 Chemoreceptor cells 578 Chemosynthetic Bacteria 85 Origin of life 157 Chickenpox 433 Chlorophyll 26, 29, 75 Chloroplasts 75, 94 Cholera 434, 435 Cholesterol 484 Choroid 583 Chromoplasts 75 Chromosomes 74, 248, 385–6 And Down syndrome 480 Homologous 382 Mapping 525–29 Mutations 549–50 Structure 520, 521 X and Y 389 Chronic 435 Chylomicron 309–10 Cilia 453 Ciliary body 584 Circulatory systems And blood movement 113–15, 119 Compared 116–19 Invertebrates 115 Vertebrates 113–15, 116–19 Cladistic classification 201 Cladodes 343 Classification hierarchy Domain system 185–6, 195, 197–8 Kingdom systems 194–5, 196–7 Superkingdom system (See Domain system) Classification keys 195, 196–7 Classification of organisms 192–8, 205–6 (See also Classification hierarchy; Classification keys) Binomial system 193–4 And DNA 202 And electron microscopes 202 Extinct organisms 200–2 Morphology 193, 201 Climate 18 Clonal selection theory 464–6 Cloning 403–4, 532, 557–60 Co-dominance and sex linkage 388–91 Cochlea 602 Codon 393, 503, 551 Coenocytic cell 174 Coenzymes 285 Cogswell, Carol 64 Colloid 325 Colonies of cells 174 Colour and communication 595–6 Colour blindness 389, 594–5 Commensalism 33 Communication And hearing 618–22 And vision 615–17 Communities Defined 12 And ecosystems 12 Competition And evolution 360 And natural selection 232, 369–76 Between organisms 34–5 Complement system of proteins 458–9, 464 Complementary bases 393 Compound eye 596 Concentration gradient 81 Congestive heart failure 485 Conjunctiva 583 Consumers 38 Continental drift 160, 213–17 Convergent evolution 374–5 Copulation 251 Core temperature 300 Cornea 583, 584 Coronary arteries 485 Cortex, of the kidney 127 Crick, Francis 393, 413 Cristae 75 Crocodiles 118 Crystallins 588–90 Cultural beliefs 183–4 Cusps 97 Cuticle 93, 108 Cyanobacteria 71, 171, 189, 191 Cytokinesis 129, 174 Cytoplasm 74, 76 Cytoskeleton 78 INDEX 651 D Darwin, Charles 167, 366, 369–70, 376 DDT 44–5 Deamination 126 Decomposers 30, 38, 42 Deep-sea bacteria 191 Dendrites 606 Density 15 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 73–74, 76, 87, 129, 171, 248, 392–6, 505–06 Control of polypeptide synthesis 395 And evolution 396 Extraction 566–7 Fingerprinting 532–5 Function in the cell 393 Hybridisation 398–400, 533 Modelling 566 And mutations 395 Recombinant DNA technology 530–6, 537–42 Repair 552–3 Replication 395 Sequencing 398–400 Structure 392–3 Depth perception 597 Desert environments 43 Diapause 302 Diastolic pressure 485 Dichotomous key 204 Differentiation, cell 72–3 Diffusion 138–40 And cells 81–2 Gases 22 Gradient 102 Digestive systems Carnivore 96–7, 99 Herbivore 96, 97–8, 99 Human 97–8 Nectar feeder 99–100 Role of mammalian teeth 97 Dihybrid crosses 383, 520, 522–5 Diphtheria 434, 470 Diploid cells 249, 519–20, 550 Disease (See also Infectious disease; Non-infectious disease; Prevention and control of disease) Aspects 424–5 Caused by bacteria 432–5, 439 Caused by fungi 436, 439 Caused by macroparasites 438, 439 Caused by microflora imbalance 438 Caused by parasites in plants 439 Caused by prions 430–1 Caused by protozoans 435–6 Caused by viroids 439 Caused by viruses 431–2, 439 Control 425 Defined 422 Environmental factors 422 652 And heredity 