INTEGRATED MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT MANUAL In Latin American and Caribbean Cities INTEGRATED MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT MANUAL IN LATIN AMERICAN AND CARIBBEAN CITIES (Based on the original edition: Manual Gerenciamento Integrado de Resíduos Sólidos, 2001) 1st EDITION – 2008 MINISTRY FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND TERRITORY – ITALY BRAZILIAN INSTITUTE OF MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION – IBAM General Director Corrado Clini General Director Mara Biasi Ferrari Pinto Director, Division I, Environment and Development Research Department Paolo Soprano Director, National School of Urban Services – ENSUR Tereza Cristina Baratta Consultant, Division I, Environment and Development Research Department Pierluigi Manzione Director, Urban Development and the Environment – DUMA Ana Lucia Nadalutti La Rovere INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH CENTRE, IDRC – Canada PUBLICATION Technical coordination Karin Segala Senior Program Specialist Walter Ubal Giordano Research Officer Alicia Iglesias Program Assistant Clara Saavedra Webmaster María Noel Estrada Technical content – Update and Adaptation Gilson Leite Mansur José Henrique Penido Monteiro Chapter 2 – Collaboration Victor Zular Zveibil Silvia Martarello Astolpho Technical Revision Andrea Pitanguy de Romani Karin Segala Translation from Spanish to English Liliana Battipede and David Reed Design and Layout Roberto Tostes / Doble Clic Editoras Publishing Coordination and Revision, English version Víctor L. Bacchetta and Laura Pallares Manual on municipal solid waste integrated management in Latin American and Caribbean cities / José Henrique Penido Monteiro …[et al]; updated and adapted by Gilson Leite Mansur and José Henrique Penido Monteiro; technical coordination by Karin Segala; translation by Liliana Battipede and David Reed. – Montevideo: IDRC, 2008. 264p.; 21 X 29.7cm Adapted from: Manual gerenciamento integrado de resíduos sólidos, 2001. 1. Solid waste. I. Monteiro, José Henrique Penido. II. Mansur, Gilson Leite. III. Segala, Karin (coord.). IV. International Development Research Centre (IDRC). INDEX PRESENTATION 6 PREFACE 1 12 The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Regional Evaluation of Municipal Solid Waste Management Services in Latin America and the Caribbean 1.3 Solid waste sector trends 14 15 15 22 2 Integrated Solid Waste Management 28 3 Institutional models and payment for services 3.1 Concept 3.2 Forms of administration 3.3 Payment for services 3.3.1 Guidelines for the calculation of a waste collection rate 32 33 34 39 42 4 Legislation 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 and Environmental Licenses Introduction Legislation Environmental Licenses Regulations applicable to solid waste 44 45 45 47 48 5 Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics 5.1 Definition of rubbish and solid waste 5.2 Solid waste classification 5.2.1 Potential environmental contamination risks 5.2.2 Nature and origin 5.3 Characteristics of solid waste 5.3.1 Physical characteristics 5.3.2 Chemical characteristics 5.3.3 Biological characteristics 5.4 Influence of solid waste characteristics on urban cleaning system planning 5.5 Factors that influence solid waste characteristics 5.6 Processes for determining principal physical characteristics 50 51 51 51 52 59 59 62 63 6 Solid waste quantity projections 70 7 Solid waste preparation and storage 7.1 Concept 7.2 The importance of appropriate preparation and storage 7.3 Characteristics of pre-collection storage containers 7.4 Domestic waste pre-collection preparation and storage 7.5 Pre-collection storage of street waste 7.6 Pre-collection storage of waste in low demographic density and low-income areas 7.7 Pre-collection storage of waste produced by large generators 7.8 Special domestic waste pre-collection storage 7.9 Special origin waste pre-collection storage 74 75 75 76 78 80 63 65 66 82 83 84 87 8 Solid waste collection and transport 8.1 Domestic waste collection and transport 8.1.1 Concept 8.1.2 Collection regularity 8.1.3 Collection frequency 8.1.4 Collection times 8.1.5 Restructuring domestic collection routes 8.1.6 Collection vehicles 8.1.7 Tools and implements used by collectors 8.2 Public solid waste collection and transport 8.2.1 Concept 8.2.2 Collection of waste gathered by sweeping 8.2.3 Collection of waste from weeding and vegetation cutting 8.2.4 Tree pruning waste collection 8.2.5 Collection of rubble and other construction waste 8.2.6 Special collections 8.2.7 Vehicles and equipment used for collection 8.3 Waste collection in tourist cities 8.4 Solid waste collection in informal settlements 8.5 Collection of medical waste 8.5.1 Acknowledgement of the problem 8.5.2 Segregation 8.5.3 Separate collection of common, infectious and special waste 8.5.4 Vehicles for collection and transport 8.5.5 Aspects of collection planning 90 91 91 91 92 93 94 100 105 106 106 106 107 108 109 109 110 113 114 115 115 116 9 Solid waste transfer 9.1 Concept 9.2 Types of transfer station 9.2.1 Direct transfer station 9.2.2 Station with storage facilities 9.2.3 Alternative transfer systems 9.3 Vehicles and machines for transfer stations 120 121 122 122 122 124 124 10 Street cleaning 10.1 The importance of street cleanliness 10.2 Waste found in the street 10.3 Street cleaning services 10.3.1 Sweeping services 10.3.2 Weeding and scraping services 10.3.3 Cutting services 10.3.4 Drain cleaning services 10.3.5 Market cleaning services 10.3.6 Manual and mechanical waste removal services 10.3.7 Beach cleaning services 10.4 How to reduce street waste 10.5 Street cleaning in tourist cities 126 127 128 129 130 136 138 143 145 146 147 150 152 11 Recovery of recyclable materials 11.1 Concept 11.2 Selective collection programs 11.2.1 Selective door to door collection 11.2.2 Voluntary Drop-off Centres (VDC) 11.2.3 Segregator organizations 154 155 156 157 159 161 117 117 119 12 Solid waste treatment 12.1 Concept 12.2 Domestic solid waste treatment 12.2.1 Recycling 12.2.2 Composting 12.2.3 Choosing a treatment option 12.3 Treatment of special domestic waste 12.3.1 Construction rubble 12.3.2 Tyres 12.3.3 Batteries and fluorescent tubes 12.4 Treatment of waste from special sources 12.4.1 Industrial solid waste 12.4.2 Radioactive waste 12.4.3 Port and airport waste 12.4.4 Medical waste 164 165 166 166 170 174 177 177 182 184 184 184 185 186 186 13 Solid waste final disposal 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Impacts of inappropriate solid waste disposal 13.3 Sanitary landfill 13.3.1 Sanitary landfill site selection 13.3.2 Environmental licenses 13.3.3 Master plan 13.3.4 Landfill installation 13.3.5 Sanitary landfill operation 13.3.6 Equipment 13.4 Controlled landfills 13.5 Environmental recuperation of refuse dumps 13.6 The situation of segregators 13.7 Special domestic waste disposal 13.7.1 Construction rubble disposal 13.7.2 Disposal of batteries 13.7.3 Disposal of fluorescent tubes 13.7.4 Disposal of tyres 13.8 Disposal of waste from special sources 13.8.1 Industrial waste disposal 13.8.2 Radioactive waste disposal 13.8.3 Port and airport waste disposal 13.8.4 Medical waste disposal 13.9 Sanitary landfills and carbon credits: Opportunities to help resolve environmental problems 13.9.1 Greenhouse effect: causes and consequences 13.9.2 The “logic” of carbon credits 13.9.3 Circumstances in which biogas from a sanitary landfill can be utilized 13.9.4 Requirements for the implementation of GHG emission reduction projects in solid waste landfills 13.9.5 General considerations 196 197 198 199 203 211 213 215 222 232 233 236 238 239 239 240 240 241 241 241 245 246 246 247 248 249 251 252 253 BIBLIOGRAPHY 255 GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS 258 GLOSSARY 259 PRESENTATION The role of local authorities for a better environmental policy The training course on integrated urban solid waste management in municipalities of Latin America and the Caribbean, held in December 2005 in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), represented a significant step in the fruitful collaboration between the Ministry for the Environment and Territory of Italy and the International Development Research Centre of Canada (IDRC) through the Environmental Management Secretariat (EMS). This collaboration had previously resulted in significant benefits through the organization of a high level meeting held in Sao Paulo (Brazil), which gathered experts, administrators, professionals and heads of public institutions in order to quantify the process towards sustainability in the urban solid waste management sector and to assess the situation through an exchange of information and an evaluation of best practices in each field. These peak activities, together with some others carried out during the year, pertain to the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed by the Ministry for Environment and Territory of Italy and IDRC, which came into force in 2005 and is aimed at achieving common objectives related to environmental protection and integrating them with social and economic development. This agreement focuses attention on some specific areas related to local environmental policy, such as sustainable water and sanitation management, urban waste management, the promotion of clean technologies and industrial processes and the use of renewable energy sources, all of which are processes geared to ensuring local sustainable development. The MoU established a partnership between the two institutions and implies not only that both parties are committed to achieving the agreed objectives, but also their intention to initiate actions at all levels with the participation of developed and developing countries, international institutions, NGOs and the private sector. The resulting projects (specifically in Latin America and the Caribbean) will be expressly devoted to establishing new partnerships (within the broad category of the “type II initiatives” launched in Johannesburg) in areas of interest common to private and public sectors, or within each of them, and to supporting local authorities in developing voluntary processes at the local level. In this regard, the role that municipalities can play in the sustainability process is of great importance: the local dimension should be considered as the most significant for experimenting with new environmental strategies and best practices and demonstrating their effectiveness on a broader dimension. As stated in chapter 28 of Agenda 21, local authorities construct, operate and maintain economic, social and environmental infrastructure; oversee planning processes; establish local environmental policies and regulations; and assist in implementing national and sub-national environmental policies. As the level of governance is closest to the people, they play a vital role in educating, mobilizing and responding to the public in the promotion of sustainable development. 6 Indeed, local authorities can play a more effective role in developing the capacity to deliver feasible sustainable development outcomes. Policies such as housing, transport, urban development, waste and water management, have significant impacts on how cities grow. The traditional framework of policies is not designed to consider interrelationships between the policies of different sectors; it rather aims to focus on each policy in an isolated manner: thus, in addition to the improvement of specific policies, a change in the policy framework itself is required today. This is particularly true for the urban waste management sector. Waste management issues are at the centre of environmental concerns in many urban areas, especially because continued population growth and the expansion of economic activities stimulate higher consumption of resources and a greater waste generation. In these circumstances major improvements in efficiency are needed, so as to enable the decoupling of environmental degradation from population growth and economic development, and to diminish environmental pressures to sustainable levels. An effective environmental management of industrial (hazardous) and urban waste can also serve as a significant mechanism for the creation of new job opportunities, the promotion of renewable energy sources and the improvement of people’s quality of life by preventing pollution in urban areas. The real challenge is to transform waste into reusable resources: measures should be initiated to stimulate private investment in this field and to create opportunities to include municipalities as potential beneficiaries of the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism for curbing greenhouse gas emissions. For these reasons, the development of clean technologies – by replacing refuse dumps with final waste disposal centres – can be included among the advantages of responsible and sustainable local government policy-making. In more general terms, local governments can play an important supervisory role, enforce laws and regulations and promote initiatives suitable for local conditions, including the adoption of specific action plans, awareness raising campaigns and influencing the market towards the attainment of an environmentally sound waste cycle. Paolo Soprano Ministry for the Environment and Territory – Italy 7 PRESENTACIÓN El papel de las autoridades locales para una mejor política ambiental El curso de capacitación sobre gestión integrada de residuos sólidos urbanos a nivel de Municipios de América Latina y el Caribe, realizado en diciembre de 2005, en Río de Janeiro (Brasil), ha sido uno de los pasos más importantes en la fructífera colaboración entre el Ministerio de Ambiente y Territorio – Italia y el Centro Internacional de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo (IDRC) de Canadá, a través del Secretariado de Manejo del Medio Ambiente (EMS-SEMA). Anteriormente esta colaboración ya había logrado un importante resultado a través de la organización de una reunión de alto nivel que tuvo lugar en San Pablo (Brasil), donde expertos, administradores, profesionales y autoridades de instituciones públicas se reunieron para cuantificar el proceso en pro de la sustentabilidad en la gestión integrada de residuos sólidos urbanos, y para evaluar la situación a través del intercambio de información y evaluación de las mejores prácticas en cada área. Estas actividades destacadas – combinadas con otras que se desarrollaron en el transcurso del año – corresponden al Memorando de Entendimiento firmado conjuntamente por el Ministerio de Ambiente y Territorio – Italia y el IDRC, que entró en vigor en el año 2005 y apunta al logro de objetivos compartidos relativos a la protección del medio ambiente y a hacer que los mismos fueran compatibles con el desarrollo social y económico. Este Acuerdo fija su atención en algunas áreas específicas vinculadas a las políticas ambientales locales, como por ejemplo en los casos de gestión de residuos sólidos urbanos, gestión sustentable del agua y saneamiento, promoción de tecnologías y procesos industriales limpios y uso de fuentes de energía renovable, siendo todos ellos procesos acometidos para asegurar un desarrollo local sustentable. El Memorando de Entendimiento, que establece una asociación entre las dos instituciones, implica no sólo que ambas partes están comprometidas con el logro de objetivos acordados, sino que también desean poner en marcha acciones a todo nivel con la participación de países desarrollados y en desarrollo, instituciones internacionales, organizaciones no gubernamentales (ONG) y el sector privado. Los proyectos resultantes (en especial en América Latina y el Caribe) estarán expresamente dedicados al establecimiento de nuevas asociaciones (en la categoría más amplia de “iniciativas tipo II” que fueran lanzadas en Johannesburgo) en las áreas de interés entre los sectores público y privado, o dentro de cada uno de ellos, y para apoyar a las autoridades locales en el desarrollo de procesos voluntarios a nivel local. En este sentido, el papel que podrían desempeñar los municipios en función del proceso de sustentabilidad es de gran importancia: la dimensión local debería ser considerada como la más significativa en la experiencia de nuevas estrategias ambientales y mejores prácticas, mostrando su efectividad en una dimensión más amplia. Tal como se establece en el capítulo 28 de la Agenda 21, las autoridadeslocales construyen, 8 operan y mantienen la infraestructura económica, social y ambiental; supervisan los procesos de planificación; implantan las políticas y reglamentaciones ambientales locales; y colaboran en la implementación de políticas ambientales nacionales y sub-nacionales. A medida que el nivel de gobernabilidad se acerca más a los pueblos, las autoridades locales desempeñan un papel crucial en la educación, movilización y respuesta al público para promover el desarrollo sustentable. De hecho, las autoridades locales pueden desempeñar un papel más eficaz en el desarrollo de la capacidad para producir resultados más efectivos en cuanto al desarrollo sustentable. Políticas públicas como la de vivienda, transporte, desarrollo urbano, gestión de desechos y agua, producen un importante impacto en la forma en que las ciudades crecen. El marco tradicional de las políticas no ha sido diseñado para tener en cuenta la interrelación entre las políticas sectoriales; más bien intenta focalizar cada política de manera aislada: es por eso que hoy se requiere un cambio en el propio encuadre de las políticas públicas, además de la mejora de algunas políticas específicas. Esto resulta particularmente cierto en el caso del sector de gestión de desechos urbanos. Los problemas en torno al manejo de residuos constituyen la principal preocupación ambiental en muchas zonas urbanas, en especial porque el constante crecimiento poblacional y la expansión de las actividades económicas estimulan un mayor consumo de recursos y un incremento en la generación de desechos. En tales circunstancias, se requiere una considerable mejora en la eficiencia para permitir la separación de la degradación ambiental del incremento de la población y el desarrollo económico, y para reducir las presiones ambientales a niveles sustentables. La gestión ambiental efectiva del desecho industrial (peligroso) y urbano también podría ser un mecanismo importante en la creación de nuevas oportunidades de empleo, en la más amplia difusión de la adopción de fuentes de energía renovable y para mejorar la calidad de vida de las personas, evitando la contaminación en zonas urbanas. El verdadero desafío está en transformar los residuos en recursos reutilizables: deberían preverse medidas para estimular la inversión privada en este campo y generar oportunidades para incluir a los municipios como beneficiarios potenciales del Protocolo de Kyoto sobre Mecanismos de Desarrollo Limpio, para abatir las emisiones de gases con efecto invernadero. Por todas estas razones, el desarrollo de tecnologías limpias – sustituyendo vertederos por centros para la disposición final de los residuos – podría incluirse entre las ventajas que se derivarían al contar con políticas responsables y sustentables en los gobiernos locales. En términos más generales, los gobiernos locales pueden desempeñar un papel importante en la supervisión, asegurando el cumplimiento de la legislación y las reglamentaciones y promoviendo acciones adecuadas a las condiciones locales, incluyendo la adopción de planes de acción específicos, sensibilización, y liderando al mercado en la dirección correcta para el logro de un ciclo de manejo de desechos que resulte ambientalmente saludable. Paolo Soprano Ministerio de Ambiente y Territorio – Italia 9 PRESENTAZIONI Il ruolo degli enti locali per una politica ambientale migliore Il corso di formazione sui sistemi integrati di gestione dei rifiuti solidi urbani nei comuni dell’America Latina e dei Caraibi, tenutosi a dicembre 2005, a Rio de Janeiro del Brasile, ha rappresentato un significativo passo in avanti a favore della fruttuosa collaborazione fra il Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio – Italia ed il Centro Internazionale di Ricerca per lo Sviluppo Canadese (IDRC) attraverso il proprio Segretariato per la Gestione Ambientale (EMS). Tale collaborazione aveva già ottenuto un risultato importante attraverso l’organizzazione di un incontro ad alto livello tenutosi a San Paolo del Brasile, dove un gruppo di esperti, di amministratori, di professionisti e di dirigenti di istituzioni pubbliche si sono riuniti per quantificare il processo verso la sostenibilità del settore della gestione dei rifiuti solidi urbani e per valutare la situazione grazie ad uno scambio di informazioni ed ad un esame delle migliori pratiche di ogni settore. Queste attività di spicco – combinate ad altre attività svoltesi durante l’anno – sono contenute nel memorandum di intenti siglato fra il Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio – Italia e l’IDRC, entrato in vigore nel 2005, e che ha come scopo l’ottenimento degli obiettivi comuni per la tutela ambientale e la sua compatibilità con lo sviluppo economico e sociale. Tale accordo si concentra su settori specifici collegati alla politica ambientale locale come ad esempio: la gestione dei residui urbani, la gestione sostenibile dell’acqua e dei servizi igienici; la promozione di tecnologie e processi industriali puliti e l’utilizzo di risorse energetiche rinnovabili, tutti finalizzati a garantire lo sviluppo sostenibile locale. Il memorandum di intenti, che stabilisce una partnership tra le due istituzioni, prevede non solo l’impegno di entrambe le istituzioni al raggiungimento degli obiettivi concordati, ma anche l’attuazione di attività ad ogni livello con la partecipazione dei paesi industrializzati e quelli in via di sviluppo, con le organizzazioni internazionali, con le ONG e con il settore privato. I progetti che ne verranno (in particolare in America Latina ed i Caraibi), saranno espressamente volti a stabilire una nuova partnership (nella categoria più ampia delle “iniziative di tipo II” lanciata a Johannesburg) nei settori di interesse fra il settore privato e quello pubblico, o con ciascuno di loro, e sostenere gli enti locali nello sviluppare dei processi volontari a livello locale. A questo riguardo, il ruolo che i comuni possono ricoprire verso il processo di sostenibilità è di estrema importanza: la dimensione locale va considerata come la più significativa per sperimentare nuove strategie ambientali e migliori pratiche, dimostrando la loro efficacia su scala più ampia. Come affermato nel capitolo 28 dell’Agenda 21 “gli enti locali, costruiscono, operano e mantengono le infrastrutture economiche, sociali ed ambientali, supervisionano i processi di pianificazione, stabiliscono le politiche e le regolamentazioni in materia ambientale a livello locale e partecipano all’implementazione delle politiche nazionali e sub-nazionali in ambito ambientale. Poiché inoltre essi rappresentano il li- 10 vello di governo più vicino ai cittadini, gli enti locali giocano un ruolo vitale rispetto all’educazione, alla mobilizzazione ed alla responsabilizzazione del pubblico nella promozione dello sviluppo sostenibile. Effettivamente gli enti locali possono giocare un ruolo più efficace nello sviluppare la capacità di trasmettere risultati validi per lo sviluppo sostenibile. Le politiche sugli alloggi, sui trasporti, sullo sviluppo urbano, sulla gestione dei rifiuti e dell’acqua hanno un impatto notevole sulla crescita delle città. Lo schema tradizionale delle politiche non è atto a considerare l’interdisciplinarità fra le politiche di settore; al contrario si concentra su ogni politica in modo isolato ed è, pertanto, adesso necessario modificare lo schema di per sé, oltre naturalmente a migliorare le singole politiche. Ciò è particolarmente vero per il settore della gestione dei rifiuti. Le questioni relative alla gestione dei rifiuti sono al centro dell’attenzione ambientale in molte zone urbane in quanto, a causa della continua crescita demografica e dell’espansione delle attività economiche, si stimola un maggior consumo delle risorse ed una maggiore produzione di rifiuti. In queste circostanze è necessario un miglioramento dell’efficienza al fine di scollegare il degrado ambientale dalla crescita della popolazione e dallo sviluppo economico ed al fine di ridurre la pressione ambientale a livelli sostenibili. Una gestione dei rifiuti urbani ed industriali (pericolosi) potrebbe essere anche un meccanismo importante per la creazione di nuovi posti di lavoro, per diffondere l’adozione di risorse energetiche rinnovabili e per migliorare la qualità di vita della gente grazie alla prevenzione dell’inquinamento nelle zone urbane. La vera sfida è trasformare i residui in risorse riutilizzabili: vanno presi dei provvedimenti per incoraggiare gli investimenti privati in questo settore e per creare le opportunità affinché i comuni vengano inclusi come potenziali destinatari del Meccanismo di Sviluppo Pulito del Protocollo di Kyoto per la riduzione delle emissioni di gas ad effetto serra. Per queste ragioni, lo sviluppo di tecnologie pulite – che sostituiscano l’interramento con degli impianti per lo smaltimento finale dei rifiuti – può essere inserito fra i vantaggi delle politiche responsabili e sostenibili dei governi locali. In termini più generali, i governi locali possono giocare un ruolo importante di regia, garantendo l’applicazione delle leggi e delle norme e promuovendo delle attività adatte alla condizioni locali, includendo l’adozione di piani d’azione specifici; l’aumento della consapevolezza e la conduzione del mercato verso la direzione giusta per l’ottenimento di un ciclo integrato dei rifiuti. Paolo Soprano Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio – Italia 11 PREFACE There is a notably growing demand for solutions to urban cleaning issues both in global bodies and at the level of civil society and local communities. For a long time these issues have been relegated to the background but diverse governmental and civil society sectors are now mobilizing to address the problem due to several areas being affected: disease transmission and therefore public health, water course and aquifer contamination in the environmental field, social concerns relating to segregators, in particular children living on rubbish dumps, and pressures deriving from tourist activities. Another aspect of urban cleaning that has more recently come to the fore is the issue of the final disposal of solid waste in relation to Clean Development Mechanisms. In several situations negative impacts relating to solid waste are fundamentally associated with inappropriate management. Changing this state of affairs involves not only a mobilization of resources and improvements in technical knowledge of the appropriate processes and technologies for each reality, but principally the creation of instruments that incorporate and structure integrated management models as a fundamental strategy to achieve a healthy city. Deep behavioural change is necessary in order to reverse traditional policies and practices and establish strategies that incorporate the following elements: ! the reduction of consumption, wastage and waste generation by citizens; ! the universalization of urban cleaning services; ! environmentally appropriate treatment and final disposal practices; ! the withdrawal of children from rubbish dumps; ! the potential generation of work and incomes related to waste, promoting the social and economic inclusion of segregators. This Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Integrated Management is aimed at contributing to an improvement in the technical capacities of the public sector, agencies, companies, NGOs and civil society to deal with aspects of integrated solid waste management in a sustainable way. It deals with subjects that are fundamental to the understanding and improvement of urban cleaning systems and services and covers technical and administrative issues, questions relating to the preparation, storage and final disposal of waste, as well as institutional, economic, political, social and legal aspects, including clean development mechanisms. Acknowledging that the main responsibility for providing urban cleaning services falls on the municipal level of government, the Manual provides guidelines that serve as a reference for decision-makers in the formulation of public policies and corresponding legislation. 