422 Infectious 424, 427–9 Non-infectious 424, 479–86 Nutritional 424 Plant 439 Transmission 425 Types 424–6 Distal tube 330 Distribution And abundance measuring 14–15 Defined 13 Factors determining 18–20 Of organisms 13–16, 18–20 Of plants 52–3 Diuresis 334 Divergent evolution 374 DNA (See Deoxyribonucleic acid) Domain system 185–6, 195, 197–8 Dominance 383, 391 Double helix 393 Down, J. Langdon 480 Down syndrome 480 Dutch elm disease 439 Dutrochet, Henri 64 Dystrophin 552 E Ear, structure and function 601–5 Eardrum 601 Earth Early history 154, 160 Geological history 165 Structure 159 Ecology Defined 11 And environment 11 Ecosystems (See also Agricultural ecosystems; Aquatic, ecosystems; Natural ecosystems; Urban ecosystem) Abiotic factors 11, 18–19 And abundance 13, 53–5 Biotic factors 11 And communities 11–12 Cycling of matter 29–31 Defined 11 Distribution of major Australian 224–8 Disturbed 42–6 Energy transfer through 28 Flow of energy and matter 28–31 Human impact upon 42–6, 48–52 Measuring physical characteristics 48– 52 Rainforest 226 Sclerophyll forest 226–7 Sea floor 190 Semi-arid and arid 227 Sustainability 46 Undisturbed 42–6 Woodland 227 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE Ectoparasites 424 Ectotherms 301–4 Eigen, Manfred 176 Electromagnetic spectrum 580–2 Electron microscope 69–70, 161 Electrophoresis gel 541 Embedded proteins 82 Embryology 364–5 Embryonic development 561–5 Endoparasites 424 Endoplasmic reticulum 75–6, 79 Endosymbiosis 172–3 Endotherms 301–4 Energy Flow in an ecosystem 28–31 Pyramids 40 Transfer and loss 28 Transfer through ecosystems 28 Use by organisms 28 Use in ecosystems 43 Enterobiasis 437 Environment 189 (See also Aquatic, environment; Freshwater environment; Marine environment) And adaptation 9 Anoxic 176–8 And ecology 11 Of living things, diverse 175 Oxic 178–82 Enzymes Active site 284 Chemical nature 284 Coenzymes 285 Cofactors 285 Defined 283–4 Denaturation 287 Essential role in metabolism 289 Factors that affect activity 286–9, 345–7 Induced fit model 285 Lock and key model 285 And metabolic pathways 289 PH 287, 347–8 Restriction 532, 533 Specificity 284 Substrate 284 Substrate concentration 288–9 Eosinophils 456 Epidemiology 475–479 Epidermis 93, 108–9 Epitope 464 Equine influenza 447–8 Ergot 439 Estuarine environment 337–8 Eucalypts 193, 230–1, 232–3 Eucaryotic cells 78, 171–3, 174 Eustachian tube 602 Evaporation (transpiration)-tensioncohesion 321 Evolution Adaptive radiation 374 Analogous structures 375 Of Australian plants 229–33 Of bacteria 178 And the changing chemical environment 358–9 And the changing physical environment 359–60 Chemical 170–1 And classification 201 And competition 34–5, 360 Convergent 374–5 Divergent 374 Evidence for 361–7 Isolation 232 Major events 363 Natural selection 232, 369–76 Of organic molecules 155–8 Punctuated equilibrium 375 Variation 232 Evolutionary change 358–360 Evolutionary relationships and new technologies 398–400 Excretory systems 126–8, 324–7 Ammonia 126–7 Birds 127–8 Deamination 126 Fish 126–7, 329 Insects 128 Kidneys 127 Mammals 127, 329 Urea 126–7 Uric acid 126 Exons 510 Extracellular fluid 80 Extremophiles 187 Eye (See also Vision) Focal length 587 Human 583–5 And