12 The Manual has been prepared by professionals with long-term experience in this sector who also serve as teachers in the courses offered by IBAM. As part of their work methodology a preliminary version was examined by participants in the first IBAM training course, held in December 2005 with representatives from several Latin American and Caribbean countries, and was subsequently revised and completed. It is intended for use as a basic didactic instrument that can orientate future workshops. It is essential that municipal teams in charge of the planning and operation of services are properly equipped to prepare and implement programs, plans and initiatives geared to improving urban cleaning systems, including institutional adaptations that are necessary for the administration of services and the allocation of available resources in a responsible way, using appropriate technologies and methods and respecting the particular economic social and cultural circumstances of the local population. Within this perspective the Manual’s objective is to be a useful tool in integrated administration training for all those who work with solid waste and to be sufficiently flexible so that from all the information provided on different forms of “know how” that which is most useful for application to the particular conditions of each city can be chosen. You are therefore invited to consider and use the solutions offered by this Manual. Tereza Cristina Baratta Director, National School of Urban Services – IBAM 13 1 14 The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean 1. The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean 1.1 Introduction In the municipal solid waste management sector, an evaluation made during a certain period has only a relative value as the quality of services can change very quickly. A well administrated landfill can became a rubbish dump in a few days if a tractor stops functioning due to some defect that the municipality is not able to quickly repair because of slow bureaucratic processes involved in buying spare parts or contracting a maintenance service. Even if the system is in the hands of a private company, through outsourcing or concession contracts, an interruption in the payment of bills by the municipality can paralyze services. However, a periodical analysis of the state of solid waste management services in several cities of a country can indicate the general trend, which is significant for answering the question: is waste management improving in Latin American cities? In practically all Latin American countries urban cleaning services are the responsibility of municipalities and often a well functioning system in a particular city does not necessarily reflect the trend in the country as a whole but rather the mayor’s determination to solve the problem. However, if a study includes a wider range of cities, a better evaluation can be made of trends both in service quality and the types of approach to the issue employed by municipal, provincial and national governments in each country. The most recent update of the Report on the Regional Evaluation of Municipal Solid Waste Management Services in Latin America and the Caribbean, which covered the entire region, was carried out by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) in 2005. As it is the best document produced up to now on this subject, its executive summary is transcribed here. 1.2 Regional Evaluation of Municipal Solid Waste Management Services in Latin America and the Caribbean 1 The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) in support of Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) governments, and taking into consideration the significant role performed by urban sanitation services to reduce health risk factors and environmental impacts, coordinated the Report on the Regional Evaluation of Municipal Solid Waste Management Services with the direct participation of public institutions and private agencies, as well as NGOs involved in solid waste management in countries in the Region. The Solid Waste Evaluation constitutes a first regional effort in which 36 LAC countries participated within a common evaluation strategy. The collection of information for 1. Based on Diagnosis of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, IADB and PAHO, 1997; updated in the form of “Report on the Regional Evaluation of Municipal Solid Waste Management Services in Latin America and the Caribbean", 2005. (www.paho.org and http://www.bvsde.ops-oms.org/bvsars/fulltext/informeng/informeng.htm). 15 the Evaluation took place in the countries between 2002 and 2003 through a national coordinating group of representatives from national and local entities involved in solid waste. The information was obtained through a series of forms that collected basic demographic, health, education and socioeconomic data from the country and specific indicators related to urban sanitation services referred to the year 2001. The information was complemented with an analytical report for the country executed by each country. The Solid Waste Evaluation proposal emerges from the need to have a frame of reference that makes the solid waste sector visible in LAC to identify their needs and possibilities within the comprehensive management concept guided towards improving the communities’ quality of life. Within this context, the purpose of the Regional Evaluation is to generate and expand the knowledge of the current situation, which is critical in many countries, as can be seen by the alarming environmental deterioration and the sanitary problems related to unsafe solid waste management and the scarce attention given to this area, mainly to the final disposal of waste with the purpose of looking for solutions or alternatives at a national and local level to improve the current situation and be able to accomplish waste management that is truly efficient. Even though it is true that moderate progress has been made as a result of national and international initiatives, among which Agenda 21 stands out – agreed upon in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro during the United Nations International Conference on the Environment and Development – comprehensive solid waste management still represents one of the most important challenges that national and municipal governments face, as well as service providers and the community in general. The life styles, the high levels of consumption, the materials used in industrial production and the introduction of Figure 1 – Disordered settlement and informal market close to a rubbish dump 16 1. The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean persistent materials in daily human activities, tend to increase the volumes of solid waste, representing serious problems for its collection, transportation, treatment and final disposal. The intensive migration of indigent populations from rural areas to medium and large cities has created outlying poverty belts, of which the majority lack public service infrastructure and have completely spread out in a disorderly manner without any urban planning. In addition, the economic and social impoverishment present in these settlements, takes many families, mainly women and children, to find in garbage, in the streets, as well as in final disposal sites, their only means for survival. The Solid Waste Evaluation estimates that by the year 2001, the LAC population reached 518 million of which 406 million (78.3%) is urban and generates around 369,000 tons of municipal solid waste daily, of which 56% is generated in large urban centers, 21% in medium size urban centers and 23% in small urban centers. Approximately half of the waste generated in LAC is produced by medium and small centers, which tend to have more difficulty in waste management, the impact to the environment being considerable since the disposal of these wastes is usually deficient. Just a few of the LAC countries have comprehensive plans or programs to respond to the sector’s demands. As a consequence, necessary strategies or components that will allow for the guidance, regulation and institutional development of the municipalities as sanitation service providers, as well as the due training of human resources and the capitalization of financial resources are not proposed. The Solid Waste Evaluation confirmed the information gaps that exist in the solid waste area in the countries of the Region. Practically all of them, institutions and organizations that are involved in this area, manage insufficient information. These gaps are seen not only at a local level, where they are more evident, but also in institutions at a national level in charge of defining policies and assigning resources. Waste collection coverage in the Region varies from 11%-100% with a regional average of 81%, although with great differences within the countries, more noticeable in medium and small populations, in which only 69% of the population has collection service. Adequate sanitary final waste disposal coverage (landfill) for the LAC Region is 23%, which makes it evident that there is a serious environmental and health problem due to the proliferation of open air “dumps.” This means that of the 299,000 tons collected daily in the Region, around 230,000 tons of waste are indiscriminately deposited in the environment, at best in dumps with an uncertain control. It is presumed that the remainder, which is not collected, is burned or dumped without any control in vacant lots, streets, highways and waterways contaminating the environment and endangering the population’s health. The situation worsens with the lack of adequate hospital and hazardous waste management, mainly when they are dumped together with municipal waste, a common practice in several countries in the Region. The Solid Waste Evaluation shows that average regional generation of residential solid waste per capita reaches 0.790 kg/inhab/day, with a noticeable fluctuation in countries 17 with a low Human Development Index (HDI). There are cases in which the per capita generation does not exceed 0.250 kg/inhab/day, yet, in countries where tourism is an important economic factor, the per capita generation reaches 2.400 kg/inhab/day. With regards to municipal waste, the per capita generation varies between 0.370 kg/inhab/ day to 2.650 kg/inhab/day with a regional average of 0.910 kg/inhab/day. Likewise, large cities are the largest generators of municipal waste per capita with close to 1.100 kg/inhab/day while the small and poor settlements in Latin America generate an average of less than 0.500 kg/inhab/day. These facts show that economic growth and the level of consumption have a great influence in solid waste generation, and consequently, demand a more efficient management of urban sanitation services, mainly regarding sanitary final disposal. The LAC countries are in different stages of development in the solid waste sector. At national levels, health and environmental ministries have been evolving to replace the governing of the sector and the regulation of services to a certain point. At a local level, municipalities maintain responsibility for services, but with differing operational modalities: direct public sector administration, outsourcing and the granting of concessions. The private sector has been becoming ever more prominent, not only in providing urban cleaning services but also in investment in solid waste sector development. Several deficiencies are observed in guiding the sector, and therefore, in its planning and programming at medium and long term. Municipalities, specifically the smaller ones, lack management and financial capability, which does not allow for the demands of an adequate solid waste management. With regard to the legal aspects applicable to the sector, great gaps can be observed in the judicial development and in different instruments for their compliance. Even though there is an abundance of environmental laws, they are scattered in several legal bodies. This produces an overlapping effect and inconsistencies, which makes it difficult to implement follow-up mechanisms, control and sanctions. Therefore, the effectiveness of current legal tools are minimized, even when several countries are developing specific laws and regulations for municipal, as well as hazardous waste, as is the case in Bolivia, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru, among others. The costs for urban sanitation services in the Region fluctuate between US$15 and US$105 per ton, with an average of US$29 per ton for collected, adequately disposed of and treated waste. The breakdown of these costs corresponds to sweeping, collection and urban sanitation in main streets, transfer, treatment and final disposal. 18 1. The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean The cost breakdown indicates that the highest cost corresponds to sweeping and waste collection and transportation, representing between 60% and 70% of the total cost. Investments in the sector are minimal compared to other public services such as electricity, potable water and basic wastewater, and concentrate in acquiring equipment and, lastly, in infrastructure works for final disposal. In the majority of Latin American countries, financial support for this service is received through the collection of a municipal rate. This general rate is not exclusively assigned to the urban sanitation service, but it is part of other services such as public lighting, real estate taxes and others. The monthly average rates for residential waste in LAC reaches US$2.5 per user, a value that does not cover the cost for urban sanitation services, which reflects a deficit of close to half the real cost of those services. In the English speaking Caribbean countries, urban sanitation services are strongly subsidized by the central government, through a consolidated fund formed by different environmental taxes. The formal segregation and recovery of recyclable materials is not carried out on a large scale in LAC. On average, the Evaluation showed that only 2.2% of the materials are recovered from garbage, of which 1.9% is for inorganic recycling and 0.3% to organic waste recycling, mainly made up of food and garden waste. Informal recycling is widely promoted in Latin America and its magnitude is difficult to identify due to the fact that the activities are subtle. Informal segregation has increased in countries that have gone through a rapid and deep economic crisis as a result of the increase in poverty and unemployment, coupled by the lack of initiatives to integrate this form of subemployment into the solid waste sector. The inadequate management of solid waste has serious consequences in the environment and the health of the population, mainly those who are in contact with wastes. This is the case of the personnel who work in this sector. The majority do not have the minimum prevention and occupational safety measures. The situation is more critical for individuals working and living from the recovery of materials from waste, who work under unsanitary and subhuman conditions, among which there is a significant number of women and children. Although the direct casualty has not been determined, several diseases are related to wastes when the conditions conducive to the development of several disease agents are present. The direct and indirect environmental and social costs that represent the production, handling and inadequate disposal of waste to the community are growing and are significant. The environmental impacts are mainly revealed in the contamination of surface and underground waters for public supply and the obstruction of drainage canals due to the uncontrolled dumping of solid wastes in bodies of water. 19 Other important impacts that affect human health are the emission of air contaminants due to open air burning; the incineration of waste without adequate control equipment; the transmission of pathogen microorganisms through water; by food; the breeding of bovine and porcine livestock with contaminated organic waste; as well as vectors that transmit diseases. These are in addition to aesthetic and nuisance impacts due to noise and bad odours. Figure 2 - Environmental degradation caused by a refuse dump In several countries in LAC, the participation of small companies and private micro companies in solid waste collection has been increasing more and more, mainly because this means a more economic alternative for the municipalities and/or sanitation municipal companies. The advantages of these companies resides in the intensive use of labour force, the use of very low cost technologies that use animal, human or mechanic (tricycles) traction and the promotion of greater community participation to facilitate the material collection and separation operation at the generation source. The community has a limited participation in solid waste management in LAC. Community participation occurs mainly when there is support from NGOs and a strong educational component. Such participation is key to put into practice activities that take into consideration the principle of the three “R’s,” reduction, reuse and recycling, and at the same time is supported by a strong national political base that guides the solid waste sector. Technological and research development in relation to solid waste is reduced in the majority of LAC countries. The contribution in research and technological development from institutes and universities for the solid waste area is scarce. The training of human resources in the solid waste area is usually carried out in some universities in the Region as part of the courses related to sanitation engineering and environmental sciences. This is complemented with a great variety of courses, workshops and seminars focused on solid waste management. 20 1. The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean Initiatives such as primary environmental care, healthy municipalities and communities, health-promoting schools and other health promotion strategies are basic to coordinate initiatives with the capacity to maximize participative management that includes the community, local government, NGOs and the private sector with the purpose of establishing healthy policies, create healthy environments, promoting healthy life styles, personal capacity building through education and empowerment, especially in school and Ecoclub environments on solid waste management topics. These initiatives offer great potential for establishing long lasting activities and allowing the use of shared experiences through community networks and alliances with different institutions that share a common interest. The management aspects of the sector, regulations and operation of solid waste management services, institutional and functional organization, financial self-sustainability and the participation of the private sector and the community, should be carefully evaluated in each of the countries to determine the appropriate steps, within the real possibilities of the countries, to achieve the proposed national and municipal goals. Figure 3 - Correct landfill operation resulting from public administration commitment The solid waste sectoral analysis will continue being a key instrument in this aspect by providing a comprehensive vision of the sector, therefore, allowing more efficient approaches and alternatives for their development. Taking into consideration that solid waste management is a local activity, national and provincial governments should provide more support to municipalities, especially those which have scarce managerial capability and limited resources, in which the lack of information is more significant. 21 Likewise, international cooperation has a broad field of action, especially in institutional capacity building and in the identification and support of sectoral investments. The commitment and will of the governments and financial organizations, and technical cooperation to guide their efforts towards the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals 2 open new opportunities to promote and coordinate national and international activities to improve solid waste management in the Region. 1.3 Solid waste sector trends The above summary of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean, based on Solid Waste Evaluation together with other studies and experiences in this field, makes it possible to identify general sector trends. The issues dealt with below can present variations between one country and another and between one city and another depending on the greater or lesser degree of both commitment by mayors and community participation. Public awareness of the importance of urban cleaning services and municipal solid waste management In almost all LAC countries there has been an increase in community awareness of the need for improved solid waste management. The principal causes of this increase are: ! the growing occurrence of environmental problems that affect people’s daily life and the dissemination of information about them through the media; ! the perceived relationship between solid waste management and the wellbeing and health of citizens; ! the increasing cost of services, especially where universal coverage is sought in the urban zones of a municipality, which demands a more professional management by the municipal administration; ! the widespread exposure in the media of problems in developed countries caused by defective handling of hazardous industrial waste or its inappropriate final disposal and the resultant damaging effects on the health of the population. Circumstantial differences in service provision between small municipalities and large or medium-sized cities A gradual improvement in solid waste management can be found in large cities, not only in collection services but more so in final disposal. Municipalities with a population of over 200,000 have more financial resources and capabilities to deal with the difficulties involved in maintaining sustainable solid waste management. 2. 22 For more information consult http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals. 1. The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean In small urban centres, the category into which most Latin American population centres fall (in Brazil, for example, 80% of municipalities have less than 30,000 inhabitants), urban cleaning services are limited to collection, for the most part regular, in zones where inhabitants can influence public policy (commercial and high income residential zones) and final disposal takes place in one or more open air dumps without any sanitary or environmental control. Larger municipalities generally have a department of urban cleaning, but smaller ones often only have one person running these services and for essential material resources depend on departments with other functions. The importance of political will Sound solid waste management in Latin American cities depends to a large extent on the mayor’s commitment to this issue. If the mayor does not consider it to be a priority sector, budget resources will not be allocated to it, service coverage will not be universal and service quality will not be satisfactory. It is evident that with easier access to information and its dissemination through the internet, those responsible for municipal services have to pay more attention to the waste issue and are less able to ignore the problem. Only when pressured by society and environmental control bodies do municipal administrations eventually become more aware of the problem and begin to allocate more resources to the sector, thus improving coverage and service quality. The legal framework Some large municipalities are establishing norms for solid waste management through municipal regulations or mayoral decrees and some countries are endeavouring to develop a national solid waste policy, but these initiatives are sometimes hindered by political and economic interests that delay their implementation. Although the legal framework is important, it is not the only requirement for the achievement of good quality solid waste management. In order for legislation and norms to translate into an improved solid waste management service a formal commitment by the mayor to their application is necessary. The training of municipal personnel in the preparation of tender specifications and contracts is a critical element for an efficient initiation and operation of contractual relationships with private counterparts, NGOs, cooperatives, etc. Carbon credits and the clean development mechanism The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows developing countries, a classification into which all Latin American countries fall, to obtain resources through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from their industrial or urban activities. 23 Many mayors regard the timing of the arrival of carbon credits as opportune for providing financial support for municipal endeavours to improve solid waste management services. The resources obtained from the sale of Emission Reduction Certificates (ERC) will not guarantee the operation of urban cleaning services, but with the dissemination of information on how this mechanism functions, municipal administrations will know how to maximize its economic advantages to fulfil municipal needs. Nevertheless it must be remembered that such benefits from the Kyoto Protocol Clean Development Mechanism are in effect only up to 2012. Composting Composting is a procedure that is increasingly applied in developed countries due to the prohibition of organic matter dumping in landfills, and is now reappearing in developing countries. This system, which can be operated manually in small towns or be mechanized where large amounts of waste have to be processed, offers the great advantage of reducing the generation of leachate instead of producing biogas in landfills, and in addition prolongs the latter’s useful life. A complementary advantage of a composting system is that it can contribute to the viability of establishing and operating a medium or large size plant by generating income through the sale of Emission Reduction Certificates. This is so because there is an already existing methodology, tested by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), that has determined that composting does not merely reduce but avoids the emission of greenhouse gases as organic matter in aerobic decomposition only gives off carbonic gas and water and not methane, which is the harmful gas that would be generated in a landfill if the organic matter was deposited there. Difficulties involved in the establishment of new landfills PAHO’s diagnosis confirms that one of the weak points of solid waste management systems in Latin American cities is final waste disposal. As mayors become increasingly aware of the seriousness of this problem, refuse dumps are beginning to be closed or converted. In such cases the municipality must decide whether to establish a landfill in the same place, where people are already accustomed to refuse disposal, or to begin one from scratch in another place. The latter option has presented such serious problems that the construction of several new landfills has had to be suspended in response to the reaction of the local community, not to mention the difficulties involved in obtaining environmental licenses for new sites. Municipal administrations or contracted companies offer compensation to local residents but this is not always accepted. In many cases these problems result in municipalities continuing to operate rubbish dumps and abandoning the establishment of new installations for the final disposal of waste collected in the city. 24 1. The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean Communities have also reacted negatively to the establishment of new transfer stations on the grounds that in general landfills and other urban cleaning installations are poorly managed. It is necessary to convince local residents that a well managed landfill can exist relatively close to houses. This is a long process and satisfactory results will depend on the provision of numerous examples until residents become convinced that it is possible. Informal segregators and formal selective collection systems Due to the growing unemployment that is found in almost all Latin American cities, especially the larger ones, more and more people resort to the streets in search of some means of survival. The last hope is recyclable waste that can be found amongst the refuse. On the one hand this activity has positive aspects: waste can be a source of income for these people who do not have any other way of surviving and their work removes a significant amount of material from the urban cleaning circuit, and therefore reduces the costs of collection, transfer and final disposal, as well as extending the useful life of landfills. On the other hand, the segregation of materials is often done in a disorderly way, with bags of domestic waste being opened, materials that can be commercialized separated and the waste that the segregator is not interested in is left scattered on the street, which produces serious problems and much more work for the sweeping services. In addition municipalities that are implementing formal selective collection systems are facing difficulties in that before the truck passes to collect the recyclable waste, the street segregators have already taken it. Even where the recycling system is institutionalized with the participation of segregator organizations, other independent segregators compete in the streets with the formal system. This phenomenon is happening in almost all large and medium-sized cities in Latin America and the prognosis is that it will increase. In many South American cities segregators working in rubbish dumps or landfills react forcefully when the municipality attempts to implement the closure of the site and begins a new landfill where their activity will not be allowed. This resistance on the part of segregators is due to the danger of them losing their only source of income, while the public authority is not able to create hundreds of jobs overnight or provide programs that generate income to replace that gained from segregation activity in landfills and the streets. This situation will continue while unemployment remains one of the principal scourges of Latin American countries. 