refraction 586–591 Eye cup 596 F Facioliasis 437, 438 Faeces 325 Family pedigree 389 Farrer, William 403 Fatty acids 86 Fauna (See also Megafauna) Australian 218–22 Feedback and the nervous system 296–8 Fermentation, in respiration 317 Fertilisation 248–9, 250–1 Fibre 325 Fibringen 307 Filtration and reabsorption in kidneys 331 First-order consumers 38 Fish 102–3 Estuarine 337–8 Excretion in 126–7 Flagellum 435 Flannery, Tim 239–41 Fleming, Alexander 33 Flemming, Walther 65 Fluid mosaic model 80–1 Food Chains 38–9 And chemical compounds 85 And the transmission of disease 425 Webs 38–40, 56–7 Fossil fuels 43 Fossils 361–5 Australian 172, 265–7 Evidence and continental drift 214 Formation 164 Records 163–8 Similarities to present-day organisms 364–6 Sites 222 Fovea 584 Frameshift mutation 551 Franklin,Rosalind 393, 413 Freshwater environment 329 Frogs 99, 103–5, 251 Fucoxanthin 26 Fungi kingdom 195 Fusion of cells 248 G Gametes 248, 250, 519–20, 520 Gametocytes 443 Gas exchange In animals 101–7 Defined 101 In fish 102–3 In frogs 103–5 In humans 105–7 In insects 103, 104 In plants 108–11 And roots 110–11 In stems 109–10 Gases Availability of 22 Diffusion of 22 Gel electrophoresis 533, 541 Gene Cascades 562 Cloning 403–4, 532, 557–60 Expression 508, 561–5, 564 Homologues 562–3 Mutations 549–50 Therapy 546–8 Genes 248, 386 Defined 506 And embryonic development 561–5 And evolution 562–3 Jumping 553 Linkage 567–8 Their evolution 563–4 Genetic code 503–4 Genetic diversity 255–6 Genetic mapping 537–42 Genetics 378 Change 548–54 Nature of species 555–7 Genital herpes 432–3 Genotype 383 Genus 194 Germ cell gene therapy 547 Giardiasis 435, 436 Glaciers, distribution 215 Glandular fever 433 Globins 564 Glomerulus 330 Glottis 599 Glucose Its role in photosynthesis 92–3 Transport and phloem 123–4 Glycerol 86 Glycolipids 80 Glycoproteins 80, 83, 461, 473 Golgi bodies 75, 77 Gondwana 218–19 Grana 75, 93 Grassland, arid 228 Greenhouse effect 43 Growth, of cells 129 Guard cells 123 H Haemagglutinin 449 Haemoglobin (HA) 312–15 Haemoglobin saturation 564313–14 Haemophilia 389 Haemorrhage 485 Haldane, J.B.S Halophiles 187 Haploid cells 249, 519–20, 550 Health, and the influence of genes 422–3 Heart 114 Heart attack 485 Heat Conduction 14 Loss and gain in animals 300–1 Heavy metals 44–6 Hepatitis 433 Herbivores 29, 39, 96–8 Heredity 378 (See also Inheritance) Herpes simplex 432, 433 Herpes viricella-zoster 432, 433 Heterocysts 180 Heterotrophs 85, 171 Heterozygous 382 Hierarchy of classification 185–98 Histamine 438, 458 INDEX 653 Hole in the heart 485 Homeostasis 291–5, 297–8, 324–7 Homologous structures 364–5 Homologue genes 562–3 Homology 406 Homozygous 382 Honey possum 99–100 Hooke, Robert 64, 69–70 Hormone replacement therapy for aldosterone 336 Hormones Aldosterone 333, 336 Antidiuretic (ADH) 333–5 Regulation of water and salt in the blood 333–6 Host 33, 424 House dust mite 437, 438 Hoyle, Fred 157 Human Genome Project 503, 537–46, 564 Humans Digestive system 97–8 Gas exchange 105–7 Impacts on ecosystem 42–6, 48–52 Quarantine 446 Wants and sustainable ecosytems 46 Hybridisation 402–3 Hybrids 382 Hydatid disease 437 Hydrophilic 80 Hydrophobic 80 Hyperopia 588 Hypertension 484–5 Hypertonic solutions 83 Hypothalamus 298, 334 Hypothermia 22 Hypothesis, defined 66 Hypotonic solutions 83 I Imago 133 Immune system Antigens 455 Antimicrobial proteins 458–9 Cell death 459 Defence adaptations 454–9 Inflammation response 457–8 Macrophages 457 And organ transplants 473–5 Phagocytosis 456–7 Relationship to symptoms 456 And the role of leucocytes 455–6 The specific immune response 459–67 And transplants 473–5 Immunisation 468, 469, 471, 472 Immunity 471 Immunoglobulins 460, 463 Immunological memory 465 Immunological tolerance 465, 466 654 Incus 601 Independent assortment 524 Infarction 485 Infection prevention Advances in immunisation 469 How vaccines work 471 Immunisation and vaccination 468 Types of immunity 471, 472 Types of vaccines 468–70 And the work of Edward Jenner 468 Infectious disease 424 In animals and plants 430–9 History 427–9 The role of Louis Pasteur 427–8 The role of Robert Koch 428–9 Influenza 433, 449–51, 470 Prevention 451 Ingestion 85 Inheritance 386 In humans 389 Influence of the environment on 390 Variations from Mendelian ratios 390 Inner ear 602 Insects 103–4, 128, 327 Insulation, in animals 303 Interferons 458 Interleukin-2 461 Interneurons 607 Introns 510 Invertebrates 115 Ions Availability 22–3 Mineral 88 Iris 583, 584 Isolation in evolution 232, 372–3 Isotonic solutions 83 Isotopes 161, 162 J Jansenn, Hans and Zacharias 64 Jenner, Edward 468–9, 488 Jerne, Niels 464–5 K Kangaroos 33, 99, 194, 254–5 Keys, classification 195, 196–7 Kidney and urinary system in mammals 127, 329–30 Kingdom systems 194–5, 196 Koch, Robert 428–9 L Lacteals 309 Larynx 599 Laurasia 218–19 Law of independent assortment 379 Law of segregation 379 Leaf spot 439 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE Leaves And gas exchange 108–9 Internal structure 108–9 Starch production 144–5 Leeuwenhoek, Anton van 64, 69–70, 159 Legionnaires’ disease 432, 434 Lens of the eye 584 Lenticals 110 Leucoplasts 75 Light Absorbance spectrum in water 25–6 Availability 23 Detection by animals 581 Effect on starch production in leaves 144–5 Perception and interpretation 606–14 Refraction in the eye 586–591 In water 23, 25–6 Light microscopes 67–8 Lightning Ridge 222 Lignotubers 233 Limiting factors 19 Linnaeus, Carolus 193 Lipid bilayer 80 Lipids 87, 309–10 Lobe-fin fish 364 Loop of Henle 330 Lumen 309–10 Lymphatic system 118, 119, 455, 460 Lymphocytes 456, 459, 460–1, 462–4 Lysis 459 Lysosome 75, 453 Lysozyme 453, 458 M M-RNA 503 Macrophages 456, 457 Macroscopic parasites 424, 438–9 Magnetism, residual 216 Malaria 435, 436, 440–4 Malleus 601 Malnutrition 480 Malpighian tubules 128 Mammals 297–8 Circulatory system 113–15, 116 Digestive system 97 Excretion in 127 Teeth 97 Mangroves 111, 232, 338 Margulis, Lynn 173 Marine environment 329 Marsupials 253–5220–1 Mast cells 458 Matter cycling in ecosystems 28–31, 42–3 Mayr, Ernst 183 Measles 433, 470 Megafauna 239–44 Meiosis 248, 386, 407–10, 519, 520 Membrane structure 79–82 In cells 79–83 And the movement of substances 81–2 Membranes 74–5, 77–8 Biological 79–83 Modelling 137–8 Semi-permeable 81 Memory cells 462, 465 Mendel, Gregor 372, 378–81, 385, 390, 523, 525 Meningitis 470 Mercury poisoning 46 Meristems 133 Merozoites 442 Mesophytes 341 Messenger