25 Contract types Municipal administrations face two big challenges in relation to solid waste management in Latin American cities: to provide a universal service and to improve its quality. As municipal budgets are finite, mayors are beginning to look for more effective and less expensive service provision models and are increasingly contracting work. As a result, most large and medium-sized cities outsource collection, transfer and final disposal operations thus transferring to the private sector the burden of investment and operational costs. The municipality for its part takes on the monthly payment of bills for services rendered and the coordination and supervision of such services. In recent times some large cities have contracted services with long term concessions, especially for the establishment and operation of large sanitary landfills that require significant investment and therefore a longer period to see a return on it. In general this has proved to be a satisfactory solution, provided that the specifications are reasonable and the tender process respects the limits required by law and administrative probity. Economic sustainability of the sector In general, a municipality’s income from rates or specific tariffs is nowhere near enough to cover the costs of urban cleaning services. The incidence of payment arrears is high and there is not much that can be done to reduce it as an interruption of collection services would only reduce the cleanliness of the city as households that do not receive this service would find another, no doubt inappropriate, way of disposing of their rubbish. This constitutes one of the main impediments to good quality service management as municipal administrations have to allocate monies from their budgets for urban cleaning services without a corresponding income from rate or tariff collection, a state of affairs that is detrimental to other municipal services. Money raised together with national governmental or multilateral bodies for investment in equipment such as collection trucks or in the construction of installations such as landfills, usually does not solve this problem. The resources needed for the maintenance of sound and sustainable urban cleaning operations have to be allocated from the municipal budget and this represents the biggest challenge faced by administrators, but success is dependent on the mayor’s level of commitment and political will to prioritize the issue. The trends of change Many municipalities are training their technical personnel and seeking resources from provincial or national bodies with a view to improving service quality. This is due not 26 1. The general situation of solid waste management in Latin America and the Caribbean only to the increased awareness of both mayors and the general public about the significance of this issue, but also to the improved performance of environmental control bodies and national ministries that oversee municipalities’ compliance with their legal obligations. As a result, municipal administrations are signing agreements that establish periods within which service provision has to reach specified levels of quality and coverage. There is now an unprecedented level of attention and debate on municipal solid waste management and a seemingly inexorable search by municipalities for models that are sustainable from both a socioeconomic and environmental perspective, with the help, even if sporadic, of provincial and national governments. 27 2 28 Integrated solid waste management 2. Integrated solid waste management Latin American and Caribbean cities present great regional and local imbalances, which call for the establishment of new concepts, frameworks and practices in regard to solid waste management. Typical situations are: ! high technology industrial processes aimed at competitive insertion in global markets side by side with obsolete industrial processes that produce significant environmental damage; ! consumption pockets having a pattern associated with high levels of refuse production equivalent to that of developed countries together with large sectors of the population who do not have access to consumer goods; ! the availability of waste processing technologies together with a lack of the financial and human resources necessary to maintain them and the presence of large groups of segregators in streets and rubbish dumps. Traditional practices, generally insulated, address the problems of solid waste in a partial way, dealing only with the management of the system, treatment plants and final disposal. It is of fundamental importance to also take into consideration the generation of waste, the sustainability of systems and the role of citizens as generators, consumers, recyclers and managers, in order to establish a shared concept in which all win and positive socio-environmental outcomes are produced. The concept of integrated solid waste management considers the entire cycle including production, consumption, discarding and final disposal. In practice this concept ranges from the minimization of waste generation in the production process, including packaging, to the maximization of its reuse through the implementation of more appropriate collection systems for each situation and the employment of treatment, recovery and recycling processes and technologies. In this way only waste with no utility is left for final disposal. It is important to emphasize the significant differences between traditional and integrated approaches to this subject: in the latter waste is always regarded as a raw material for the production of new products through reuse, recycling or recovery. Waste therefore has a commercial value that can be added to the production chain thus creating new work opportunities and generating income for various sectors of society. The optimization of these circuits reduces to a minimum the amount of waste for final disposal. The reduction of waste to be collected, transported and disposed of in landfills – which as a consequence will occupy smaller areas or will have a longer useful life – contributes to the economic and environmental sustainability of systems. This is the approach recommended by Agenda 21: the transformation of the production and consumption matrix on the basis of the 3R’s – reduce, reuse and recycle – to which has now been added a new R for recover, as a result of which they are now called the 29 4R’s. This model has been used as a tool to solve problems arising from the increasing amounts of solid waste generated by the industrial society. “Environmentally sound waste management must go beyond the mere safe disposal or recovery of generated waste and seek to address the root cause of the problem by attempting to change unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. This implies the application of the integrated life cycle management concept, which presents a unique opportunity to reconcile development with environmental protection.” (Agenda 21, chapter 21) Putting these criteria and the concept of integrated solid waste management into practice in Latin American and Caribbean cities requires the development of local participation processes. Participation processes allow the different stakeholders to identify opportunities that can lead to solutions for the problems presented by solid waste, through the development of an Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan (ISWMP). Usually it is recommended that these plans are developed at a municipal or local level. However it is possible for a group of municipalities to develop them and share some solutions especially for the final disposal of waste. Plans can also be formulated at a regional, provincial, or in the case of smaller countries, even national level. On whatever scale they are made, ISWMPs must be complemented by national and regional policies on this issue. Some elements are essential for the development of integrated solid waste management (ISWM) processes: ! the participation of all public, private and community stakeholders in the conception and planning of processes and solutions, and in the implementation of an urban cleaning system; ! the integration of all elements of the solid waste cycle in the 4R’s processes; ! the integration of technical, environmental, social, juridical, institutional and political aspects in order to guarantee system sustainability; ! the articulation of proposed solid waste systems with overall urban planning and other urban systems, particularly environmental sanitation, including water provision, sewerage systems, rainwater drainage and vector control. Integrated management depends on the functioning of specific sub-systems that involve installations, machines, labour and technology, not only provided by the municipality but also by other agents participating in the management, amongst which are: ! citizens themselves, responsible for the separation and differentiated pre-collection storage of recyclable materials and other domestic waste; 30 2. Integrated solid waste management ! large generators, responsible for their own waste; ! segregators organized in cooperatives, responsible for separating recyclable materials discarded by citizens and selling them to the relevant companies; ! health institutions with an internal management of infectious waste that either sterilizes it or appropriately separates it by type for differentiated collection; ! the municipality, that through its agents, institutions and contracted companies, and by means of contracts, agreements and cooperation accords, plays the principal role in the integrated management of the entire system. In addition to the technical and financial aspects of conventional urban cleaning systems and final disposal systems, integrated solid waste management prioritizes the social, environmental and political-institutional dimensions and system sustainability. In order to guarantee sustainability from a multi-disciplinary and trans-disciplinary perspective, specific approaches must be promoted in each related field: Social – community participation and quality control; environmental information dissemination and education as instruments for the transformation of personal and collective production and consumption patterns; and the social inclusion of segregators who have to be organized, valued and associated in the solid waste production chain, thus generating income and jobs. Environmental – the development of clean technology for application to solid waste; a rational use of natural resources taking into account waste minimization; reusable material recovery; and appropriate treatment and final disposal. Economic-financial – an analysis of system costs and the possibility of minimizing them in order to make systems economically viable; the recovery of operational costs through differentiated charge mechanisms according to generator profile and payment capacity. Political-institutional – the integration of public authorities and other stakeholders and institutions with a clear delimitation of responsibilities; the formulation of specific policies for solid waste management; the implementation of juridical instruments and ISWMPs, including the possibility of consortium solutions. Technical-operational – the establishment of a specific department and the appointment of responsible personnel; the definition of training programs; the determination of the appropriate technology for each situation; the provision of sufficient capacity in machines and labour to provide universal coverage in public urban cleaning services, irrespective of the socioeconomic level and ethnic origin of the population. 31 3 32 Institutional models and payment for services 3. Institutional models and payment for services 3.1 Concept A city’s urban cleaning system should be institutionalized on the basis of an integrated management model that, to the maximum degree possible, has the capacity to: ! foster the economical sustentability of operations; ! protect the environment; ! protect inhabitants’ quality of life; ! contribute to the solution of socioeconomic problems related with the issue. The municipal solid waste management model not only has to allow for the participation of the community but also specifically facilitate it in order to generate public awareness of the different activities involved in the system and its implementation costs, and induce an acknowledgment by citizens of their role as consumers and therefore as generators of solid waste. Such participation would directly result in a reduction of solid waste generation, cleaner streets, the appropriate preparation and storage of waste for collection and consequently a cheaper operation. It is important that citizens know that they are the ones who are paying for the system through taxes, rates or tariffs. In summary, community participation is a key element in the sustainability of the system while the municipality is responsible for establishing an integrated management that necessarily includes awareness raising programs for citizens who will then perceive that the political will to prioritize municipal solid waste management exists. This priority must be considered in the definition of municipal fiscal policy, which has to be technically and socially just, and in the subsequent budget allocation to the system that should include provision for environmental education and the development of programs that generate income opportunities and employment. Policy making is based on the participation of social leaders, private companies, and public institutions active in the city and having significant environmental responsibilities. Policy instrumentation will be structured through the approval of urban cleaning regulations whereby the city legitimizes the adopted management model and social obligations, and defines infractions and their respective fines. Such regulations must clearly reflect the objectives of the public authority and raise public awareness in regard to appropriate urban solid waste management and environmental problems. 33 3.2 Forms of administration In general the municipality is, directly or indirectly, responsible for organizing and providing essential local services and is therefore responsible for urban cleaning services. A public service is an activity undertaken by a public body with a view to satisfying a public interest need. What characterizes a public service, and distinguishes it from other economic activities, is that it is essential for the community and therefore its provision represents an obligation for the public authority and its management is subject to the legal principles specifically related with the efficient provision of service to the community. Public services are all material activities assigned by law to the State for it to exercise, directly or through delegates with the objective of effectively satisfying collective needs, under a partially or totally public regime. Urban cleaning systems can be administered in different ways: Direct municipal management In this case the provision of urban cleaning services is the responsibility of a municipal department or body. This model is generally used in smaller cities that do not have a volume of service provision that is attractive to the private sector. Except where they have been resolved in particular cases, the chronic problems inherent to this model are: insufficient budget, inevitable bureaucracy, low degree of training, political interference and frequent crises in the service. The negative results of this group of difficulties are: a dissatisfied public, sanitary and environmental problems, and indeterminate service costs. Autonomous authority This modality involves the creation of a public company specifically for the administration of urban cleaning. This model is more flexible than direct municipal administration and is more compatible with the dynamic of daily urban cleaning tasks. It also facilitates greater management autonomy, the creation of a specialized labour force and better conditions for budgetary planning. 34 3. Institutional models and payment for services Positive examples of urban cleaning administration by municipal public companies can be found in some cities in Ecuador, Colombia and Costa Rica with populations of no more than 500,000. In these cases the companies have several responsibilities including planning, supervision and the charging of tariffs for services provided. In addition, they have the necessary flexibility to adopt appropriate alternatives for the provision of some components of the service, including sweeping, treatment, final disposal and the recovery of energy from waste by generating biogas and in some cases selling carbon credits 3. This model is only appropriate for large cities as it requires the creation, organization and equipping of a new specialized structure in the municipality. Outsourcing In this model a private sector company is contracted to undertake an activity, with a predefined mechanism of payment based on the specific services to be provided and technical-administrative convenience. Outsourcing is based on the concept of public administration undertaking the functions of planning, coordination and overseeing while the private company is responsible for operations. It should be emphasized that service outsourcing can be employed on different scales, from contracting well structured companies, specialized in certain types of operation such as landfill management, to contracting micro-companies or independent workers who undertake waste collection with carts pulled by animals or the manual operation of small-sized landfills, for example. Outsourcing, if well planned at every stage – from specifications in the bidding phase to the overseeing of operations – can make a large contribution to the municipal administration’s ability to improve the quality of services provided to the public, especially in regard to the speed of response to operational requirements (for example the purchase of spare parts for collector vehicles). In many LAC cities outsourcing is employed for urban cleaning services with sweeping and/or collection often undertaken by small civil society organizations. Some functions are undertaken by NGOs, workers cooperatives or small companies through contracts established by municipalities. All these cases of delegating state functions to civil society authenticate outsourcing as an efficient practice. Concessions In this modality the concession holder plans, organizes, implements and coordinates the service, and can even outsource operations and collect payments directly from users/beneficiaries of the service. 3. Integrated Solid Waste Management Workshop organized by IDRC in Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2005. 35 This management model is adopted in special situations where the public authority does not have the necessary technological or budgetary resources to implement interventions or finance the significant investments that are indispensable in dealing with problems related to municipal solid waste management in general or a particular aspect of it. In general, concession contracts are long term to allow for a return on investments in the system through tariffs charged to users. However, significant difficulties lie in the limited guarantees that concession holders receive in regard to the collection of payment for their services and the problems that municipalities have in preparing tender specifications, calculating costs and overseeing services. This type of modality has proved ineffective for collection services, but has been widely employed with relative successs in landfill management, although it functions less well when applied in small cities. Free market This model can be applied for example to large-scale solid waste generators when municipal regulations have defined the maximum quantities permitted for collection by the common domestic collection system and have established that large-scale generators have an obligation to contract, at their own expense, authorized companies for the collection of excess waste. It can also be applied to the collection of construction rubble and other civil construction waste in order to alleviate the burden on the public system. Consortium A consortium results from an agreement between municipalities with the objective of achieving established common goals. All of each municipality’s human and financial resources available for a certain initiative, program or project are combined in a consortium to facilitate its implementation. Any of these alternatives, or any combination of them, has to be selected on the basis of both low cost and environmentally sound technique and with a view to establishing a self-sustainable system that is resistant to changes of administration. In the case of public services that are delegated to third-parties through concessions, the issuing authority keeps the ownership of the service and the right to oversee it, which implies a need for technical and administrative training in order to undertake the activities pertaining to the process, including technical decisions, definition of reference framework, formulation of tender specifications and contracts, and the overseeing and control of service provision. 36 3. Institutional models and payment for services Table 1 Forms of urban cleaning service administration Description Administration Direct municipal management Urban cleaning activities run by a municipal department or body. Autonomous authority Urban cleaning administration by a public company specifically created for that purpose. Outsourcing The contracting of a private company to undertake certain activities. Concession Employed when the public authority lacks sufficient resources to finance the necessary investment in the system. Free market Applied in the cases of large-scale generators where regulations define maximum limits for municipal collection, leaving the generator responsible for contracting a collection company at their own expense. Consortium An association of municipalities for common measures and projects, especially in solid waste final disposal. A city’s urban, demographic and economic characteristics as well as the socio-cultural particularities of its inhabitants must be considered in defining the form of administration, while at the same time taking into account the following factors: ! cost of service administration, management and supervision; ! autonomy and flexibility in planning and decision-making; ! autonomy in the application and reallocation of budgetary resources; ! investment capacity for technological development, IT systems and quality control; ! investment capacity for human resources and the generation of income and employment; ! responsiveness to social and political demands; ! responsiveness to changing economic circumstances; ! responsiveness to operational emergencies; ! responsiveness to growth in demand for services. As has already been said, direct administration of the entire urban cleaning system is common in small cities. In such cases management is usually undertaken by a municipal body or department that shares resources with other sectors of public administration. 37 This type of administration that shares resources with other bodies of the municipality usually has a relatively low cost in comparison with a body or institution exclusively devoted to urban cleaning management. However, the other factors listed above are difficult to achieve and the service tends to have a lower priority than other services sharing the same resources and having a greater potential for political visibility. In determining the form of urban cleaning services administration in tourist cities seasonal fluctuations in demand for services has to be particularly taken into consideration. In cases where refuse collection and street cleaning services are outsourced by contracting specialized companies, the municipality only undertakes the administration of contracts and the monitoring of service quality and therefore the municipal administrative nucleus can be small. For their part, the companies charge the municipality enough to cover both operational costs and capital expenditure, liberating the municipality of the need to invest resources in the purchase of machines and equipment. In such a model there can be problems when unforeseen eventualities arise, such as ones relating to social and political demands, changing economic circumstances and operational emergencies, as the predetermined form of remuneration established in the contract may not cover them. It is therefore advisable that the municipality establishes contract devices or alternative plans to deal with such eventualities. A model that is worth highlighting is the one employed by the Rio de Janeiro City Urban Cleaning Company (COMLURB), in the context of large Brazilian cities, and by the Public Cleaning Companies of Cuenca, Ecuador, and Pereira, Colombia, in the context of medium-sized cities in the Andean region. All of them are autonomous urban cleaning companies and are therefore able to define their own budget allocations, establish human resource policy and most importantly, determine plans, strategies and the logistics of their operations. They can also outsource operational, management and administrative services, and define the technical terms of contracts. These companies can develop or subsidize research and technologies related to urban cleaning in general as well as specific areas of it. The existence of such agencies exclusively devoted to urban cleaning demonstrates the commitment of the municipality to keeping the city clean and caring for the urban environment. Whatever model is adopted, activities should always be regulated by the public authority. 38 3. Institutional models and payment for services In all cases, and whatever the administration modality, direct or autonomous, the municipality has to harmoniously combine two elements: 3. 3 ! just and sufficient payment for services; ! ensured collection of charges for urban cleaning. Payment for services The singularities of tax legislation in each Latin American and Caribbean country makes it difficult to compile a complete generalized summary of the issue of payment for urban cleaning services. This chapter therefore concentrates on a basic outline of the subject, which in some cases may need to be adapted to the particularities of each country’s legislation. The term “tariff” refers to the price charged for a public service provided in an optional form, that is to say that the tariff is proportional to the amount and quality of the service used, which must be well defined and specifically calculated. The term “rate” on the other hand, refers to a tax on the availability of a public service provided by the public authority, whether the taxpayer uses it or not. The value of the rate must reflect divisibility amongst tax-payers in accordance with potential usage by each one. In regard to the collection of payments for service provision, an urban cleaning system can simply be divided into three components: domestic waste collection, street cleaning and final disposal. In the case of domestic waste collection, for example, the Municipality can charge residents a specific rate, usually called “Waste Collection Rate (WCR)”. In cases of concession, the company responsible for providing such services may also be responsible for collecting payments for them. Certain specific services where usage can be measured and users are clearly identifiable can be priced and therefore be charged for exclusively through a tariff. Urban cleaning systems are financed by almost all of the population but not in a direct way. Financial resources raised by the waste collection rate cannot be allocated exclusively to the system due to municipal tax regulations. Similarly, a municipality cannot charge residents of a street for the sweeping and cleaning services of that street in particular as it is an indivisible service. It is therefore necessary that municipal policy ensures a sufficiently large budget allocation to cover the cost of the system and essential investment in it. 39 In some Latin American cities there is an incipient trend towards payment through tariffs, i.e. where payment levels are related to the volume of waste generated. This is being applied to particular geographical areas and follows the “pay as you throw” principle. There are few legal remedies for the problem of non payment, or delayed payment, of rates or tariffs. Waste collection is not a service that can be suspended when bills are not paid, as electricity or drinking water provision can be, because rubbish put in the street by the non-payer has to be collected anyway for public health reasons. In the absence of other available strategies, and even though it is a legally dubious measure, in some cases an authority may resort to inscribing the property of the nonpayer in the municipal register of public debt. However this measure does not have much punitive value as it represents only a long term threat to the non-payer in the form of the eventual confiscation of his or her property. There is no consensus about the most appropriate basis on which a municipal rate for financing urban cleaning services should be calculated. There have been attempts to relate the determination of this rate to the consumption of drinking water or electricity, or to the frontage width of the plot, etc. In some countries only a reform of the tax system would provide municipalities with the necessary instruments to reimburse them in a socially just way for the urban cleaning services that they provide to citizens. Once these issues are resolved, it has to be taken into account that financial resources raised by cleaning and solid waste management rates become part of the Municipal Treasury. There are no guarantees that they will be used in the urban cleaning sector, this being dependent on the political will of the administration or public budget control mechanisms. It should also be noted that the updating or correction of the rate depends on authorization by the municipal council, which in general is not inclined to increase the tax burden imposed on citizens, especially so in view of the socioeconomic conditions of most Latin American and Caribbean populations. It is therefore necessary to reverse the tendency to attribute a low priority to urban cleaning services that results in them receiving fewer resources than are necessary. If it is not possible to adequately finance the system, the quality of services deteriorates and a vicious circle is established. The municipal solid waste management will be defective due to insufficient resources and the population may not accept the payment of rates because it is not receiving good quality service. The municipality then has to choose one of the following options: ! to face for a certain period the political cost involved in increasing taxes, if this is necessary, until the situation balances itself with an improvement in the quality of services provided; 40 3. Institutional models and payment for services ! to subsidize the cost of the service during an initial period until service quality reaches an adequate level, at which point the subsidy can be gradually reduced as its value is gradually incorporated in the rate specifically charged to finance the service. In regard to investment, both for the purchase of equipment and the installation of treatment and final disposal units, municipalities almost invariably need to resort to sources of finance that do not always offer appropriate terms and involve prerequisites that are not easy to adapt to. A feasible solution for municipalities that do not have resources for investment is, as has already been mentioned, outsourcing through contracts with private companies that, with their own resources (labour and machinery), undertake collection, street cleaning, treatment and final disposal services. In such cases a concession can also be an appropriate alternative especially when the necessary investment is higher and requires a more prolonged period to allow for a return on it. Here a tariff is determined as the means by which the concession company makes a return on its investment. It is worth digressing to mention industrial waste management. In this case, a sustainable balance must be established between generators and the private operators of centres for treatment and final disposal. The investment needed for these units is very high and the acquisition of licenses from environmental control bodies involves a long and complicated process. However, when an industry is producing a certain product the cost of an appropriate final disposal of waste generated in the production process should be reflected in the sale price of that product. Payment for urban cleaning systems is calculated by applying the following basic equation: Payments = Expenses Expenses = Municipal Treasury resources + amount collected from WCR + amount collected from tariffs and various other incomes Payments should cover the costs of the system which include expenditure on labour, transport, maintenance, replacement of vehicles and other equipment; backup, supervision and support services; capital expenditure, research, technological development and administration. 41 Irrespective of the management model adopted, Municipal Treasury resources plus the money from tariffs should be equivalent to the budget for expenditure and capital costs for all the operations involved in the cleaning of a city. The payment for waste collection services to large generators (restaurants, hotels, supermarkets, etc.) as well as for other services to which a tariff can be applied (i.e. that can be measured) such as special collections, medical waste collection and the removal of construction rubble or discarded items, can be charged by collecting companies authorized by the municipality. It should be emphasized that all operations not financed by adequate tariffs and an efficient tax collection system, will have to be sustained by resources from the Municipal Treasury, in which case the budget must allow for a specific allocation to the urban cleaning sector, otherwise the Municipality would have to reallocate resources designated for other areas. It should be noted that an efficient way of reducing urban cleaning costs is to motivate the population to decrease the amount of waste generated and implement specific programs for the segregation of recyclable waste at source and its selective collection, or create waste recycling subsidies. The charging of a realistic and socially just rate that citizens can afford and that effectively covers the cost of services and applies the “he who can pays more” principle implies political measures that are dependant on the will and determination of the mayor. 3.3.1 Guidelines for the calculation of a waste collection rate For the system to be economically sustainable, the basic unit of the waste collection rate (WCR) should be the quotient of the total budget for domestic solid waste collection services and the number of households in the city. The establishment of reliable administration and supervision mechanisms for all services relating to urban cleaning is essential in order to correctly ascertain the real costs involved in service provision and therefore the appropriate base for calculating the amount of finance needed to operate the system in an efficient and sustainable way. The basic WCR value can be adapted to the particularities of individual neighbourhoods in the city, taking into consideration factors such as social stratum (with a view to socially just pricing) and operational characteristics. 42 3. Institutional models and payment for services Social stratum is determined on the basis of the average purchasing power of the inhabitants of different zones of the city. In general a distributive criterion is applied, so that higher income sectors subsidize services provided to the less well off. Operational characteristics reflect the amount of labour and materials used in the collection process depending on property usage (commercial, residential, etc.), location, demographic density, topographic conditions, type of road surface, etc. In recent years a more conservationist vision is increasingly influential in the determination of pricing polices for urban cleaning. This approach involves a greater community commitment to segregating waste at source (home, shop, market, etc.) in order to facilitate collection, handling and particularly recycling. The promotion of this model is important but depends on a wide motivational and educational campaign in the community. The establishment of a charging mechanism based on the amount of rubbish generated, so that those who generate more rubbish pay more, produces an economic benefit for the population as a whole. The budget also has to cover the costs of transfer, transport, treatment and final disposal, as well as costs relating to administration, management, monitoring systems, capital expenditure, education and technological development that are linked to collection. 43 4 44 Legislation and environmental licenses 4. Legislation and environmental licenses 4.1 Introduction Integrated municipal urban cleaning system management is based on the fundamental conceptual premise of community participation and a systematic political exercise involving all institutions linked to the pertinent spheres of government. The community participates in this management in two ways: ! contributing to the financing of services and monitoring them; ! cooperating with cleaning by reducing the amount of waste; reusing, segregating, classifying and recycling materials; appropriately preparing and storing waste for collection, and by not throwing rubbish in the streets. Community cooperation should be considered as the principal agent for transforming the efficiency of services and consequently generating beneficial operational and budgetary results. Citizens can be encouraged to reduce the amount of waste that they produce in order to diminish the costs of the operation. This approach could be called the principle of service reliability and citizen cooperation for integrated solid waste management. A combination of citizen cooperation and measures to increase the reliability of urban cleaning services constitutes a powerful pairing that can solve the principal problems relating to urban cleaning systems. Measures geared to guaranteeing good quality operations and a well structured program of environmental education need legal instruments that support them. 4.2 Legislation The legislation required to set up an urban cleaning system falls into three general categories: ! the first, of a political and economic order, establishes the legal forms for institutionalizing the administration of a system and the methods of payment and charging for services; ! the second, establishes operational codes, orientates, regulates and determines procedures and the obligations of tax-payers and urban cleaning agents, and defines administrative processes and punitive measures; ! the third is the legal structure that regulates general environmental issues on a national basis and in particular deals with licenses for the implementation of activities that represent a risk to public health or the environment. In Latin American and Caribbean countries there is wide ranging legislation in the form of laws, decrees, ordinances, rulings and regulations that manifest an increasing concern 45 for environmental protection. In regard to urban cleaning initiatives mostly emanate from municipal councils under their organic law and through local legal instruments. For example, the Brazilian Federal Constitution determines that a municipality constitutes a political entity, as prescribed by the 1st and 18th articles, which establish that the Brazilian Federation comprises the Union, the states and the municipalities. Municipalities can legislate, provide services, establish and collect municipal taxes and choose their mayors and councillors. As established by article 23, sub-sections VI and VII, municipalities are also responsible for the protection of the environment, combating contamination and preserving forests, fauna and flora. Article 30 sub-section I allows them to legislate for local matters in the public interest and therefore to implement municipal environmental policy. Sub-section II of the same article, authorizes them to supplement federal and state legislation where appropriate, and sub-section VIII grants them exclusive authority to legislate on land planning and land usage in their territory. Article 225 of the Federal Constitution imposes on public authorities (Union, State and Municipal) and the community a duty to defend and preserve the environment for present and future generations thus establishing that a municipality has an obligation of environmental protection. The municipality can therefore pass environmental protection legislation and enforce it. In most Latin American and Caribbean countries, a municipality can, under its organic law, regulate the granting of licenses by the relevant municipal body for the exploitation of water and mineral resources, and introduce other public authority instruments aimed at protecting the environment, including the making of agreements to improve environmental management. Furthermore, when the governing plan for a city is formulated, in the section on environmental policy an environmental management system can be established through which environmental policy is implemented (Municipal Council for the Environment, Environment Conservation Fund and Municipal Environment Department). The environmental management system will include amongst its functions, the design of environmental protection projects, either directly or through agreements; the implementation of environmental impact assessment processes; the analysis of projects, works or activities that actually or potentially produce environmental degradation; and the requiring where necessary of environmental impact studies or environmental recuperation guarantees prior to the granting of a license. Taking into account the urban scale (determined by the number of inhabitants) and the city’s socioeconomic and cultural circumstances, under their organic law municipalities must decide on the best alternative for the institutionalization of the urban cleaning system, the form of management, the charging of rates and tariffs and associations with other bodies that can contribute or cooperate, irrespective of their institutional status in the country. Specifically, municipal urban cleaning regulations should serve as the spine of the city’s urban cleaning system by establishing the essential principles that govern the conduct of both municipal authority and citizens. 46 4. Legislation and environmental licenses In recent times an innovative vision, known as ecosystem management, has come to the fore in environmental assessment: the incorporation of the river basin concept in the definition of the area of influence or impact of a project, which requires legal instruments to cover the extrapolation of municipal responsibilities. This concept is particularly significant in the case of defective management of solid waste dumps located near the higher courses of rivers that form part of a water basin used for water supplies to cities downstream. Waste disposal in water courses represents an environmental risk that renders populations vulnerable, especially in the event of natural disasters and particularly so in the case of flooding. 4.3 Environmental licenses It is necessary to establish a system for the granting of environmental licenses that defines responsibilities, establishes criteria for environmental impact assessments and identifies activities that require a prior environmental impact study, such as the installation of a sanitary landfill. Under the legislation of many Latin American countries it is the Environment Ministry that is responsible for issuing licenses, as for example in Colombia, Chile, Paraguay, Peru and Brazil. In Brazil, a federal law establishes National Environmental Policy mechanisms, including the granting of licenses and the revision of “actually” or “potentially” contaminating activities. The same law requires that the construction, instalment, enlargement and operation of establishments or the undertaking of activities that use environmental resources and are considered as actually or potentially contaminating or degrading to the environment, are dependent on the prior granting of a license by the competent provincial body integrated in the National Environmental System, SISNAMA, without prejudice to other required licenses. Another legal instrument, echoing the text of the National Environmental Policy law, establishes that the public authority, in exercise of its regulatory function, must grant the respective licenses before the establishment of an installation and its operation can begin. In many cases the renewal of a license is necessary to authorize the recommencement of an operation. With a view to facilitating the granting of licences for new sanitary landfills and refuse dump recuperation in small and medium-sized municipalities, specific legislation can be passed that simplifies the processes involved in obtaining environmental licenses and adapts them to the economic capacity of the Municipal Treasury. 47 4.4 Regulations applicable to solid waste In other Latin American and Caribbean countries there are legal instruments applicable to solid waste management that: ! prohibit the entrance into the country of waste material for final disposal or incineration; ! establish a system for the granting of environmental licenses, regulate all related aspects and establish criteria for determining which jurisdictions issue them; ! create security zones around airports that restrict the establishment within them of operations that attract birds; ! define the responsibilities of and criteria for environmental impact assessments and identify activities that require an environmental impact study; ! establish criteria for the definition of requirements to obtain licences for works involving sanitary issues; ! determine appropriate procedures for the handling of damaged, contaminated, uncategorized or abandoned material that is deemed to be a potential source of environmental risk, until the relevant environmental body takes responsibility for it; ! regulate environmentally sound initial disposal and management of used batteries, including their collection, reuse, recycling, treatment and final disposal; ! establish criteria for the granting of licences for industrial activities and for the specific controls that existent waste, or the generation of waste, should be subject to; ! regulate the final disposal of discarded car, truck and bus batteries, tyres, used oils, etc. ! establish the definition and classification of solid waste from healthcare institutions, ports, airports, railway stations and bus terminals and the minimum procedures for its management; ! determine a colour code system for different types of waste that must be used for container identification and in educational campaigns on waste segregation; ! define appropriate treatment and final disposal for medical waste. Finally, there are aspects of solid waste management that can be subject to technical regulations, such as: ! the classification of solid waste by its potential risk to the environment and public health, so that each type of waste can be appropriately handled and disposed of; ! the definition of the minimum conditions required in the planning, establishment and operation of non-hazardous waste landfills in order to appropriately protect 48 4. Legislation and environmental licenses superficial and underground water resources, its operators and neighbouring residents; ! the definition of criteria for the planning, establishment and operation of hazardous waste landfills; ! the definition of criteria for the presentation of projects to establish municipal solid waste controlled landfills; ! the definition of criteria for the presentation of projects to establish municipal solid waste sanitary landfills. 49 5 50 Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics 5.1 Definition of rubbish and solid waste The general public tends to think that “rubbish is everything that is not wanted any more and is discarded; things that are useless, worn out and without any value.” Technically, some regulatory entities define rubbish as: “the leftovers from human activity that are considered useless, undesirable or disposable by the generators and that may be solid or semi-solid” (substances or products with a humidity content of less than 85%). The authors of studies on solid waste tend to use the terms “refuse” and “solid waste” without distinction. In this manual solid waste and refuse comprises all solid or semisolid unwanted material that must be collected because the person that discards it considers it to be of no use and gets rid of it by putting it in any receptacle intended for that purpose. It should be emphasized however, that in regard to rubbish the term “of no use” is relative, as what is of no use for the person who discards it, can be transformed into raw material for a new product or process. The concept of the reuse of waste therefore prompts a reconsideration of the traditional concept of solid waste. Only material that is not reusable by anybody can be truly considered to be rubbish. 5.2 Solid waste classification Solid waste can be classified in different ways. The more usual classifications take into account the waste’s potential risk for environmental contamination or its nature and origin. 5.2.1 Potential environmental contamination risks Solid waste can be classified as: CLASS I HAZARDOUS SOLID WASTE Solid waste that is intrinsically inflammable, corrosive, reactive, toxic or pathogenic and therefore represents a risk to public health in the form of increased mortality or morbidity, or produces adverse environmental impacts when inappropriately handled or disposed of. CLASS II NON-INERT SOLID WASTE Combustible, biodegradable or soluble waste that can represent health or environmental risks but does not fall within Class I, hazardous waste, or Class III, inert waste. 51 CLASS III INERT SOLID WASTE Waste with intrinsic characteristics that do not represent a risk to health or the environment and that when sampled in a representative way in accordance with the relevant norms and subjected to static or dynamic contact with distillate or deionized water at room temperature (dissolution tests), does not have any of its dissolved components in concentrations higher than those in drinking water patterns, except in regard to aspect, colour, turbidity and taste. 5.2.2 Nature and origin Origin is the principal element in categorizing solid waste. According to this criterion, solid waste can be grouped in five categories: ! Residential or domestic waste ! Commercial waste ! Street waste ! Special domestic waste: ! ! rubble ! batteries ! fluorescent tubes ! tyres Special origin waste: ! industrial waste ! radioactive waste ! port, airport, railway station and bus terminal waste ! agricultural waste ! medical waste RESIDENTIAL OR DOMESTIC WASTE Waste generated by daily activities in houses, apartments, condominiums and other types of residential building. COMMERCIAL WASTE Waste generated by commercial establishments, the characteristics of which depend on the particular activities pursued by such establishments. 52 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics In urban cleaning terms, “domestic waste” is made up of “residential waste” and “smallscale commercial waste” which, together with waste from street cleaning, represents the majority of solid waste produced in cities. Commercial waste and construction rubble can both be divided into two sub-categories: “small generator” and “large generator”. Municipal urban cleaning regulations can precisely define these two sub-groups. The parameters could be: Small commercial waste generators are establishments that generate up to 120 litres of waste per day. Large commercial waste generators are establishments that generate more than 120 litres of waste per day. Similarly, small generators of construction rubble are individuals or companies that generate up to 1,000 kg or 50 bags of 30 litres per day, and large rubble generators are those that generate a greater volume each day. Clearly these sub-categories cannot be adopted without also establishing a minimum interval between any two collections of rubble from the same generator and/or cumulative limits (by volume or weight) for that generator over a certain period. In general, the quantity of waste that defines the limit between small and large solid waste generators should correspond to the average amount of solid waste generated daily by a household with five residents. In an urban cleaning system the definition of the sub-groups “small” and “large” generators is important because a tariff can be applied to the collection of waste produced by large generators, thus producing an additional source of income that contributes to the economic viability of the system. Alternatively it is important to identify large generators so that the waste generated by them can be collected and transported by a private company authorized by the municipality. This practice reduces by between 10% and 20% the cost of domestic waste collection by the municipality. STREET WASTE Waste that is found in the streets produced by nature, such as leaves, branches, dust, soil and sand, and waste discarded by people in a disorganized and improper way, such as rubble, articles considered to be of no more use, paper, packaging and food remains. 53 Street waste is directly related with the aesthetic appearance of a city and special attention should therefore be paid to planning street cleaning services in tourist cities. SPECIAL DOMESTIC WASTE This category consists of construction rubble, batteries, fluorescent tubes and tyres. It is important to emphasize that construction rubble, also known as civil construction waste, only comes under this category due to the large amounts in which it is generated and the importance that its recovery and recycling is acquiring globally. Rubble The civil construction industry uses more natural resources and generates more waste than any other. In many countries commonly used construction techniques for new buildings involve a waste of materials. While in developed countries the average waste produced in the construction of new buildings is less than 100kg per m², in Brazil, for example, the corresponding figure is approximately 300kg per m². Such material represents 50% of the total weight of municipal solid waste that is collected in cities of the region with more than 500,000 inhabitants. Civil construction waste is a mixture of inert materials such as concrete, mortar, wood, plastic, cardboard, glass, metal, ceramics and soil. Table 2 Average composition of construction rubble in Brazil Components Mortar 63.0 Concrete and concrete blocks 29.0 Others 7.0 Organic waste 1.0 Total Source: USP – University of Sao Paulo. 54 Percentage (%) 100.0 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics Batteries The basic principle of a battery is the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy using metals. They can have different shapes (cylindrical, rectangular, button cell) and sizes and contain one or more of the following metals: lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), lithium (Li), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn) and their compounds. The substances in batteries that contain these metals are corrosive, reactive and toxic, and are classified as “Class I - Hazardous Waste”. Substances that contain cadmium, lead, mercury, silver and nickel have a negative impact on the environment and particularly on human health. Other metals found in batteries such as zinc, manganese and lithium can also cause environmental problems, see table 3. Table 3 Contaminant potential of chemical elements used in batteries Element Pb (lead)* Effects on human health ! abdominal pains (colic, spasm and rigidity) ! kidney malfunction ! anaemia, pulmonary problems ! peripheral neuritis (paralysis) ! encephalopathy (somnolence, manias, delirium, convulsions and coma) ! gingivitis, salivation, diarrhoea (with blood in the faeces) ! abdominal pains (especially epigastria, vomiting, metallic taste in the mouth) Hg (mercury) ! congestion, lack of appetite, indigestion ! dermatitis and arterial hypertension ! stomatitis (inflammation of the mouth mucosa), pharynx and oesophagus ulceration, kidney and digestive tract lesions ! insomnia, headaches, collapse, delirium, convulsions ! brain and neurological lesions that produce psychological problems Cd (cadmium)* ! digestive problems (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea) ! kidney malfunction ! pulmonary problems ! poisoning (when ingested) ! pneumonitis (when inhaled) ! cancer * Even in small amounts 55 Table 3 (cont.) Effects on human health Element Ag (silver) Li (lithium) Mn (manganese) Zn (zinc) ! digestive disturbances and mouth impregnation ! argyria (chronic intoxication producing bluish skin colour) ! death ! inhalation – causes damage even with immediate attention ! ingestion – minimal residual damage without treatment ! neurological system malfunctions ! neurological disturbances ! stammering and insomnia ! pulmonary disturbances ! can produce residual damage without immediate treatment ! contact with eyes – causes serious lesion even with immediate attention Ni (nickel) ! cancer ! dermatitis ! general intoxication Batteries made with non-toxic substances are now available on the market and these can be disposed of without significant problems together with domestic refuse. Fluorescent tubes Fluorescent tubes, both the common cylindrical tubes and the compact fluorescent bulbs, contain mercury steam and release mercury when they are broken, burned or buried in sanitary landfills. Consequently they are classified as Class I hazardous waste because mercury is a toxic substance that attacks the human nervous system and when inhaled or ingested can provoke an enormous variety of physiological problems. When mercury is released into the environment and enters bodies of water “bioaccumulation” takes place, a progressive increase in mercury concentrations in the tissue of for example fish, which then become less healthy or even dangerous to consume. When pregnant women eat such fish mercury is transferred to the foetus, which is particularly sensitive to its toxicity. An accumulation of mercury can also occur in the tissues of other wild species such as aquatic birds and animals. 56 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics Tyres The inappropriate disposal of tyres generates many environmental problems. If left in the open air, tyres accumulate rainwater and serve as a breeding place for mosquitoes thus fostering their proliferation. If they are disposed of in conventional landfills, they will cause hollows in the mass of waste and increase landfill instability. If incinerated, the rubber generates huge amounts of particles and toxic gases requiring a very efficient and expensive gas treatment system. For all the above reasons, the disposal of tyres has become a serious environmental problem that still does not have a truly effective solution. SPECIAL ORIGIN WASTE Waste that due to its particular characteristics requires special handling, preparation, storage, transport and final disposal. The main types of special origin waste are: Industrial waste Waste generated by industrial activity. Its composition varies greatly according to the type of product that is being made. Consequently it is necessary to examine each case individually in order to categorize it as Class I (hazardous), Class II (non-inert) or Class III (inert). Radioactive waste Waste that emits radiation in excess of limits stipulated by environmental law. Due to its specific nature and dangerous characteristics its handling, storage and final disposal are the responsibility of national public bodies and are subject to very rigorous controls. In Brazil, for example, the handling, storage and final disposal of radioactive waste is undertaken by the National Nuclear Energy Commission (CNEN, in Portuguese). Port, airport, railway station and bus terminal waste This category comprises waste generated in terminals as well as in boats, airplanes, trains and buses. Waste from ports, airports and terminals results from consumption by passengers in transit and its hazardous nature lies in the risk of transmission of diseases already eradicated from a country when the incoming transports come from an area where such diseases are endemic. Transmission can also take place through potentially contaminated loads, such as animals, meat and plants. 