RNA 503 Metabolism 71, 91, 126, 176 Aerobic 178–82 Anaerobic 176–8 Malfunctioning 424 Rates 304 Methanogens 187, 188 MHC I and MHC II molecules 461 Microflora 438, 453 Microorganisms and disease 424 Microscopes 64–70 Electron 69–70 Hooke’s microscope 65 Leeuwenhoek’s microscope 65 Light 67–8 Resolving power 67 Scanning electron 69 Transmission 69 Microspheres 171 Mid-ocean ridges 160, 216 Middle ear 601 Migratory fish 338 Miller, Stanley 157 Mineral ions 88 Minerals 87 Mitochondria 75, 77 Mitosis 129, 131–4, 147, 395 Molecules Carbohydrate 82–3, 87 Cell surface 473 MHC I and MHC II molecules 461 Movement across membranes 81–2 Organic 85–7 Monera kingdom 197 Monocytes 456 Monohybrid crosses 382–384 Monomers 85–7 Monosaccharides 86 Monotremes 221, 235–8, 237–8 Morgan, Thomas Hunt 388 Morphology 193, 201 Moths 439 Motile 250 Motor neurons 607 Mucus 453 Multicellular organisms 64, 71–3, 173–4 Multiple alleles 513–15 Mumps 470 Murgon 222 Muscular dystrophy 551 Mutagens 396, 414 Mutations 182, 548–9, 548–52, 551, 568 Mutualism 33 Myocardial infarction 485 Myocardium 485 Myoglobins 564 Myopia 588 N Naracoorte Cave 222 Natural ecosystems 42 Natural selection 232, 369–76, 411–12 Near point of vision 587 Nectar feeders 99–100 Nephrons 127, 330 Nerve fibres 608 Nerve impulses 608–11 Nervous system and feedback 296–8 Neurons 606–7 Neutralisation of antigens 464 Neutrophils 456, 457 Niche 7 Nicholson, Garth 81 Nitrogen Cycle 31, 190 Fixation 179 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria 189, 191 Nitrogenases 179–80 Non-infectious disease Aboriginal nutritional disease 481 Cardiovascular disease 482–6 Down syndrome 480 Environmental diseases 481–2 Heavy metal poisoning 481–2 Inherited conditions 480 Kwashiorkor 481 Nutritional factors 480–1 Nucleic acids 86–7 Nucleolus 74 Nucleosomes 520 Nucleotides 393 Nucleus, cell 74 Nutrition Animal 96–100 In living organisms 84–8 Plant 92–5 Nutritional diseases 424 O Occlusion 484 Oil immersion 70 Olfactory sense 578 Omasum 99 Omnivores 39, 96 Ontogeny 364–5 Oparin, A.I. 157, 176 Operculum 102 Organ of Corti 602 Organ transplants Cross species 559 And the immune system 473–5 Organelles 74–5, 135–7 Organic molecules 85–7 Function in living systems 87 Scientific theories about their evolution 155–8 Organisation, levels of 64–5 Organisms Classification of 192–8 Distribution and abundance 13–16, 18–20, 25–7 Distribution of present day 215 Energy uses 28 Growth and repair 129 Interrelationships among 32–5 Multicellular 64, 71–3 And nutrition 84–8 On rock platforms 338 Unicellular 64, 71–3 Origins of life 155–62, 176–84 Osmoregulation 325 Osmosis 23, 81–2, 138–40, 329 Osmotic balance 325 Osmotic pressure 82, 83 Ossicles 601 Outer ear 601 Oxic environment 178–82 Oxygen 22, 176–82, 307 Transport in blood 313 Oxyhaemoglobin 313–14 P Palaeontology 164, 166, 361 Palisade mesophyll cells 93, 108–9 Pangaea 218–19 Panting 303 Parasites 33, 438–9 Parthenogenesis 247–8, 256 Passive transport 82 Pasteur, Louis 70, 156, 157, 159, 427–8 Pathogens 33, 452–4 Penicillin 33 Perflourocarbons 315 Perforin 463 Peristalsis 128, 453 Pesticides 44, 487 Phagocytes 75, 456, 457 Phenotype 383, 410–11 Pheromones 578 Phloem 121–3 Phospholipid bilayer 80, 82 Photoreceptor