57 Agricultural waste This category mostly comprises the remains of containers and packaging impregnated with dangerous pesticides and chemical fertilizers used in agriculture. The handling of this type of waste should therefore follow the same practices and use the same containers and process as those used for the handling of Class I industrial waste. Due to a lack of controls and low fines for inappropriate handling of this type of waste, it is often mixed with common waste and disposed of in municipal dumps or even worse, thrown into bodies of water or is burnt in remote rural establishments thus generating toxic gases. Medical waste This category consists of all the waste generated by healthcare institutions. The classification of medical waste according to Brazilian standards (NBR 12.808 of the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards, ABNT) is presented as an example in table 4. Table 4 Classification of medical waste Type Name Characteristics Class A – Infectious waste 58 A.1 Biological Cultures, inoculae, a mix of micro organisms and an inoculated culture medium coming from clinical or research laboratories, vaccine that is unusable or past its use-by date, filters used to prevent inhalation of gases in areas contaminated by infectious agents and any refuse contaminated by the above materials. A.2 Blood and blood derivatives Blood and blood derivatives past their use-by date, HIV- positive blood, blood used for analysis, serum, plasma and other derivatives. A.3 Surgical, anatomical- Tissue, organs, foetuses, anatomical parts, blood and pathological and other organic liquids resulting from surgery and autopexudates sies, and waste contaminated by the above materials. A.4 Sharp and puncturing Needles, ampoules, pipettes, scalpel blades and glass. A.5 Contaminated animals Skeletons or parts of animals that have been inoculated, exposed to pathogenic micro-organisms or are carriers of infectious diseases, as well as waste that has been in contact with them. A.6 Patient care Secretions and other organic liquids from patients, as well as waste contaminated by them, including remains of food. 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics Table 4 (cont.) Type Name Characteristics Class B – Special waste B.1 Radioactive waste Radioactive material or material contaminated with radionuclide, originating in clinical analysis laboratories, nuclear medicine services and radiotherapy. B.2 Pharmaceutical waste Medicine that is past its use-by date, contaminated, interdicted or of no further use. B.3 Hazardous chemical waste Toxic, corrosive, inflammable, explosive, reactive genotoxic or mutagenic waste. Class C – Common waste C 5.3 Waste that does not fall into classes A or B and that, due to its similarity with domestic waste, does not present any additional risk to public health. Common waste Characteristics of solid waste Solid waste characteristics can vary according to the social, economic, cultural, geographical and climatic factors that distinguish one community from another and even one city from another. Table 5 shows the variation in waste composition in some particular countries from which it can be deduced that the percentage of organic matter tends to diminish in more developed or industrialized countries, probably due to the large amount of semiprepared food available in the market. Table 5 Gravimetric composition of waste in some countries (%) Component Brazil Germany The Netherlands USA 65.00 61.20 50.30 35.60 Glass 3.00 10.40 14.50 8.20 Metal 4.00 3.80 6.70 8.70 Plastic 3.00 5.80 6.00 6.50 25.00 18.80 22.50 41.00 Organic matter Paper Waste can be analyzed according to its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. 5.3.1 Physical characteristics Solid waste can be categorized according to the following physical characteristics: per capita generation, gravimetric composition, apparent specific weight, humidity content and compressibility. 59 PER CAPITA GENERATION The relation between the amount of solid waste produced in a given region per day and the number of inhabitants in that region. In the absence of precise data, per capita generation can be estimated through table 6. However, the ideal is to carry out field research and, based on statistical data, determine the daily waste generation per inhabitant in relation to the population’s socioeconomic profile. Tabla 6 Frequently used categories for determining per capita solid waste generation Size of the city Urban population (inhabitants) Generation per capita (kg/inhab/day) Small Up to 30,000 0.50 Medium-sized from 30,000 a 500,000 from 0.50 a 0.80 Large from 500,000 a 5,000,000 from 0.80 a 1.00 Megalopolis over 5,000,000 over 1.00 Like table 6, figure 4 shows the correlation between the per capita generation of solid waste and the population of cities. Although representative of averages determined by several studies, these parameters should be considered with certain reservations as particular local conditions may produce distortions in individual cases. Figure 4 - Variation in per capita solid waste generation in relation to population size 60 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics GRAVIMETRIC COMPOSITION Gravimetric composition indicates the percentage of the total weight of an analyzed waste sample that each component represents. The most commonly used categories in the determination of the gravimetric composition of municipal solid waste can be found in table 7. However, many technicians tend to simplify the categories, for example considering only paper/cardboard; plastic; glass; metal; organic matter and “other”. This type of simplified category list, although useful for determining the dimensions of a composting plant or other urban cleaning system installations, is not ideal in a precise economic study for recycling or selective collection as, for example, the market for rigid plastics is very different from the market for malleable plastic, as are the markets for ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Table 7 Most common components in gravimetric composition Organic matter Ferrous metals Rubber Paper Non-ferrous metals Leather Cardboard Aluminium Cloths Rigid plastic Transparent glass Bones Malleable plastic Coloured glass Ceramics PET Wood Fine aggregate The decision about which components to include in a gravimetric composition study is made on the basis of the type of study to be carried out and must involve great care to avoid distortions. APPARENT SPECIFIC WEIGHT The apparent specific weight is the weight of loose waste in relation to the volume that it freely occupies without any form of compacting and is expressed in kg/m³. It is fundamental for determining the dimensions of necessary equipment and installations. If precise data is not available, the following general specific weight values can be used: 230 kg/m³ for domestic waste, 180 kg/m³ for medical waste and 1300 kg/m³ for construction rubble. However, it is necessary to carefully evaluate the specific situation before adopting these values as variations exist in peoples customs and practices across the different regions and countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. 61 HUMIDITY CONTENT The humidity content is the amount of water contained by solid waste, measured as a percentage of its weight. This parameter can vary by between 40% and 60 % depending on the season and amounts of rainfall. COMPRESSIBILITY Compressibility is the degree of compacting that is possible, that is, the reduction of volume that can be achieved in a mass of solid waste when it is compacted. Subjected to a pressure of 4kg/cm², on average the volume of waste can be reduced to between a third (1/3) and a quarter (1/4) of its original volume. When the compacting pressure is withdrawn the mass of solid waste tends to expand but it does not return to its original volume. This phenomenon, called expansion, must be heeded when operating a landfill. 5.3.2 Chemical characteristics CALORIFIC VALUE This chemical characteristic indicates the potential heat generating capacity of a material when incinerated. The average calorific value of domestic solid waste is approximately 3,000 kcal/kg. POTENTIAL OF HYDROGEN (pH) The potential of hydrogen indicates the acidity or alkalinity of waste which is generally found to be between 5 and 7. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION The chemical composition indicates the amount of ashes, organic matter, carbon, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, total mineral residue, soluble mineral residue and fats contained in solid waste. 62 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics CARBON/NITROGEN RATIO (C/N) The Carbon/Nitrogen ratio indicates the degree of decomposition of solid waste organic matter in treatment and final disposal processes. In general for domestic waste that ratio is around 35/1. 5.3.3 Biological characteristics Solid waste biological characteristics are determined by the microbial and pathogenic agent populations and, together with the chemical characteristics, inform the selection of appropriate treatment and final disposal methods. Knowledge of the biological characteristics of solid waste has been extensively utilized to develop odour inhibitors and substances used to delay or accelerate the decomposition of organic matter, which are generally applied inside collection vehicles to avoid or minimize problems caused to people along the routes of the vehicles. Similarly, final disposal and degraded site recuperation processes are being developed based on the biological characteristics of waste. 5.4 Influence of solid waste characteristics on urban cleaning system planning Table 8 illustrates the influence of solid waste characteristics on urban cleaning system planning and on the design of certain units that form part of the system. Table 8 Influence of waste characteristics on urban cleaning Importance Characteristics This data is fundamental for estimating the amount of Per capita generation waste to be collected and disposed of. It is important for determining vehicle and machine capacity requirements, tariffs charged for collection and the necessary capacity of all the units that comprise the urban cleaning system. 63 Table 8 (cont.) Importance Characteristics Indicates the potential for the commercialization of recyGravimetric composition clable components, the use of organic matter to produce compost and the application of other processes to the solid waste. Apparent specific weight Fundamental to correctly quantifying the required capacity of the collection fleet, mobile and fixed containers and other collecting equipment. Directly influences the decomposition rate of matter in the composting process. Directly influences the calorific value and apparent specific weight of solid waste, thereby indi- Humidity content rectly influencing the determination of required incinerator and composting plant capacity. Directly influences the calculation of percolate production and the required capacity of the percolate collection system. Very important for determining the required capacity of Compressibility collection vehicles, transfer stations with waste compaction facilities and fixed compaction containers. Influences the determination of the required capacity of Calorific value installations for all thermo treatment processes (incineration, pyrolysis, etc.). Indicates the degree of corrosiveness of collected waste and is used to establish the type of protection against cor- pH rosion that it is necessary to apply to vehicles, machines and metal containers and boxes. An important indicator in the solid waste decomposition process in treatment and final disposal units. Important for determining the potential risk posed by solid Chemical composition waste to human health and the environment. Contributes to the determination of the most appropriate form of treatment for collected waste. C/N ratio Fundamental to the evaluation of composting process evolution and determining the quality of the compost produced. Important in determining the sanitary risk posed by solid Biological characteristics waste. Fundamental for the identification of odour inhibitors and substances to accelerate or delay the decomposition of organic matter in solid waste. 64 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics 5.5 Factors that influence solid waste characteristics Clearly during rainy periods the humidity content in solid waste increases and during the celebrations around the end of the year, and throughout the summer, the percentage of aluminium (beer and cold drinks cans) in the waste increases. Consequently it is necessary to take into account seasonal factors that can influence particularly the physical characteristics of solid waste in order to avoid wrong conclusions in determining the overall characteristics of waste. Bank holidays and school holidays have an influence on the quantity of solid waste generated in tourist cities. Table 9 shows the principal factors that have a strong influence on solid waste characteristics. Table 9 Principal factors that influence solid waste characteristics Factor Effect Climatic/seasonal Rain Autumn Summer ! increase in humidity content ! increase in leaf content ! increase in drinks container content (cans, glass and rigid plastic bottles) Special periods Christmas / ! cardboard, malleable plastic and metal) New Year School holidays Other festivals increase in packaging content (paper/ ! increase in organic matter content ! population decrease in non-tourist areas ! population increase in tourist areas ! increase in drinks container content (cans, glass and rigid plastic bottles) Demographic Urban population size ! the larger the urban population the greater the per capita solid waste generation 65 Table 9 (cont.) Factor Effect Socioeconomic Purchasing power ! the higher the purchasing power of the population, the higher the proportion of recyclable material and the lower the proportion of organic matter Purchasing power ! greater consumption of luxury goods immediately after payday (end and beginning (monthly) of month) Purchasing power ! (weekly) Technological greater consumption of luxury goods at weekends ! development reduction in apparent specific weight of waste due to the introduction of increasingly lighter products Commercial ! increase in the amount of packaging promotions 5.6 Processes for determining principal physical characteristics Amongst the various types of solid waste characteristics the physical ones are the most important to identify for proficient urban cleaning services management. Not all municipalities can afford to set up laboratories to determine the chemical or biological characteristics of solid waste, or have the financial resources to contract private laboratories. The physical characteristics however can be easily determined through processes undertaken in the field and only require: 200 litre metal containers, a 150 kg capacity weighing machine, an oven and tools and implements commonly used in urban cleaning. The practical procedures presented below are employed to determine municipal solid waste specific weight, gravimetric composition, humidity content and per capita generation. SAMPLE PREPARATION ! collect initial samples with a volume of 2 to 3m³ from un-compacted solid waste (loose refuse); the samples must be taken from different collection sectors to obtain results that are as realistic as possible; 66 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics ! deposit the initial samples on a sheet of canvas extended on flat land and mix them until obtaining one homogeneous pile, using shovels and hoes to rip plastic bags and break cardboard boxes, crates and other materials used to package the waste; ! divide the pile of homogenized waste into four equal parts and select two of them (always opposite quarters, not adjacent ones). Mix these two parts homogenizing the content (the remaining two quarters should be sent for final disposal in the landfill); ! repeat the previous procedure until the volume of each of the quarters is just over 1m³: ! separate one quarter at random and use it to completely fill five previously weighed 200 litre metal containers; ! after filling the containers, break up the rest of the selected quarter with machetes in a place that is protected from the elements (sun, rain, wind or high temperature); fill a two litre container with the broken up material and close the container as hermetically as possible. APPARENT SPECIFIC WEIGHT DETERMINATION ! weigh each of the filled 200 litre containers and determine the net weight of the waste subtracting the weight of the container; ! add up the net weights; ! determine the apparent specific weight (expressed in kg/m³) by dividing the total net weight of the waste in the five containers (in kg) by the total volume of the 5 containers, i.e. 1m³. GRAVIMETRIC COMPOSITION DETERMINATION ! define the list of components to identify depending on the objectives; ! spread the contents of one of the containers on a canvas sheet extended on flat land; ! separate the waste according to the defined list of components; ! classify as “other” all material found that does not fall into any of the categories on the predefined list of components; ! weigh each component separately; ! divide the total weight of the sample by the weight of each component and calculate the percentage of each component in relation to the whole in order to determine the gravimetric composition. 67 HUMIDITY CONTENT DETERMINATION ! weigh the two litre sample; ! put the sample in an oven at 105ºC for 24 hours or at 75º C for 48 hours; ! weigh the dry material repeatedly until the weight remains constant; ! subtract the dry material weight from the humid sample weight thus determining the percentage of humidity. CALCULATION OF PER CAPITA GENERATION The per capita generation of solid waste can be determined by means of field studies on households pre-selected on the basis of appropriate statistical data so that they are representative of the overall socioeconomic profile of the population, or by means of procedures undertaken at the final disposal site that produce relevant data. The following is a simplified calculation methodology for use in cities without a weighbridge to weigh solid waste on arrival at the final disposal site. ! measure the volume of waste taken to the landfill during one working week; ! convert the total volume (in m³) of waste that has arrived at the landfill into total weight (in kg), using the specific weight value determined by applying the technique described in a previous section; ! estimate the percentage of the population served by the collection service; ! based on the above percentage and the total number of inhabitants in the city calculate the number of inhabitants served by the collection service; ! calculate the per capita generation rate by dividing the total weight of waste (in kg) by the number of inhabitants served and then dividing this result by seven to obtain the daily rate. The following observations are significant: ! sample collection and the measurement of waste being taken to a landfill must never be undertaken on a Sunday or Monday as, due to collection patterns, these are atypical days for the purposes of determining waste generation; 68 5. Solid waste: origin, definition and characteristics ! in tourist cities samples should never be taken during school holidays or bank holidays, unless a determination of seasonal influence on the city’s waste generation is required; ! never measure humidity content on a rainy day; ! where possible measurements should always be taken between the 10th and the 20th of a month to avoid distortions nearer the end of a month. 69 6 70 Solid waste quantity projections 6. Solid waste quantity projections For an accurate solid waste generation projection, it is necessary to have demographic data on the resident and seasonal populations, especially in tourist cities where tourists can sometimes generate more solid waste than permanent residents. It is important to have data on seasonal fluctuations in population numbers and to take this into account when making projections for solid waste generation in tourist cities. A careful analysis should be made of up to date demographic data in order to make reliable population projections (see table 10) and calculate solid waste production over time. The following example shows procedures to be followed. Let us suppose that a projection is required for an urban cleaning system in a nontourist city with a current urban population of 50,000 that is growing at an annual rate of 3% and where the per capita waste generation has been measured as 530g/ inhab/day. With a projection horizon of 20 years population values would be as in table 10: Table 10 Demographic projection Year Urban population (inhabitants) Year Urban population (inhabitants) Current 50,000 11 69,211 1 51,500 12 71,287 2 53,045 13 73,426 3 54,636 14 75,629 4 56,275 15 77,898 5 57,963 16 80,235 6 59,702 17 82,642 7 61,493 18 85,121 8 63,338 19 87,675 9 65,238 20 90,305 10 67,195 It is known that the greater the economic development of a city (in general related to population size), the larger the per capita solid waste generation. Therefore, in 71 such a case the evolution of the per capita production would be estimated as in table 11: Table 11 Evolution of per capita solid waste generation Period Per capita (g/inhab/day) Year 1 to 7 530 Year 8 to 14 540 Year 15 to 21 550 Thus the projected amount of solid waste produced daily over 20 years is as in table 12: Table 12 Projected amount of solid waste generation 72 Year Demographic projection (inhabitants) Current 50,000 0.53 26.5 1 51,500 0.53 27.3 2 53,045 0.53 28.1 3 54,636 0.53 29.0 4 56,275 0.53 29.8 5 57,963 0.53 30.7 6 59,702 0.53 31.6 7 61,493 0.54 33.2 8 63,338 0.54 34.2 9 65,238 0.54 35.2 10 67,195 0.54 36.3 11 69,211 0.54 37.4 12 71,287 0.54 38.5 13 73,426 0.54 39.7 14 75,629 0.55 41.6 15 77,898 0.55 42.8 16 80,235 0.55 44.1 17 82,642 0.55 45.5 18 85,121 0.55 46.8 19 87,675 0.55 48.2 20 90,305 0.55 49.7 Per capita (g/inhab./day) Amount of waste (t) 6. Solid waste quantity projections When an Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan is formulated, it is common to consider a five year projection horizon for planning waste collection and the cleaning of streets and other public spaces. A five year horizon is used because changes in a city’s urbanization are significant over a period of time greater than that, especially in mediumsized and large cities in Latin America and the Caribbean. At the end of the five years an assessment of the situation is made and if necessary planning is updated. For projections relating to solid waste treatment and final disposal a 15 year term is more common. 73 7 74 Solid waste preparation and storage 7. Solid waste preparation and storage 7.1 Concept Pre-collection solid waste preparation and storage should be done in an appropriately sanitary way taking into account the type and quantity of waste 7.2 The importance of appropriate preparation and storage The quality of solid waste collection and transportation operations depends on an appropriate preparation and storage of waste and its presence in the place, on the day and at the time established by the urban cleaning body responsible for collection. Citizens participation in this operation is therefore of great importance. Appropriate preparation and storage is important for: ! avoiding accidents; ! avoiding vector proliferation; ! minimizing visual and odour impacts; ! reducing waste heterogeneity (in the case of selective collection); ! facilitating collection. In many cities open air domestic waste accumulation points appear spontaneously causing scattered refuse in the streets, damage to the environment and a risk to public health. Figure 5 – Open air solid waste accumulation point Incorrectly prepared and stored solid waste attracts animals. In urban zones of low quality dwellings and low demographic density there are generally more animals, such as dogs, horses and pigs, that roam freely in the streets and frequently tear rubbish bags and knock down containers to access the remains of food, which results in waste being scattered over a large area. In addition such domestic waste attracts rats, mice, flies, cockroaches and other disease vectors that feed and breed in the refuse. 75 To limit damage caused by the activities of such animals it is recommended that: ! the municipality implements regular operations to remove animals that are free in the streets; ! refuse collection is more frequent and regular in such zones; ! inhabitants of such zones are instructed to put refuse out in the street at a time as close as possible to the collection time; ! a more appropriate type of container is provided for the solid waste, with special anchoring devices that enhance their stability; ! the relevant public body takes action to contain the proliferation of rats and mice. In Latin American and Caribbean cities diverse containers are used for putting out and storing domestic waste for collection: ! metal or plastic bins; ! plastic bags, supermarket type or specifically for refuse; ! wood or cardboard boxes; ! used oil and fuel drums, sometimes cut in half; ! large metal or plastic containers, stationary or on wheels. There are also creative initiatives for storing this type of waste. An example can be found in cities in the north and northeast of Brazil, where alternative containers are skilfully made with old tyres. This is a way of using discarded tyres but the containers are heavy and not very practical, however they are acceptable in the context of the socioeconomic conditions that prevail for most inhabitants there. 7.3 Characteristics of pre-collection storage containers The choice of container type should be based on: ! refuse characteristics; ! quantity of refuse generated; ! frequency of collection; ! type of building; ! price of container. Receptacles for domestic waste pre-collection storage should have the following characteristics: ! a maximum loaded weight of 30 kg if the collection is manual; Larger containers should be standardized so that they can be handled by mechanical devices incorporated in the collector vehicles in order to reduce manual labour. 76 7. Solid waste preparation and storage ! devices that facilitate its movement between its place in the building and the place of collection; ! closable in order to avoid waste spillage or exposure; Flexible packaging (plastic bags) should be closable. Rigid and semi-rigid receptacles (plastic and metal bins, containers) should have lids and be stable enough that they are not easily knocked over. ! safe in that injury is not caused to users or collectors by sharp edged or pointed waste, including when separately packaged; ! economical and affordable for the general public; ! not producing excessive noise when handled; ! easy to empty without leaving waste at the bottom. From a planning perspective another characteristic has to be taken into account: whether the receptacles are returnable or non-returnable. In the latter case collection will be more efficient, after collection there will be no receptacles left on the street and residents will not need to clean receptacles. For these reasons, it can be concluded that plastic bags are the most convenient receptacles for storing domestic waste prior to manual collection because: ! they are easy to close by tying; ! they are light, non-returnable (so collection is more efficient) and allow for silent collection, an important factor particularly for nocturnal collections; ! their price is affordable and they can be standardized. In Latin American and Caribbean cities where the income level of most inhabitants is low, the use of supermarket plastic bags (used for transporting purchased products to the home) can be acceptable for the pre-collection storage of domestic waste as they do not involve any extra cost. From an environmental perspective there are usually reservations about the use of plastic bags for domestic waste storage, especially in connection with waste incineration processes. However, polythene bags do not contaminate the atmosphere when appropriately incinerated. Another issue is that most plastic bags are non-biodegradable, but as the use of sanitary landfills is a practically definitive waste disposal method, there are not many objections to their use. 77 In regard to the safe handling of plastic bags containing waste, appropriate procedures to reduce the risk of injury to collectors must always be observed, it being fundamental for example, that they wear appropriate protection gloves. Plastic bags with a capacity of more than 100 litres are not safe as collectors tend to hold them against their bodies while carrying them to the truck and pieces of glass and other sharp objects in the waste can injure them. For multi-family housings (apartment blocks) and office blocks standardized wheelie bins with lids are more appropriate as they allow for semi-automatic collection, which is more efficient and safer. These containers are easy to handle as they have wheels, are light, relatively silent, and economical due to their durability (especially if not exposed permanently to sunlight) and have a pleasing appearance. There are wheelie bins of 120, 240 and 360 litre capacity on the market. Figure 6 – Standardized wheelie bins 7.4 Domestic waste pre-collection preparation and storage The most appropriate containers for pre-collection domestic waste storage are plastic bags, wheelie bins and metal containers. 78 7. Solid waste preparation and storage Plastic bags Waste can be stored in non-returnable plastic bags to be collected by collection vehicles. Such plastic bags should have the following characteristics: ! resistance so that they do not break when handled; ! a capacity of 20, 30, 50 or 100 litres; ! a tape to close the top; ! a colour standardized by the relevant body In general these characteristics are regulated by technical standards. Plastic wheelie bins These are containers made of high density polyethylene (HDPE) with a capacity of 120, 240 or 360 litres (two wheeled bins) and 760 or 1,100 litres (four wheeled containers), comprising a body, a lid and wheels. They are made of partly recycled material plus additives to protect them from the action of ultraviolet rays. They are used for the storage and transport of domestic waste, but can also be used for certain public waste (for example when they are used to store the waste from street sweeping). Domestic waste produced by large generators – the collection and transport of which should be undertaken if possible by private companies authorized by the municipality – can be stored in containers similar to the one in figure 7, different only in their colour from those for residential waste. Figure 7 – Plastic wheelie bin Metal containers These receptacles, with a capacity that ranges between 750 and 1,500 litres, generally have four small wheels and can be emptied by means of tipping devices installed in compaction trucks. Figure 8 – Metal container 79 Figure 9 – Mechanized metal container tipping 7.5 Pre-collection storage of street waste Rubbish bins There are several types of container that can be installed in the street for passers-by to deposit rubbish, in order to maintain the city in a hygienic and clean condition. For many years this type of container was metallic and was of a shape and colour determined by municipal administrations. The high costs of the production, maintenance and replacement of these metal bins were an obstacle to them being more widely used. Currently plastic rubbish bins are increasingly used as they are lighter, more durable, easier to install and cheaper. Such rubbish bins have a capacity of 50 litres and consist of a body in which rubbish is deposited, a lid and a metal tray to stub out cigarettes before throwing them into the bin. They are made of partly recycled material plus additives to protect them from the action of ultraviolet rays. These containers should be installed in parks, squares, public gardens, streets, avenues and other public spaces that people pass through. This type of bin can be used for other purposes. For example, a growing environmental awareness in society is resulting in the separation of used batteries that, due to an ever intensifying use of portable electrical and electronic gadgets, are becoming increasingly numerous. In this context the use of plastic rubbish bins with a 50 litre capacity, a standardized colour and a special hole in the front part of the lid represents a good option for storing discarded batteries. 80 7. Solid waste preparation and storage Figure 10 – Rubbish bin Figure 11 – Battery bin Plastic bags Plastic bags similar to those used for residential waste can be used for the pre-collection storage of public waste. The difference is that bags for public waste, particularly that collected by sweeping, can be bigger. Construction rubble requires the use of thicker plastic bags with less volumetric capacity due to the higher specific weight of the material to be stored. Wheelie bins /stationary containers As with plastic bags, plastic containers for public waste are exactly like those used for storing residential waste. However metal containers are different. Metal containers used for public waste pre-collection storage are stationary receptacles generally with a volumetric capacity of 5 or 7 m³ that can be emptied by compactor trucks (depending on the nature of the waste) or by dumpster carrier trucks equipped with a multifunctional crane to load and unload the containers. This type of container is interchangeable and the vehicle that collects a full container brings an empty one to replace it. This system is also known as “brooks” or “dumpster”. Figure 12 - – Dumpster carrier truck with multifunction crane transporting stationary container 81 7.6 Pre-collection storage of waste in low demographic density and low-income areas In informal settlement dwellings and low-income housing estate households there is usually little space for storing waste. Consequently as waste is produced it is taken out of the houses and put on the street, which results in the above mentioned environmental and sanitary problems. In such circumstances standardized plastic containers (with wheels and lid) can be located at previously determined points with as frequent collections as possible. If it is not possible to provide plastic containers, one alternative is to provide brooks type dumpsters. However experience demonstrates that this type of container does not produce satisfactory results as, amongst other problems, waste becomes scattered around it, animals forage in it, there can be fires due to acts of vandalism and a bad odour is produced. Such problems result from a series of factors, one of which is the design of the containers that in general do not have a lid, and when they do have one, users tend to ignore it. For all the above reasons, when this type of storage is adopted containers must be changed at appropriately frequent and rigorously observed intervals in order to maintain the cleanliness of the area, awareness raising campaigns should be instigated in the community and an efficient supervision system should be set up. Figure 13 – Brooks dumpster outside a low income community settlement Compaction containers represent a more appropriate solution than brooks dumpsters for pre-collection storage of domestic solid waste in such special areas. They are stationary closed metal containers with an incorporated waste compaction device, and are handled by special vehicles. Their use depends on the amount of waste generated by a community and the technical, operational and economic capacities of the municipality. 82 7. Solid waste preparation and storage Figure 14 – Compaction container system It is advisable to establish a team of workers to operate a system for maintaining clean and hygienic conditions in the most problematic poor communities. In some cities, Rio de Janeiro for example, contracts are established with residents associations in low income communities whereby they undertake the operation of domestic waste collection and cleaning services for internal streets. One of the conditions of this type of contract is that local labour is employed so that local jobs are generated and the community’s awareness of these issues increases as it becomes directly responsible for the cleaning of the settlement. The body responsible for urban cleaning pays for the services undertaken, provides technical support and supervises the quality of the operation. The associations hire their own employees and are responsible for the management of the work. Satisfactory results from this type of program have led to its implementation in almost all of Rio de Janeiro’s informal settlements. 7.7 Pre-collection storage of waste produced by large generators Where a specific regulation specifies that commercial and industrial establishments generating more than 120 litres of solid waste per day are categorized as “large generators”, containers for the pre-collection storage of such waste should be standardized. The limit of 120 litres was established to correspond with the capacity of the smallest plastic container with lid and wheels that is available on the market. It is practical for containers used by large generators to be different in colour and size from those used for normal collections in order to facilitate supervision (for example, blue containers for large generators and orange containers for normal collections). For collections from large generators and public establishments, in general two main types of large container with a capacity of more than 360 litres are used: 83 ! metal or plastic (high density polyethylene) containers on wheels that are taken to collection vehicles and mechanically emptied into them. In general these containers have a capacity of 760, 1,150 or 1,500 litres. ! stationary containers without wheels, generally metal, that are interchangeable or are emptied into collection trucks. Containers of up to 5m³ are emptied into collection trucks by means of steel cables powered by hydraulic devices. Interchangeable containers are moved by dumpster carrier trucks with multifunctional cranes or by roll-on /roll-off type trucks. These metal containers have a capacity of 3 to 30 m³. The very large containers (20 to 30 m³) are moved by roll-on/roll-off truck equipment either with steel cables pulled by a winch or by hydraulic cylinders, and can be equipped with electric devices for compaction, in which cases they are informally referred to as “compactainers”. Figure 15 – Double dumpster carrier truck with interchangeable containers Figure 16 Roll-on /roll-off truck 7.8 Special domestic waste pre-collection storage Construction rubble Due to its high apparent specific weight, construction rubble is normally stored in stationary metal containers of 4 or 5m³, similar to those used for storing public waste. Due to the large volumes of rubble, and therefore the size of containers needed to store it, a significant problem is caused for the circulation of passers-by and vehicles as well as for parking vehicles. In addition construction rubble uses a lot of space in sanitary landfills, space that could be used to deposit non-recyclable types of waste. Within the concept of sustainable development established by Agenda 21, the reduction of waste and the reuse of it and its by-products are fundamental to the new approaches that society must adopt. The biggest challenges presented by construction rubble are: 84 7. Solid waste preparation and storage ! to reduce the amount of rubble generated thus reducing the use of limited space available for disposal; ! to reuse generated rubble in the productive cycle thus reducing the consumption of energy and natural resources. Batteries Partially discharged batteries must be stored in such a way that their electrodes do not come into contact with the electrodes of other batteries or with metal objects such as the internal sides of a metal drum. Partially discharged nickel-cadmium batteries must be individually pre-wrapped in plastic bags. Containers with stored batteries must be sealed to avoid the release of hydrogen, which is explosive in contact with the air, and must be kept on platforms or pallets in order to keep them dry. Storage containers should be located in places with good ventilation and protection from the elements. The large numbers and variety of devices that use batteries, together with their small size and the general public’s lack of knowledge about the dangers that they pose, have resulted in them often ending up together with the general domestic waste in sanitary landfills where they contaminate the environment. Due to their toxicity and the difficulties involved in stopping them being discarded in domestic refuse, responsibility for the storage, collection, transport and final disposal of batteries should be taken on by producers, importers, commercial outlets and technical assistance networks. Any legal measures implemented for the regulation of such a system must set a specific timeframe for these stakeholders to establish operational mechanisms for the collection, transport and storage of discarded batteries. Legislation should also establish a timeframe within which producers and importers of batteries must implement reuse, recycling, treatment and final disposal systems. Fluorescent tubes Fluorescent tubes also require specific legislation to regulate the way in which they are discarded, stored and handled, and their treatment and final disposal. Such legislation should reflect the “polluter pays” principle. 85 Procedures for handling fluorescent tubes that contain mercury must respect the following requirements: ! intact tubes should be stored in boxes, if possible plastic ones, in a reserved area to avoid them being broken; ! all boxes should be labelled; ! tubes should not be broken or physically modified; ! once a sufficient number of tubes has been accumulated they should be sent for recycling, accompanied by the following information: ! ! source (name and address of company or institution), details of the transport company and the recycling company; ! number of tubes sent; ! date dispatched; ! a record of these invoices must be kept for at least three years; if a tube breaks, the pieces of glass must be removed and the area must be washed; ! broken tubes should be stored in sealed containers and labelled in the following way: “Broken fluorescent tubes containing mercury”. Tyres Due to problems associated with the inappropriate disposal of tyres, and following the example of the system for dealing with batteries, producers and importers of tyres should be obliged to collect and dispose of discarded tyres in an environmentally sound way. One of the principal problems with the storage of tyres for collection or recycling is that they accumulate water when left out in the open and thus facilitate the proliferation of disease vectors. Tyre storage should respect the following guidelines: ! tyres should not be accumulated but should be sent for disposal at the time that they are discarded; ! if it is necessary to keep them, this should be done in covered areas protected from the elements; ! they should never be burned. Discarded tyres have been used as fuel in furnaces for the production of cement and also to produce asphalt. 86 7. Solid waste preparation and storage 7.9 Special origin waste pre-collection storage Industrial waste Industrial waste is usually stored in: ! 200 litre metal drums for non-corrosive solid waste; ! 200 or 300 litre plastic drums for corrosive solid waste or semi-solid waste in general; ! flexible containers, i.e. bags, usually of woven polypropylene, with a large storage capacity almost always of more than 1m³; ! standardized plastic containers of 120, 240, 360, 750, 1,100 and 1,600 litres for waste that allows for the use of returnable containers; ! medium-sized cardboard boxes of up to 50 litre capacity for waste to be incinerated. Radioactive waste The handling and storing of radioactive waste must comply with the stipulations of the national body responsible for the control and supervision of this type of waste, which include the following requirements: ! personnel handling this type of waste must use the obligatory minimum individual protection equipment; ! containers must be radiation proof (lead, concrete, etc.). Port and airport waste From a sanitary perspective ports and airports are places where not only people and goods disembark but also diseases. It is therefore necessary to establish permanent sanitary vigilance and handle waste in a particularly hygienic manner. In normal conditions, handling and storage of waste follows the same procedures and uses the same receptacles as those for domestic waste. However in cases of quarantine alert, or other situations of risk identified by the body responsible for sanitary vigilance, special methods must be applied to the handling of personal waste and goods coming from countries with epidemics. Medical waste The handling of medical waste (see table 4) must follow specific regulations that stipulate procedures for waste segregation at source, storage and management. 87 The principal procedure is the segregation at source of infectious and common waste. Infectious waste represents between 10 and 15 % of all waste but carries a high contamination risk while common waste does not require any special treatment. A lack of care when handling infectious waste is the principal cause of infections in hospitals. An example that illustrates this is the case of municipal hospitals in Rio de Janeiro where, after the introduction of clear infectious waste segregation procedures, the rate of hospitalization due to such infections diminished by 80%. Pre-collection storage of common waste follows the same procedures as for domestic waste. Infectious waste must in general be put in well identified strong impermeable plastic bags at the moment of its generation. Special waste should be stored in receptacles that guarantee its physical integrity. They should be strong, rigid plastic containers with hermetic lids and a clear identification of the type of waste that they contain. Puncturing and sharp waste (needles, glass, etc.) must be separately discarded at source in rigid containers with hermetic lids and a clear identification of the type of waste that they contain. Plastic bags should comply with established colour code specifications. In Brazil the criteria are the following: ! transparent – common waste, recyclable ! opaque colours – common waste, non-recyclable ! cream – infectious or special waste (except radioactive waste) Figure 17 – Plastic bags for medical waste 88 7. Solid waste preparation and storage Subsequently the plastic bags must be placed in containers that can be easily moved to a temporary storage facility. These containers must be white for infectious waste and any other colour for common waste. Figure 18 – Infectious waste containers Temporary storage facilities must have tiled floors and walls and rounded corners to facilitate the washing of floors and walls. Figure 19 – Temporary storage facility for infectious waste containers Personnel handling infectious waste (except radioactive and hazardous chemical waste, which are not the responsibility of urban cleaning systems) should use the following individual protection equipment (IPE): ! plastic apron; ! plastic gloves; ! PVC boots (for floor and wall washing) or closed shoes; ! goggles; ! mask. 89 8 90 Solid waste collection and transport 8. Solid waste collection and transport 8.1 Domestic waste collection and transport 8.1.1 Concept Collection is the removal of waste stored by the generator for dispatch by appropriate transport to a transfer station, treatment unit or final disposal site. The collection and transportation of domestic waste generated in households and small-sized public, commercial or service establishments is generally undertaken by the municipal body responsible for urban cleaning. Municipalities may provide these services through their own resources, concessions to companies, outsourcing to companies, or mixed systems such as rented vehicles and municipal labour. It is recommended that solid waste from large generators (establishments that produce more than 120 litres of waste a day) is collected by private companies, registered and authorized by the municipality, without any cost to the public system. Hotels and restaurants are examples of large solid waste generators in tourist cities. Common domestic waste collection can be defined as the collection of refuse produced in residential, public and commercial buildings, provided that the latter do not represent large generators. 8.1.2 Collection regularity Domestic waste collection services to each building should be regular, always on the same days of the week and at the same times. When services are regular, citizens will become accustomed to taking waste containers or bags out to the pavement in front of their building a short time before the collection vehicle passes. Consequently domestic waste is not left exposed in the street for more time than is necessary, thus avoiding the presence of unsightly waste in the street and its scattering by animals or people. In tourist cities special attention should be paid to the amount of time that waste remains in the street, due to the importance of aesthetics, unpleasant odour emissions and the danger of attracting disease vectors and animals. Regular collection is therefore one of the principal requirements for a good quality service. 91 In cities that have the means to weigh collected waste, the regularity of collections can be mathematically verified by comparing the weight of waste over two or three consecutive weeks. The weight of waste collected on the same day of each week (for example the weight of the waste collected on a Monday compared with that of the waste collected the following Monday) should not vary by more than 10%. Similarly, the distance travelled by collection vehicles should be more or less constant on the same day of different weeks as the itinerary of each particular day of the week is always the same (with the same number of journeys to the waste destination point). Collection irregularities are clearly indicated by accumulations of waste in the streets and by the amounts of complaints received. The ideal for a domestic solid waste collection system is therefore to establish fixed collection times and inform the entire community of them through individual communications to the responsible person in each building and even the posting of notices in the streets. The community will come to trust the reliability of the collection service and will then cooperate by not discarding waste in inappropriate places, by storing waste for collection in appropriate receptacles and by putting it out in the appropriate place on the day and at the time stipulated, all of which will contribute to increased environmental hygiene and public health, and the cleanliness and improved appearance of the street. 8.1.3 Collection frequency For climatic reasons, in most Latin American and Caribbean cities the interval between domestic waste generation and its final disposal should be of no more than one week in order to avoid bad odours and the proliferation of flies, rodents and other animals attracted by the waste. This situation is exacerbated in cities that use transfer stations (see chapter 9) as waste is stored there for one or two days before being transported to the landfill where it is finally covered with earth at the end of the day it arrives. If domestic waste collection frequency is three times a week, the waste produced for example on a Saturday may not be collected until the following Tuesday (three days later). If it is then stored in the transfer station for two days and one more day is required for its burial in the landfill, the total number of days between generation and final disposal can be as many as six. Consequently, the minimum collection frequency recommended for warm weather countries is three times a week. Twice weekly collections, which are very common in suburban areas of Latin American and Caribbean cities, should therefore be avoided. Budgetary restrictions represent one of the main obstacles that municipal administrations face in their attempts to provide sufficiently frequent services. The capacity of households to store solid waste also has to be taken into consideration. In informal settlements and other low income communities, houses do not have the 92 8. Solid waste collection and transport capacity (due to limited space) to store waste for more than one day. The same problem is faced in city centres where commercial and service provision establishments not only have insufficient storage space but also produce a considerable amount of waste. In all such cases daily waste collection is preferable. 8.1.4 Collection times To significantly reduce costs and optimize the use of collection vehicle fleets, if possible, collection should always be done in two shifts. To obtain maximum performance the ideal usage of the collection fleet would be: Collection days First shift Second shift Monday, Wednesday and Friday ¼ of the routes ¼ of the routes Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday ¼ of the routes ¼ of the routes If for example, 24 collection routes are established, with a collection frequency of three times a week, the number of collection vehicles required would be 24÷4= 6 (with an additional reserve representing at least 10% of the operational fleet, in this example one extra vehicle). It is recommended that the day is divided into two 12 hours periods with one eight hour working shift in each period. The first shift for example, could begin at 07.00 hrs and the second at 19.00 hrs, so that there would be an interval for maintenance and repair services between the two shifts. In many Latin American and Caribbean cities the ideal of two waste collection shifts per day is not possible due to the type of urbanization that exists in some neighbourhoods where, for example, access streets are precarious and street lighting is scarce, which can make a nocturnal collection shift impossible. The issue of urban violence should also be considered here. In streets and public areas where sweeping services are not frequent the cleanliness of the collection operation is very important, that is, it is necessary to collect the refuse put out for collection without leaving any refuse scattered in the street. Whenever possible, sweeping should be done after a collection to remove any refuse that may have been left scattered in the area. 93 In central and commercial zones collection should take place at night when the circulation of people and vehicles has diminished. In tourist cities collections should avoid the hours of peak tourist activity in relevant locations. The determination of collection times should also take into account the parking of private vehicles in streets. In purely residential neighbourhoods it is preferable that collection takes place during the day but avoiding the times when there is more traffic on the principal roads. During night time collections all necessary measures should be taken to reduce noise. The collection team should be instructed not to raise their voices. The team leader’s stop/start commands should be given through a switch at the back of the truck connected to a light in the drivers cab. The truck’s engine should always be well tuned and its silencer in good condition. In the case of a collection truck with compaction facility the motor should not be revved up to accelerate the cycle of compaction but should at all times have its automatic acceleration device functioning. In the future more modern and silent vehicles may be needed, electric ones perhaps, to respond to an ever more demanding general public, particularly in large urban centres. 8.1.5 Restructuring domestic collection routes Some of the factors that indicate a need for the restructuring of collection routes are: increases or decreases in the population, changes in the characteristics of neighbourhoods and an irregular collection service. Several elements should be taken into account, such as: Collection teams In Latin American and Caribbean cities teams have from two to five members per truck. Municipal teams tend to have more members than those of private companies that provide collection services, reflecting the tendency for higher productivity with private labour. A team is the group of workers assigned to a collection vehicle to perform solid waste collection activities. Equilibrium between routes The tasks assigned to each collection team have to represent the same amount of work, so that the physical effort required of the different teams is equivalent. 94 8. Solid waste collection and transport In zones with high concentrations of waste collectors carry a lot of weight but walk relatively short distances, whereas in zones with low concentrations of waste they carry less weight but walk further. In both cases, the amount of calories consumed can be approximately the same. The physical notion involved is that of “work”: work = force x distance The restructuring method described here is one of the more simple ones and consists of the division of the area to be restructured into “sub-areas” with a similar demographic density and waste concentration (measured in kg/m). Each of these sub-areas can then represent the same amount of work and working time. It should also be taken into account that different workers have different physical constitutions and teams should be balanced in this respect. Collection route starting points Routes should be laid out in such a way that teams begin at the point farthest from the destination of the waste so that as they work they are diminishing the remaining distance to be covered. The location of the fleet garage is another factor to be heeded in planning. Verification of the amount of domestic waste generated It is important to verify the amount of solid waste that is generated in households, public establishments and commercial premises, as this data is essential for an effective restructuring of regular waste collection routes. Although it is possible to calculate the per capita domestic waste generation rate through the simplified method explained in chapter 5, ideally a more precise technical evaluation of this parameter should be made, given the great variations between the different zones of a city. Such variations could distort the dimensions of collection routes which would then require considerable adjustment during the implementation phase of a new collection program. Data collection must include statistical data from high, medium and low income neighbourhoods. Using data projection based on the latest available census, daily per capita waste generation can be calculated. As has already been mentioned, a certain technical rigour should be applied to the determination of this rate as it can vary between 0.35kg and 1.00kg per person per day in different areas of the city, depending on the socioeconomic stratum of the inhabitants. In most small and medium-sized Latin American and Caribbean cities the average per capita generation is between 0.50 and 0.80 kg/inhab/day (see chapter 5, table 6 – Frequently used categories for determining per capita solid waste generation). 