cells 578, 593–4 Photorefractive keratotomy 588 INDEX 655 Photosynthesis 28–9, 75, 85, 92–3 Phycoerythrin 26 Phyllodes 343 Phylogeny 201 Pigments 26 Pinna 601 Pituitary gland 297 Placentals 221–2 Plankton 71 Plants (See also Roots; Stems; Transpiration) Abundance and distribution 52–5 Adaptation 8, 232–3 Australian 229–33 Cells 83, 94, 108 Defences against disease 439 Effects of isolation 232 Evolution of 229–33 And fire 231 Gas exchange 108–11 Mitosis 133–4 Movement of materials through 319– 23 Nutrition 92–5 Pathways of water movement 146–7 Photosynthesis 28–9, 75, 85, 92–3 Quarantine 446 Respiration 94 Structure 94 Transpiration 123, 145–7, 320–1 Transport system 120–4 Water evaporation 108, 305 Water transportation 122–3 Plasma 307, 311 Cells 462 Transport in 307–9 Plasmodesmata 78 Plasmodium 441–3 Plasmolysis 83 Plastids 75 Plate tectonics 160, 216–17 Platypus 235–8 Pneumatophores 111, 338 Pneumonia 434 Polar substances 82–3 Poliomyelitis 470 Pollen 252 Pollination 258–60 Pollution 43–6 Air 44 Water 44–6 Polygenetic inheritance 516–18 Polymerase chain reaction 533 Polymers 85–7 Polynucleotides 393, 503 Polypeptides 411, 507 Polyploidy 550 Polysaccharides 86 Polysome 506 Posterior cavity 584 656 Potato blight 439 Potato spindle-tuber disease 439 Precipitation of antigens 464 Predation 33, 45 Pressure-flow mechanism in plants 322–3 Pressure variations 23–4 Prevention and control of disease 487–8 Prey 45 Primary auditory cortex 612 Primary visual cortex 612 Principle of superposition 160 Prions 430–1 Probability in genetics 383 Procaryotes 78, 171–3, 176–7, 184–91 Producers 38 Prostoglandins 458 Proteasomes 510 Protein synthesis 505–10, 512 Proteins 87 Embedded 82 Functional 395 Structural 395 Proteoid roots 232 Protists 173–4 Protoplasm 74 Protozoa 71, 435–6 Proximal tubule 330 Pulmonary circulation 114, 117 Pulse oximeter 318 Pupil 584 Pure bred 382 Pyrogens 458 Q Quadrats 15, 53–5 Quarantine in Australia 445–8 R Radial keratotomy 588 Radioactive isotopes 161, 162 Radioactive tracers 124 Radiometric dating 160, 161, 162 Rainforests 226 Effect of European settlement 231 Randomised control trials 476 Receptor molecules 79 Receptors 579 Recessive 383 Recycling matter in ecosystems 30, 42–3, 46 Red kangaroo 194, 254–5 Redi, Francesco 70, 156, 159 Refraction and the eye 586–591 Religion, and the origins of life 183 Renal dialysis 31–2 Renal system 127 Replication 176 In animals 131 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE Repressors (protein) 562 Reproduction Asexual 247–8, 263 In Australian animals 253–7 In Australian plants 258–63 Marsupial 253–5 The role of fire 263 Sexual 248–9 Technologies for 401–5 Types of 248 Reproductive cells 380 Reptiles 115, 116 Residual magnetism 216 Resolving power of microscopes 67, 70 Resource partitioning 360 Resources and organisms 19–20 Respiration 22 (See also Gas exchange) Cellular 28 And photosynthesis 28–9, 93 Plant 94 Respiratory surfaces 453 Respiratory systems 324–5 Restriction Endonucleases 532 Enzymes 532–3 Reticulum 99 Retina 584 Retranslocation 123 Rh factor 514 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) 74, 87, 171, 394, 505–06 Ribosomal RNA 508 Ribosomes 75, 77, 503 Riversleigh 222 RNA (See Ribonucleic