95 Where for example the daily per capita solid waste generation is 0.70kg and the population is 200,000, the weight of waste generated daily for collection will be: 200,000 inhabitants x 0.70kg/inhab/day = 140,000kg/day This data is essential for calculating the required number of vehicles in the domestic waste collection fleet. The calculation of per capita waste generation can be done at the same time as studies to determine solid waste characteristics. In practice, the restructuring of collection routes can be more complex and involve other variables that the planner has to take into account. When the restructuring plans are ready the new routes can be used for two weeks, after which problematic details can be adjusted. Lack of a weighbridge to weigh waste If there is no weighbridge to weigh truck loads of solid waste at its destination, an alternative should be sought such as gaining access to the weighbridge of a company or public body. Should this prove impossible, a simplified approximate method, called cubing, can be used to restructure collection routes on the basis of the volume of collected waste. To calculate the amount of waste by cubing a standard receptacle of known capacity, for example 100 litres, is used, and is repeatedly filled and emptied until all collected waste has passed through it. The number of times that the receptacle is emptied into the collection truck is counted to determine how many times it is filled during a collection from one street block. This method consists of: ! doing the cubing per block on the days of the week with more waste production, in general Mondays and Tuesdays; ! writing down on a map the number of receptacles per street block; see example in figure 20; ! progressively adding up the number of receptacles per street block, following the itinerary of the route, until the truck is full, repeating this process for each trip in each shift. In this way the total number of receptacles per trip and the number of trips per shift, per vehicle can be determined; ! on pronounced slopes collections should be made beginning at the top and working downwards to save the energy of the team and the fuel of the truck; ! test the new routes in practice, recording times, so that necessary adjustments can be made. 96 8. Solid waste collection and transport Figure 20 - Example A street block is each one of the sides of a block in the city. Collection route layouts Collection routes should be laid out in such a way that unproductive stretches are minimized, that is those along which there is no waste to collect. Routes should be designed through successive experimentation with a view to finding the optimum one that at the same time responds to conditions such as the direction of one-way streets, the avoidance of left turns in two-way streets and duplicated or unproductive stretches. Collection route layouts tend to be arrived at through the “heuristic” method, taking into account the direction of traffic, pronounced slopes and ease of access and manoeuvre for the vehicles. See figure 21 for an example of a rational collection route (heuristic method) Figure 21 - Heuristic method collection route layout 97 Collection route restructuring method This method consists of: ! dividing the city in sub-areas; ! surveying and systematizing the characteristics of each route; ! analyzing the collected data; ! restructuring routes based on: ! the elimination (or minimization) of overtime; ! the new weight of waste for collection per shift; ! the concentration of waste in each area. A city where the collection routes need to be restructured has to be divided into subareas of similar demographic density, for example, sub-areas I, II and III. Let us suppose that in sub-area II there are currently eight collection routes, covered in two shifts three times a week by two compaction vehicles. The data for the current program can be seen in table 13. Sub-area II I – Commercial sub-area Sub-area I II – Predominantly residential sub-area III – Hills sub-area Sub-area III Figure 22 Table 13 Current routes – Mondays and Tuesdays Routes Length of route m (1) Weight of waste Kg (2) Average time of work hrs* (3) Workers per team (4) Kg/hr (2)/(3) Kg/m** (2)/(1) 01 14,250 16,400 8.20 4 2,000 1.15 4,100 02 13,180 14,200 7.72 4 1,839 1.08 3,550 03 14,600 17,300 8.75 4 1,977 1.18 4,325 04 16,410 19,500 8.99 4 2,169 1.19 4,875 05 15,120 18,100 9.78 4 1,851 1.20 4,525 06 18,040 17,400 8.65 4 2,012 0.96 4,350 07 13,870 15,600 9.36 4 1,667 1.12 3,900 Kg/Worker (2)/(4) 08 15,660 18,300 10.01 4 1,828 1.17 4,575 Averages 15,141 17,100 8.93 4 1,915 1.13 4,275 Totals - 153,900 - - - - * hours calculated in decimals 98 Rates - ** kg/m = waste concentration 8. Solid waste collection and transport With a normal work shift of 8 hours, it can be seen that the time used to complete the routes is too much and therefore requires overtime (based on the supposition that the collection is done regularly). If the objective is to finish the collection in eight hours and thus avoid overtime, the weight to be collected per working shift can be calculated assuming no change in the productivity of collectors. W = kg/h x Ts Where Ts is the duration of the work shift (8hours in this case). Therefore: W01 = 2,000 x 8 = 16,000kg W05 = 1,851 x 8 = 14,808kg W02 = 1,839 x 8 = 14,712kg W06 = 2,012 x 8 = 16,096kg W03 = 1,977 x 8 = 15,816kg W07 = 1,667 x 8 = 13,336kg W04 = 2,169 x 8 = 17,352kg W08 = 1,828 x 8 = 14,624kg Total weight 112,744kg Average weight 15,343kg As the weight that can be collected in an eight hour work shift is 15,343kg, uncollected waste would amount to: 153,900kg – 112,744kg = 31,156kg As the average collection weight for new routes would be approximately 15,343kg/ route, it will be necessary to initiate: 31,156kg ÷ 15,343kg = 2.03 new routes That is, in practice two routes more, one on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays and the other on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays. As in future the area will be covered by 10 routes, the average weight per route will be: 153,900kg ÷ 10 routes = 15,390kg/future route Future routes should be marked on the map taking into account the concentration of waste in each area (expressed in kg/m). To achieve this, the length of each route is multiplied by the waste concentration until obtaining an approximate weight of 15,390kg/route, applying the formula: LxC=W Where: L = length of route (m) C = waste concentration (kg/m) W = average weight of future routes (kg) 99 In the example, the average weight of the future routes will be approximately 15,390kg. The number of vehicles will be: number of routes ÷ 4 = 2.5 So, three vehicles can be used during the first shift and two during the second. The type and capacity of the vehicles depend on the number of journeys that are necessary to the final disposal site. For example, if on Mondays and Tuesdays two journeys are necessary, the average load per journey would be 15,390kg ÷ 2 = 7,695kg. When it is raining the weight of waste increases by 20%. Fluctuations in the number of tourists also have to be taken into account as they cause increases or decreases in waste production. 8.1.6 Collection vehicles There are two types of specialized vehicle in general use for domestic waste collection and transport: ! compactors – rear loader or side loader; ! without compaction – with the box closed by sliding doors. Particularly in smaller cities with limited budgetary resources conventional open dump trucks are frequently used as well as other equipment described later. A good domestic waste collection vehicle should have the following characteristics: ! that it does not spill waste or leachate on the street; ! a compaction rate of at least 3:1, that is 3m³ are reduced by compaction to 1m³; ! a waist high loading height of no more than 1.20m from the floor; ! the possibility of emptying at least two receptacles at the same time; ! rear loading (preferably); ! adequate space for transporting the team; ! fast unloading of waste at its destination; ! a loading compartment capacity of at least 1.5m³; ! good manoeuvrability and potency for steep inclines; ! lifting devices to empty different types of containers; ! even load distribution on the truck’s chassis; ! adequate carrying capacity to minimize the number of journeys to the waste destination while at the same time being appropriate for the characteristics of the operational area. 100 8. Solid waste collection and transport Figure 23 - Containers being emptied into a compaction truck Solid waste collection operations involve dangers for the collection personnel. Every time the vehicle stops the team is exposed to the risk of injury through other vehicles colliding with the rear of the collection truck. The risk of being run over is high and efficient preventative measures must always be taken. In compactor vehicles it is essential to always take precautions with the compaction mechanism. In addition adequate space should always be available on the truck for the collection team. Therefore, the most recommendable technical solution is to use compactor collection vehicles wherever possible. However, due to the characteristics of a particular urban area, sometimes this is not an option for operational or economic reasons. In such cases the most cost efficient type of vehicle and equipment should be selected. The vehicle that is chosen should be the one with more of the above listed characteristics while taking into account the particular conditions of the service provision area (the condition of the streets, topography, manoeuvring conditions, etc.). Some vehicles and equipment in general use for domestic waste collection are described below. 101 Closed box collection trucks A solid waste collection vehicle without compaction, appropriate for working in small communities with a low demographic density. It can also be used in areas with pronounced inclines. The box volume can vary from 4 to 12m³ corresponding to a truck total gross weight (TGW) of from 7 to 12 tons. Total gross weight (TGW) = chassis weight + box weight + load weight. Unloading is by hydraulic box tipping. This truck represents a low cost option in terms of both purchase and maintenance but has quite a low productivity. It requires great physical effort from the collection team who have to lift the waste up to the edge of the box, which is more than two metres high, much higher than the compactor collector loading compartment height of approximately one metre. Figure 24 - Closed box truck Compactor collection trucks Solid waste compactor collection trucks, which are usually rear loaders but can be side loaders, are made of steel and have a capacity of 6, 10, 12, 15 or 19m³ corresponding to a truck TGWs of 9, 12, 14, 16 and 23 tons respectively. They may have hydraulic devices for the automatic and independent unloading of standardized containers. This type of vehicle is used for domestic, public and commercial waste collection, especially in zones where there are high concentrations of solid waste from large generators or a high demographic density. Its use can be limited by unfavourable road conditions such as irregular layouts, unpaved and potholed surfaces, or roads unsuitable for heavy vehicles. 102 8. Solid waste collection and transport Figure 25 - Side loader compactor collection truck – 6m³ Figure 26 - Rear loader compactor collection truck – 10 to 15m³ Figure 27 - Rear loader compactor collection truck – 19m³ Dumpster carrier trucks for 5m³ stationary containers Domestic waste collection systems that employ 5m³ stationary containers replaced by dumpster carrier trucks with multifunctional crane are appropriate for zones with low quality houses or difficult access. Containers are located at strategic points close to 103 the communities they serve but with easy access for the dumpster carrier trucks that replace loaded containers with empty ones. There are two types of dumpster carrier truck with differing operational capacity: ! single - that transport only one 5m³ stationary container at a time; ! double - that can transport two 5m³ stationary containers at the same time. Stationary compactor (compaction container) collection trucks For the collection of large volumes of domestic waste special stationary metal containers incorporating a compaction device can be used. These containers are called stationary compactors, in general have capacity for 7 to 20m³ of loose waste and are transported on special vehicles. The 7m³ capacity stationary compactors can be transported by dumpster carrier trucks with multifunctional crane, while those with greater capacity are transported by roll-on / roll-off trucks. In big cities this system is slowly replacing the system of open stationary containers transported by dumpster carrier trucks with multifunctional crane because, being more hermetic and having a greater waste storage capacity, compaction containers offer aesthetic, sanitary and economic advantages. Figure 28 - Compactor container Traditional dump truck type collection vehicles These open box vehicles without a compaction device and not specifically designed for domestic solid waste collection are frequently used in small communities with a low demographic density and in areas of rough topography where it is difficult to manoeuvre bigger compactor trucks. As with closed box collection trucks, unloading is by tipping the box, the volume of which can vary from 4 to 12 m³ in trucks that correspondingly vary from 7 to 12 tons TGW. 104 8. Solid waste collection and transport This type of vehicle is attractive for small municipalities due to its operational flexibility. It can be used for various different activities, not only waste collection, and is therefore appropriate for small cities where, due to the low level of waste production, a specialized vehicle would be unused for significant periods of time. Another advantage is its low purchase and maintenance costs. The main disadvantage for domestic waste collection is that the box is open and it is therefore difficult to keep the load inside it (particularly lighter waste) and avoid it being scattered by the wind along the route. In order to minimize this problem, canvas or plastic sheeting can be used but in practice the efficiency of this is questionable as it significantly reduces the productivity of the collection team. Productivity is also negatively affected by the loading height of the box and this too should be considered. Special solid waste storage systems serviced by dump trucks equipped with a hydraulic crane are now available on the market. Amongst them is the “Molok” system that can be considered as an option in special situations, including in informal settlements, due to its operational, aesthetic and sanitary advantages when compared with other more conventional systems. However it is necessary to carry out a viability study before implementing this system as it requires significant initial investment for purchasing the containers, plastic bags, etc. Figure 29 shows this system in operation. Figure 29 - Dump truck with crane moving a special “Molok” container 8.1.7 Tools and implements used by collectors It is important that collection teams collect domestic waste without leaving any of it scattered around. For this purpose medium-sized sweeper brooms and shovels should be used. 105 A medium sized sweeper broom has a wooden base with 22 holes into which natural fibres or recycled plastic bristles are fixed. These days the latter are increasingly being used. 8.2 Public solid waste collection and transport 8.2.1 Concept Public solid waste collection includes the collection and transport of waste gathered as a result of routine and emergency street cleaning activities, such as sweeping, weeding, pruning and special waste collection (for example waste and mud deposited in the street by flooding). The method, vehicles and equipment to be used in collection depend on the specific nature of each individual cleaning operation, the type of waste generated and the form of storage. There are three basic categories that determine the collection method for public waste: ! loose waste accumulated on the ground; ! waste packed in plastic bags; ! waste stored in wheelie bins or dumpsters. Differences in specific weight and other physical characteristics of waste demand different solutions for loading (manual or mechanical) and transport to a transfer station or final disposal unit. 8.2.2 Collection of waste gathered by sweeping Waste collected by street sweeping can be transported by the sweepers while performing the service, for which purpose hand carts made of steel tubing with a metal container (sweeper cart), wheelie bins or, on pronounced inclines, wheelbarrows may be used. Figure 30 - Sweeper cart, wheelbarrow and wheelie bin 106 8. Solid waste collection and transport In all cases it is recommendable that waste, which mostly comprises light material that can be easily scattered by the wind, is stored in plastic bags for collection. They can then be collected by compactor trucks (rear loaders or side loaders), which are especially appropriate in large cities due to the high productivity of this type of vehicle and the large volume of waste to be collected. The collection of this type of waste at the same time as domestic solid waste represents an important device for rationalizing collection and transport costs. Vehicles without compaction devices can also be used: closed box trucks, traditional dump trucks or dumpster carrier trucks that can handle stationary containers. Because sweeping is undertaken in the more urbanized zones of the city it is important to carefully plan the collection of this type of waste so that it remains on the street for the minimum possible time, bearing in mind that a slower collection process could adversely affect the municipal administration’s image of efficiency. As sweeping has to be done in each zone as a programmed routine on pre-established days and at specified times, it is completely feasible to integrate it with collection. To determine the quantity of waste collected by street sweeping, it is necessary to do a field survey in order to identify the average generation per sweeping route and, on that basis, calculate the production of each sector. The generation of waste collected by sweeping is influenced by various factors such as the predominant usage of the street or public space, the level of environmental education of passers by, the type and state of the surfacing on the street and pavement, as well as the characteristics of any trees. Depending on the type of trees, the generation of street waste can increase considerably due to seasonal factors, that is, the falling of leaves and fruit onto pavements and streets. 8.2.3 Collection of waste from weeding and vegetation cutting Weeding and vegetation cutting activities generate vegetation waste that usually accumulates in piles along the section of a street where the work has taken place. From there it is carried by hand to the box of the collection truck (generally a conventional dump truck). An operational alternative that is sometimes adopted is to locate an open stationary container near to the area where the work is taking place so that waste can be deposited in it as the work advances. Such containers are subsequently removed by dumpster carrier trucks with multifunctional crane. When the dimensions of collection and transport services are being determined the low specific weight of this type of waste should be taken into account as it results in the load capacity of the collection truck being under used. The integration of this waste’s collection with the collection of soil and sands that have accumulated on the streets is an option for utilizing the truck’s full load capacity. 107 The identification of nearby locations appropriate for the disposal of this waste, eroded areas for example, can also reduce the cost of transport, but appropriate sanitary and environmental care should always be taken in disposing of it. The necessary dimensions of the collection fleet are assessed by experienced operators during a pre-operational visit to the site on which weeding and land clearing services will be undertaken. 8.2.4 Tree pruning waste collection Tree pruning is often linked with the municipal urban cleaning sector. Due to the nature of this activity it usually requires the support of a truck to transport tools, implements and labour. It is therefore often natural that the same truck is used to collect the waste generated as work progresses. This type of waste includes loose leaves, small branches and thick trunks, and its physical characteristics mean that when it is loaded into the box of the truck many spaces are left unoccupied. Due to this low specific weight, the collection and transport operation is relatively expensive and involves low productivity. As with the disposal of weeding and land clearing waste, disposal sites that are near to the generation site can be sought for pruning waste. The load can be prepared for collection at the generation site using standard pruning tools (machetes, saws and chain saws) to make the material more homogeneous and to prepare part of the waste for reuse (the thicker trunks, for example). Recently new technological alternatives have been incorporated in pruning operations to address the low productivity and high cost of collection and transport in cities that produce large amounts of such waste. A branch grinder can be an important component of an economical and environmentally sound operational solution to this problem. This is a robust and compact machine, available in towable models, that can reduce by up to ten times the volume of a pruning waste load. Another advantage of this system is that the ground waste is easy to dispose of in appropriate nearby locations as the final product has a low granulometry and can be used as coverage for natural soil, minimizing erosion risks and incorporating organic matter. Pruning operations tend to use a fixed box truck with a special elevation platform to raise the worker for the cutting of higher tree branches. 108 8. Solid waste collection and transport 8.2.5 Collection of rubble and other construction waste This type of service can be provided directly by the public administration or by authorized private companies. In the latter case previous authorization is needed so that the identity of service providers is known and their activities can be overseen on an ongoing basis in order to prevent the clandestine disposal of waste in inappropriate places. Basically there are two types of situation that require rubble collection services: ! where rubble has been clandestinely disposed of in the street, on wastelands or on the banks of bodies of water; ! where generators of this type of waste request or contract services. In the first case it is clearly the responsibility of the public administration to collect construction rubble that has been indiscriminately disposed of in the city, a responsibility that requires the urban cleaning body to maintain the necessary infrastructure for this purpose. Where requests for collection are made by generators it is recommended that this service is provided by the municipal urban cleaning system only to small volume generators (there should be a specific municipal regulation on this subject). Where construction works produce larger amounts of rubble the “polluter pays” principle should be applied. Whoever provides the service it should be scheduled, with the cooperation of the generator, for the day and time most appropriate for waste collection taking into account factors such as the traffic flow and parking conditions in the street closest to the place of generation. Service provision should be organized not only to coordinate requests that have been granted and to incorporate field survey data, but also to ensure a rational route that minimizes unproductive journeys and maximizes operational productivity. Construction rubble collection is in general undertaken by conventional dump trucks or 5m³ stationary containers transported by dumpster carrier trucks with multifunctional crane. 8.2.6 Special collections This type of service is necessary in certain situations, which regrettably are common in Latin American and Caribbean cities, where inappropriate waste accumulation sites or clandestine rubbish dumps arise, generally located on wasteland or unoccupied plots. The expression “rubbish attracts more rubbish” summarizes the underlying causes of this type of accumulation: small volumes of pruning waste for example are left in a particular place, this may then be added to by other people disposing of construction rubble there. Subsequently local residents add plastic bags of residential waste and in a short time there is a large accumulation of waste that causes serious sanitary and environmental impacts. 109 In general the existence of waste accumulation sites and clandestine refuse dumps results from operational defects in the regular domestic waste collection and street cleaning system together with deficiencies in the supervision of municipal activities. The lack of attention to these issues by those responsible for urban cleaning means that the causes of this serious problem are not addressed but only its consequences, and thus new cases repeatedly arise necessitating more and more special collection services. Due to the large amount of waste that accumulates on such sites, collection operations may require mechanical loading equipment (mechanical loader), rather than a manual operation, and large vehicles for collection and transport to the final disposal site. 8.2.7 Vehicles and equipment used for collection Dumpster carrier trucks with multifunctional crane for handling 7 ton containers A truck (minimum total gross weight 13.5 tons) with a mounted minimum 7 ton capacity hydraulic crane for lifting and transporting open metal containers loaded with solid waste. These trucks can be single carriers to transport one container at a time or double carriers to transport two containers at a time. To be productive they have to operate over short distances between container locations and the unloading site. Figure 31 - Dumpster carrier truck with multifunctional crane 110 8. Solid waste collection and transport Short dump truck A two axle vehicle for the collection of public waste, construction rubble and earth with a box of 5 to 8m³ capacity with a respective truck TGW of from 12 to 16 tons. Figure 32 - Short dump truck Long dump truck A three axle vehicle for the collection of public waste, construction rubble and earth. The box generally has a 12m³ capacity and the truck a TGW of 23 tons. This truck is usually loaded by a mechanical loader to reduce human effort and increase productivity. Figure 33 - Long dump truck Roll-on / roll-off container carrier truck A collection truck with devices for lifting 10 to 30m³ stationary containers without a compaction device (figure 16). Each vehicle should handle six containers for its productivity to justify its use. These three axle trucks should have a TGW of 23 tons. 111 Semi-trailer A semi-trailer dumper with capacity of 25m³ pulled by a 4x2 truck with a 45 ton pulling capacity. It can be used to transport rubble or in support of large earth or mud collection operations. It is loaded by mechanical loader and is unloaded at the final destination by box tipping. A semi-trailer is a trailer the front part of which has to be supported on a towing vehicle called a semi-trailer truck. A canvas or plastic sheet should cover the top of the box to avoid waste being scattered in the road by the wind while the vehicle is moving. Figure 34 - Semi-trailer Mechanical loader A wheeled tractor loader used to pile up earth, rubble, mud and waste, and to load dump trucks, dumper boxes and semi-trailers in street cleaning operations and at waste accumulation sites. For street operations machines with a scoop capacity of 1,5m³ are normally used, while for loading semi-trailers it is advisable to use machines with a 3m³ scoop to increase productivity and because of the higher loading level. Figure 35 - Mechanical loader 112 8. Solid waste collection and transport 8.3 Waste collection in tourist cities The amount of waste to be collected varies according to tourist season related population fluctuations as well as the usual all year round fluctuations. As the usual fluctuations (weekly and monthly) have little effect on the size of the fleet that is needed, this section will deal with the necessary procedures for maintaining the quality of domestic waste collection in tourist cities during the season of population influx. The basic measures to take are: ! the introduction of overtime for collection workers, within the limits imposed by employment legislation; ! an increase in the number of collection shifts; ! the utilization of the reserve fleet in operations; ! the contracting of extra vehicles from private companies or individuals. Whenever possible the contracting of extra vehicles should be planned in advance to avoid overpricing. It is important to note that these measures should be taken in sequence in order to limit the increase in collection costs to a minimum. Other important factors to take into account are: Traffic In tourist cities the traffic is usually congested during holiday periods, which impedes the movement of collection vehicles and increases the time taken to cover collection routes. Waste collection schedules should therefore be set for times when traffic is less heavy. Beaches In coastal cities where tourists tend to concentrate around the beaches, collection routes that cover streets bordering the sea should be revised and restructured in order to adapt them to seasonal requirements, not only in regard to the increased amount of waste but also the frequency and times of collection. A reduction in the frequency of collections should never be considered, even though it may be attractive for economic reasons, as the longer the interval between collections the greater the danger of waste accumulation sites appearing in the streets, which are detrimental to the city’s sanitary and environmental condition and discourage tourists. 