acid (RNA)) RNA polymerase 506 Rock formations and continental drift 215 Root epidermis 111 Roots And gas exchange 110–11 Surface area 123 Rough endoplasmic reticulum 75 Rubella 433, 470 Rumen 99 Ruminants 99 Rust disease 439 S SA node (sino atrial node) 485 Salk, Jonas 469 Salts in plasma 309 Saprophytes 436 Scabies 437 Scanning electron microscope 69 Schistosomiasis 437 Schleiden, Matthias 64 Schwann, Theodor 64–5, 70 Science and cultural beliefs 183–4 Sclera 583 Sclerophyll forests 226–7, 230 Scrub 228 Seafloor ecosystems 31 Seafloor spreading 160 Second-order consumers 38 Sedimentary rock 361 Seed Dispersal 260–1 Germination 261 Selective breeding 555 Selective permeable barriers 79 Self-regulating non-living systems 293–4 Semi-arid ecosystems 227 Semi-permeable membranes 81, 82 Senses 578–9 Sensory neurons 607 Serum, blood 307 Sex cells 519 Sex linkage 388–91 Sexual reproduction 173, 248–9, 387 Shrubland 228 Sickle-cell anaemia 551 Singer, Jonathon 81 Single-lens 596 Single-stranded polynucleotide 503 Skin 453 Smallpox 468, 488 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 75 Snails 252 Soil 18 Erosion 43 Somatic cells 248, 552 Somatic gene therapy 547 Sonic shadow 604 Sound And communication 598–600 Detection by animals 616–17, 620–21 Perception and interpretation 606–14 Production by animals 618–20 Waves 599 Southern blotting 533 Spallanzani, Lazzaro 70, 156, 159 Species Defined 195 Interrelationships between different 33–5 Transgenic 404–5 Specific immune response 459–67 Active cells 462 B-lymphocytes 459, 463–4 Clonal selection theory 464–6 Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes 462–3 Its activation and suppression 461–2 Lymphatic system 460 Lymphocytes 459, 460–1, 462–4 Memory cells 462 MHC I and MHC II molecules 461 T-lymphocytes 459, 460, 462–3 Sphygmomanometer 484 Spiders 7 Spiracles 103, 104 Spleen 460 Spongy mesophyll cells 93, 108–9 Spontaneous generation 156 Spore 250 Sporozoa 435 Sporozoite 441 Stapes 601 Stems and gas exchange 109–10 Stimulus-response model 578–9 Stomates 93, 108–9, 123 Their role in transpiration 147 Stratigraphic correlation 160–1 Stroma 95 Stromatolites 167–8 Structural malfunctioning 424 Subduction zones 217 Sugar 86 Sugar sink 321 Superkingdom system (See Domain system) Surface area to volume ratio 71, 89–91 And cell activity 91 Its effect on diffusion 140–1 And plant structure 94 And rate of reaction 145 Survival of the fittest 370 Sustainability 46 Sutton, Walter 385–6 Sweat glands 303 Symbiosis 173 Synapse 607, 610–11 Systemic circulation 114–15 Systolic pressure 485 T T cells 456, 458, 460 T-lymphocytes 459, 460, 462–3 Taeniasis 437 Tarsipes rostratus 99–100 Taxonomy 193 Technology And cell theory development 69–70 Changes and the origin of life 159–62 Reproduction 401–5 Transgenic 405 Teeth And digestion 97 Structure and type 96 Temperature Change, animal response 299–304 Change, plant response 305–6 Core 300 And enzyme activity 287 Range for life 300 Variations 22, 224–8 Termites, use of procaryotes 187–8 Terrestrial environments, abiotic factors 21–4 Tetanus 470 Tetraploid 550 Thermoacidophiles 187 Thrombosis 484 Thylakoids 93 Thymine 503 Thymus 460 Tinea 436–7 Tissue culture 557–59 Tobacco mosaic virus 439 Torpor 302 Touch 578 Toxins 434 Tracheae 103, 104, 599 Transcriptor factors 562 Transect 14–15, 52–3 Transgenic Species 404–5 Technology and diversity 405 Transition fossils 362, 364 Translocation 123, 321–2 Transmission microscope 69 Transpiration 123, 320–1 Evaporation (transpiration)-tensioncohesion 321 Factors affecting its rate 145–6 Pull 320 The role of stomates 147 Transplants, organ 473–5, 559 Transport Active 81, 331 In animals 113–15 Passive 81 In plants 120–4 Transposons 553 Trilobites 167 Triplet code 393 Trisomy 549 Trophic 38 Turgor pressure 83 Tympanic membrane 601 U Undernutrition 480 Unicellular organisms 64, 71–3, 173–4 Upper cuticle 93 Uracil 503 Urban ecosystems 43 Urea 126–7 Urey, Harold 157 Urey-Miller experiment 157, 161 Uric acid 126 Urinary system 127 Urine 127 Urine concentration 334 Urine excretion in mammals and fish 328–32 Urogenital surfaces 453 V Vaccines 468, 471 INDEX 657 Vacuoles 75 Variation In evolution 232 In reproduction 387–90 Varicose veins 116 Vascular bundles 123 Vectors of disease 425 Vegetation distribution 52–3 Veins 309–10 Animal 118 Plant 109, 123 Vertebrates 113–15, 116, 118–19 Virchow, Rudolph 65, 157 Virion 449 Viroids 439 Viruses 431–2 Viscosity 21 Vision Changes 594–5 Colour 616 Colour blindness 594–5 And communication 615–17 Day and night 596 Depth perception 597 The process 592–8 Visual acuity in humans 615–16 Visual association area 612 Vitamins 87 Types and functions 88 Vitreous humour 584 Volume (See Surface area to volume ratio) And the transmission of disease 425 Transportation in plants 122–3 Watson, James 393, 413 Weevils 439 Wegener, Alfred 160, 213 White clover 513 Whittaker, R.H. 195 Whooping cough 470 Wilkins, Maurice 393, 413 Wilson, J. Tuzo 160 Woese, Carl 195 Woodland ecosystems 227 X Xerophytes 341 Xylem 121–3, 134, 320–1 Y Yeasts 71 Z Zygotes 249 W Wallace, Alfred 366, 369–70 Walls, of blood vessels 309–10 Waste 43, 91, 126 Waste products Importance for their removal 325–6 Of insects and terrestrial mammals 327 Of terrestrial and aquatic organisms 326–7 Urine excretion in mammals and fish 328–32 Water (See also Aquatic, environments; Marine environments) Absorbance spectrum 25–6 Availability of 22 Cycle 31 Drinking 426 Importance in living things 325 Loss in plants 108–9, 340–3 And organic molecules 87–8 Pollution 44–6 Potential in transpiration 320 Pressure variations 23–4 Required by living things 87 Role in living systems 87–8 Solvent of plasma 309 658 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life Third Edition is the authoritative biology textbook for Preliminary and HSC students. Written within a contextual framework and organised so that students can monitor their progress, test their understanding and revise key concepts at their own pace, Biology in Context promotes assessment success. The text includes cutting edge content, new developments in biology, practice examination questions and many first and second hand investigations. The textbook includes two options modules: Genetics – The Code Broken and Communication. All other options modules are included on the student CD-ROM. Log onto oup.com.au/biologyincontext to discover more. VISITûUSûATûOUPCOMAUûORû CONTACTûCUSTOMERûSERVICEûCSAU OUPCOM