113 8.4 Solid waste collection in informal settlements There are informal settlements in many Latin American and Caribbean cities due to the poor socioeconomic conditions experienced by a significant sector of the population in the region. A lack of basic urban infrastructure in these communities causes significant obstacles for the provision of domestic waste collection services: ! difficult access for conventional collection trucks; ! inadequate or nonexistent preparation and pre-collection storage of waste; ! the tendency of inhabitants to discard waste immediately after generation as there is minimal space inside the houses. These factors have to be taken into account in planning alternative waste collection systems in these communities with a view to improving a situation that presents serious risks to public health and the environment. One solution to the problem of access through narrow internal streets, often with a pronounced incline, is the use of special vehicles that are narrow, have good manoeuvrability and the capacity to deal with steep slopes. Mini-tractors or agricultural tractors with 4x2 or 4x4 drive towing 2,5m³ capacity trailers with metal or wooden boxes are feasible alternatives. (4x2) – two axle vehicle with rear wheel drive. (4x4) – two axle vehicle with four wheel drive. Figure 36 - Micro tractor Figure 37 - Micro tractor and dump trailer 114 8. Solid waste collection and transport As these vehicles are not appropriate for long journeys, the collected waste is transported to a temporary storage place where it is kept for subsequent transport to a final disposal site. It is normally recommended that stationary containers are used for this temporary storage and they are then either transported by special collection vehicles (dumpster carrier trucks) or emptied into large compactor trucks. When installing open containers in informal settlements it is necessary to take the precautions already mentioned in chapter 7 in order to avoid a prejudicial proliferation of insects and animals. If appropriately clean conditions and supervision are not maintained there is a risk of people setting fire to the waste. The problem of pre-collection waste storage in these areas can be dealt with by siting containers along the micro tractor collection route, preferably plastic containers with lid and wheels. The frequency of collections should be carefully considered and ideally there should be only short intervals between them, daily collection being the best option. It has to be pointed out that in many of these communities it is not even possible to use the mini-tractors for collection due to a lack of passable access. In such cases collection should be manual, with the waste being carried to some point that is accessible for some type of vehicle. In several cities the contracting of community collectors has produced good results. In these cases, the municipality contracts the community centre, for example, which then selects the people who will work in the collection team (as well as carrying out weeding and channel cleaning tasks, etc.). It is worth noting that contracting community collectors involves the principle of community participation as it encourages other residents to participate in the maintenance of the place where they are living as they may feel an obligation to keep public areas clean when it is one of their neighbours who is doing this work. 8.5 Collection of medical waste 8.5.1 Acknowledgement of the problem Hygienic conditions in health service establishments (hospitals, clinics, medical centres, veterinary clinics, etc.) are fundamental for the prevention of infections. Regular cleaning with germicide solutions keeps floors, walls, roofs and furniture free of dust, body fluids and any waste from medical activities. Appropriate internal transport and storage together with subsequent collection and external transport of waste complete the measures aimed at reducing infections. 115 In hospitals medical waste generation rates are related to the number of beds. Table 14 shows waste generation per bed in some countries and in Rio de Janeiro city. Table 14 Medical solid waste generation rates Place Average generation kg/bed/day Chile 0.97 – 1.21 Venezuela 3.10 Argentina 1.85 – 3.65 Peru 2.93 Paraguay 3.80 Brazil 2.63 Rio de Janeiro 3.98 Medical waste is classified as common, infectious or special (see table 4). Hospital areas are classified in three categories: ! critical areas: where there is a greater risk of infection such as operating theatres, delivery rooms, infectious disease isolation rooms, laboratories, etc. ! semi-critical areas: where the risk of contamination is less, such as the rooms occupied by patients with non-infectious diseases, nurses’ rooms, laundries, refectories and kitchen areas etc. ! non-critical areas: where in theory there is no risk of infection, such as administration rooms, storerooms, etc. 8.5.2 Segregation There are regulations that must be followed for the segregation of infectious and common waste in health service establishments: ! at the time of its generation all infectious waste should be put in a receptacle close to the place where it is produced; ! infectious waste must be stored in accordance with stipulated technical standards, in well closed plastic bags (generally coloured cream); ! puncturing and sharp waste (needles, glass, etc.) should be stored in special receptacles specifically for this purpose; 116 8. Solid waste collection and transport ! waste from clinical analysis, blood transfusion therapy and microbiological research should be sterilized in the place of generation; ! infectious waste consisting of human body parts, organs and tissues should be separately put in cream plastic bags that are then appropriately closed. 8.5.3 Separate collection of common, infectious and special waste Infectious and special waste should be separated from common waste before collection. Radioactive waste should be dealt with in accordance with each country’s specific regulations issued by the respective governing body. Infectious waste and the rest of the special waste should be stored in cream plastic bags which are put into standardized containers that are mechanically emptied into special vehicles for medical waste collection. This waste represents at the most 30% of the total medical waste generated. If there is no separation of infectious and special waste all of the waste should be packaged, stored, collected and disposed of as though it is infectious or special waste. Current norms recommend that in most cases medical waste is collected daily, even on Sundays. 8.5.4 Vehicles for collection and transport As plastic bags with infectious or non-separated waste can break and release contaminated liquids or air, collection vehicles should not have compaction systems and, as an additional precautionary measure, must be hermetic and have liquid capturing devices. Depending on their size they should have mechanical devices for both empting the containers and unloading the vehicle. Common waste generated in these establishments should be collected by the normal collection service. The types of vehicle usually recommended for medical waste collection are presented below. Van A light van with the driver and passenger cab independent from the load compartment and a load capacity of 500 kilos. The load compartment should be lined with fibre glass in order to avoid the accumulation of infectious waste at the edges and in cracks and to facilitate washing and cleaning. Light vans with hermetic load compartments and a capacity for approximately 2m³ of waste, are suitable for the collection of puncturing and sharp objects from chemists, analysis laboratories, dental clinics and other similar establishments. In some cases it 117 may be economical for these vans to unload waste that they have collected in the loading areas of bigger medical waste collection vehicles, which will then transport it to the final disposal site. Figure 38 - Van for medical waste collection Truck for infectious waste collection A two axle collection truck with a capacity of 6 to 8m³, without a compaction device. A tipping system may be incorporated for the emptying of plastic or metal containers with a capacity of up to 700 litres. The box is made of steel with continuous welded seams to avoid liquid leakage and has a compartment for capturing liquid originating from the load with a device for unloading it in an appropriate place. The rear door of the load box must close with an efficient seal. The unloading of waste is done through the tipping of the load box after the rear door has been fully opened. The hydraulic powered system is coupled with the gearbox and is pneumatically operated from inside the cab. Amongst the chassis recommended are: VW 8150, MB 914 and Ford Cargo 81. Figure 39 - Truck for infectious waste collection 118 8. Solid waste collection and transport 8.5.5 Aspects of collection planning When planning the collection of this type of waste a determination should be made, together with the generators and the responsible health authority, of the amount of waste generated in each establishment and the possibilities for treating it at source, while at the same time establishing appropriate methods for its pre-collection preparation and internal storage. The steps to follow include: ! locate on a map all health establishments: hospitals, out-patient departments, chemists, medical centres, emergency services and clinics; ! based on collected data, determine the necessary type, size and number of collection vehicles, the frequency of collections and collection routes; ! select van type collection vehicles with leak-proof load compartments and liquid retention trays; ! train the service operation teams, including in measures for their own protection and work safety practices. The basic guidelines for rationalizing costs and establishing an appropriate service management policy are the following: ! facilitate treatment; ! prevent contamination; ! intensify safety measures; ! avoid work accidents; ! maintain an organized and pleasant work environment; ! acknowledge employees’ work; ! reduce absenteeism. To achieve good quality medical waste management it is important to instigate educational processes that prepare people for change. 119 9 120 Solid waste transfer 9. Solid waste transfer 9.1 Concept At the same time as large and medium-sized cities have experienced intense urban expansion there has been an increase in both environmental pressures and the resistance of residents to accepting the installation close to their homes of facilities related with solid waste final disposal. In addition urban land is too expensive to be used for sanitary landfills, for which large areas are required. Consequently final disposal sites are being established further and further away from centres of large-scale waste generation. This increased distance between collection areas and sanitary landfills creates the following problems: ! delays in completing collection routes thus prolonging the time that waste is exposed on the street; ! increased unproductive time that collection teams spend waiting for the return of the truck from unloading at the landfill; ! increased transport costs; ! reduced productivity of collection trucks, which are specialized and therefore expensive vehicles. To solve these problems some municipalities are establishing transfer stations. Waste unloaded in transfer stations is transported to the sanitary landfill by a larger vehicle that involves lower transport cost per unit. Vehicles used for transporting waste from transfer stations to final disposal sites usually have three times more load capacity than collection trucks. In general transfer stations begin to be considered when the distance between the location of large-scale collection activities and the sanitary landfill is greater than 25km. In large cities where traffic conditions make travel very slow, transfer stations are sometimes used even when the distance to the sanitary landfill is shorter. Transfer stations are units sited close to areas of large-scale waste generation so that collection trucks can unload there and return rapidly to continue their collection route. The establishment of a transfer station should be preceded by a feasibility study that evaluates the economic and operational advantages that it could provide to the collection system. 121 Modes of transport from transfer stations can be: Train – suitable for long distances or for cities where traffic on roads to the final disposal site is too congested. This requires a complementary system of trucks to transport waste from the unloading site to the sanitary landfill. Boat – suitable for long distances and an excellent option in cities that have navigable rivers or bays. Ideally waste should be transported in closed containers to avoid scattering. A complementary system of trucks is required to transport waste from the unloading site to the sanitary landfill. Truck – the most used system, recommended for transporting over medium distances and in places where the traffic on roads to the final disposal site is not too congested. 9.2 Types of transfer station 9.2.1 Direct transfer station This is a commonly used type of transfer station. It has a drop between the unloading platform and the loading area, so that a collection truck on the higher level unloads directly into the transfer truck below. As there is no space for waste storage in these stations, a larger fleet of transfer vehicles is required to avoid collection trucks having to wait too long to unload. Figure 40 – Direct transfer station 9.2.2 Station with storage facilities In most cities all collection trucks begin their routes at the same time and so it is probable that the vehicles become full and arrive at the transfer station within the same timeframe. The simultaneous arrival of vehicles makes it indispensable that the station has an appropriate place for the storage of waste to deal with unloading “peaks”. Waste storage also facilitates the operation of the system with fewer vehicles. Amongst the more commonly used models for transfer stations with storage facilities are: 122 9. Solid waste transfer Station with silo storage and compaction The main objective of these stations is to increase the specific mass of waste in order to reduce transport costs. The traditional model has a storage silo and a drop between loading and unloading platforms. A hydraulic system installed in the silo compacts waste inside the transfer vehicles. When this equipment is used weight specifications for the transfer trucks must be observed so that loads do not surpass the legal limits. Figure 41 - Transfer station with storage and compaction Station with silo storage without compaction Some units have storage silos to receive waste brought by collection trucks. Hydraulic digger type machines load waste from the silos into transfer vehicles. This model is more appropriate for stations that receive a maximum of 1,000 tons per day as in larger units it would imply excessive construction costs. Station with floor storage without compaction Another model commonly used is that of floor storage stations. These stations have covered paved floors with closed sides to avoid the exposure of waste to the elements and improve the aesthetics of the establishment. The loading of transfer vehicles is done by hydraulic diggers or mechanical loaders. This model facilitates the fast unloading of collection trucks and loading of transfer vehicles, and can be used in small or large stations. Figure 42 – Station with storage without compaction 123 9.2.3 Alternative transfer systems The transfer station concept, although originally developed to respond to the needs of large cities, can be incorporated on a smaller scale in special situations in small communities where access is not possible for conventional collection vehicles. For example, an alternative collection system using carts pulled by animals to cover streets that are not accessible to collection trucks, may involve the unloading of collected solid waste in a stationary container (or equivalent receptacle) at a site where larger vehicles do have access and can collect the waste and transport it to its final destination. 9.3 Vehicles and machines for transfer stations To transport waste unloaded in transfer stations large interchangeable tipper containers can be used, manoeuvred by vehicles equipped with cranes to lift them onto and off platforms, or semi-trailers with or without compaction. The models most used in transfer stations are: semi-trailer tippers and semi-trailers with movable floor. Semi-trailer tippers A semi-trailer tipper towed by a 4x2 semi-trailer truck with a 45 ton pulling capacity. It is loaded from a transfer ramp or by a mechanical loader or hydraulic digger, and unloaded by tipping. The model most commonly used has a capacity of 45m³. Figure 43 – A 45m³ semi-trailer tipper 124 9. Solid waste transfer Semi-trailer with movable floor A semi-trailer with a capacity of 70m³, towed by a 4x2 semi-trailer truck with a 45 ton pulling capacity. It is loaded from a transfer ramp or by a mechanical loader or hydraulic digger, and unloaded by the alternating movement of the movable floor’s strips. Figure 44 - A 70m³ semi-trailer with movable floor In all open semi-trailers the load should be covered with plastic sheeting or a net to avoid waste falling in the roads. 125 10 126 Street cleaning 10. Street cleaning 10.1 The importance of street cleanliness Up to the mid-19th century there was not only refuse in city streets but also the remains of food and large amounts of animal and human excrement. The filthy conditions in Europe during the Middle Ages are well documented, as are the plagues and epidemics that they produced. However, in several cities of the world for many centuries there have been laws and municipal regulations prohibiting the discarding of waste and objects in the streets. As a result of developments in medicine and sanitary engineering during the 19th century, it was recognized for the first time that human waste not collected, treated and appropriately disposed of is a significant source of disease and can provoke fast spreading epidemics. The relationship between waste dumped in the street, the rats, flies and cockroaches attracted by it and the transmission of diseases through those vectors was also discovered. It was then that effective measures began to be taken for the collection of domestic waste rather than allowing it to be thrown onto streets or wasteland. Flies and rats that proliferate in rubbish can transmit many diseases. They are called disease “vectors”. Most animal excrement (except for dog excrement) was eliminated from the streets with the advent of motorized transport that replaced animal driven carts. The surfacing of streets and the dissemination of hygiene and public health principles in schools also contributed to the reduction of waste in the streets. Keeping streets clean is important for the community and the collective interest must be given priority over individual interests in order to respect the wishes of most citizens. The principal motives for keeping streets clean are: Sanitary ! to prevent diseases caused by vector proliferation in waste accumulations on the street or on wasteland; ! to avoid damage to health caused by dust coming into contact with eyes, ears, nose and throat. Safety ! to avoid damage to vehicles from branches and sharp objects; ! to promote road safety by eliminating dust and earth that can cause skidding and dry leaves and grass that can cause fires; ! to avoid rain water drainage systems becoming clogged up. 127 Aesthetic ! a clean city inspires pride in its inhabitants, improves the appearance of a place, helps to attract new residents and tourists, increases the value of property and stimulates business. The aesthetic aspect of street cleanliness forms a significant part of arguments for the implementation of policies and measures to improve the image of cities, particularly so in tourist cities. Whatever the historical significance, landscape beauty or cultural richness of a city, in the context of tourism it is hard for a visitor to leave with a positive impression when a place is aesthetically ugly due to a lack of cleanliness. While it is true that a tourist demands cleanliness of a city, it should also be noted that he himself is in many cases contributing to its dirtiness. In general the tourist does not establish an attachment with the place he is visiting, he is a mere visitor, a consumer of space. Consequently his consideration for the place is less intense than that of residents. In general people take more care of their own houses than of spaces that do not belong to them. In view of these attitudes, it is important that tourist city municipalities implement urban cleaning education campaigns specifically addressed to visitors, with a view to maintaining urban aesthetics and therefore contributing to an improvement in the city’s sanitary conditions. 10.2 Waste found in the street Waste commonly found in the streets: ! material from road surface break-up; ! rubber from tyres and residues from brake pads and linings; ! sand and earth carried by vehicles or coming from wasteland and slopes; ! tree branches and leaves, weeds and other vegetation; ! paper, plastic, newspapers, packaging; ! domestic waste (in general in small amounts, principally on wasteland and areas close to informal settlements); 128 ! dog and other animal excrement (also in small amounts); ! particles from atmospheric contamination. 10. Street cleaning Figure 45 - A street considered as “dirty”, with pieces of paper and plastic in the gutters Figure 46 - A street considered as “clean”, with no visible refuse The types of refuse that most offend citizens’ sense of hygiene and cleanliness are papers, bits of plastic, packaging and the remains of food discarded in the street. A gutter with some earth and material from road surface break-up is not perceived as “dirty” by the general public while paper and plastic items are associated with “rubbish” (i.e. types of waste that produce bad odours, have an ugly appearance and attract undesirable animals). More developed cities are giving increasing importance to a combination of cleaning services and street conservation measures (maintaining street surfaces and pavements in good condition, etc.) when defining quality standards for urban cleaning services that are compatible with client-citizens’ ever more demanding criteria. 10.3 Street cleaning services Street cleaning services in general include activities such as sweeping, weeding and scraping; grass and vegetation cutting; drain cleaning; street market cleaning and waste removal. They can also cover other activities such as beach cleaning, the unblocking of drains, pest control, disinfection, tree pruning, kerb painting and street washing. 129 10.3.1 Sweeping services Characteristics of city streets In surfaced streets most debris is found in the gutters (at the most 60 cm from the kerb) due to the air displacement produced by passing vehicles that “pushes” dirt towards the kerb. In the streets themselves there is practically no dirt unless there is almost no traffic. Rainwater also carries debris towards the kerb, in the direction of the drains, due to the transverse curvature of the street. The gutters are in reality “channels” designed to conduct rainwater. Figure 47 - Cross section of a street In non-surfaced streets dirt and litter behave in a different way and it is necessary to clean the entire width of the street. It is essential to take these characteristics into account when determining street cleaning methodology. Restructuring manual sweeping routes Review of the existing sweeping plan The organization of existing sweeping routes should be examined. The review of the plan should register the street sections that are swept on each route, the length of each one (expressed in metres of pavement and gutter) and the teams assigned to it (sweepers). Service quality As there is no process for determining precisely the degree, quality and standard of cleanliness that each street requires, those responsible for urban cleaning have to use their own criteria. They will determine the methodology and frequency of cleaning and 130 10. Street cleaning will evaluate the approval or disapproval of the public according to the number and content of complaints and suggestions received. It is possible to gauge public opinion about cleaning services by carrying out opinion surveys, investigating previous complaints and consulting press files. Productivity tests As each city has its own characteristics, habits and culture, it is advisable to evaluate workers’ productivity in the field, that is, how many metres of gutter and pavement can be swept per worker per shift. This index is of fundamental importance for the restructuring of sweeping routes and is usually measured in samples of typical residential, commercial and tourist streets, and principal thoroughfares. To carry out the tests, workers of medium performance are chosen and for a period of approximately fifteen days the distance that each one sweeps in each type of street is measured thus determining the average distance covered per shift. Identification of sites that influence public opinion Citizen participation is indispensable for public cleaning services to maintain an appropriate level of cleanliness. Reference sites should therefore be established where comparative studies can be made of resource mobilization and the quality of services provide by the responsible body. One of the first measures to take in order to improve services is the identification of sites that influence public opinion, that is, certain streets that, if they are kept clean, form and consolidate a favourable public opinion on the part of both residents and tourists in regard to the cleanliness of the city, which then encourages the public to cooperate in maintaining clean and hygienic conditions in the streets. These sites should be photographed periodically to facilitate a comparative checking. Tourist areas, principal streets and avenues, commercial centres and access roads to the city are sites that influence public opinion. Determination of sweeping frequency The minimum sweeping frequency necessary to maintain the required level of cleanliness in streets has to be determined. This information is significant as, for example, if a street needs to be swept every day double the number of workers will be needed than if it is swept every other day. New sweeping plan layout Once the existing plan has been examined and productivity indexes (metres of gutters and pavements swept per worker per shift in each type of street), sites that influence public opinion and minimum sweeping frequency for the different areas have been determined, the new plan can be laid out on a map to a scale appropriate for the relevant area. 131 Once the new plan is operational, the level of cleanliness achieved should be checked through photos, and the reaction of the public should be evaluated through opinion surveys and the registration of complaints, on the basis of which necessary adjustments can be made. Up to three workers can be assigned to each route but it is recommended that only one is assigned to each route in order to clarify responsibilities and facilitate supervision. Implements, tools and clothing The principal tools and implements for manual sweeping are: ! sweeper broom (vegetable fibre or plastic); ! small broom and shovel, used to collect waste and finish sweeping; ! key for opening drains; ! hoe for cleaning drains and extracting waste from them. (1) (3) (2) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Figure 48 - Modern broom (1), sweeper broom (2), brush (3), small broom (4), key for drains (5), hoe for cleaning drains (6), shovel (7) and special waste collection pan (8) Figure 49 - Manual sweeping 132 10. Street cleaning Clothing can be the same as for most urban cleaning service workers: trousers, t-shirt, high closing shoes and cap. For safety reasons the use of reflecting strips on the uniform is recommended, particularly for nocturnal work. Sweeper tasks In general each sweeper should: ! collect domestic waste discarded in the street (not packaged for collection); ! sweep the pavement and gutter along the assigned route; ! empty rubbish bins; ! weed the gutters and areas around trees and posts (once every 15 days); ! clean rainwater drains on the route. Types of sweeping In spite of the cost, mechanical sweeping is recommended for some situations. A large mechanical sweeper can sweep an average of 30 km of gutter per shift. As the average productivity of the manual system is 2km of gutter per worker per shift, a mechanical sweeper can replace 15 human sweepers. However the monthly cost of renting a large mechanical sweeper in Latin American and Caribbean countries can be equivalent to the wages of at least 18 sweepers and taking into account the importance of job creation for citizens who have received little education, manual sweeping is in general more appropriate. Nevertheless there are exceptions, where roads with high volumes of fast moving traffic, tunnels and bridges represent dangerous situations for manual sweeping. In such cases it is advisable to consider the possibility of mechanical sweeping. In tourist areas and city centres small mechanical sweepers can be used as they have a positive impact on public opinion by demonstrating the efforts made and the resources invested by the municipality in the urban cleaning sector. The main mechanical sweepers used are mini-sweepers, mechanical sweepers with vacuum system; mechanical sweepers without vacuum system; large mechanical sweepers and mini-vacuums. 133 MINI-SWEEPER A self-propelled sweeper and vacuum machine with two front brushes and water sprinkler nozzles to avoid raising dust. These machines are used for the mechanical sweeping of pavements, squares, pedestrian ways, etc. In general they provoke curiosity and create public awareness of the municipality’s efforts to improve and modernize the urban cleaning system. Figure 50 - Mini-sweeper MECHANICAL SWEEPER WITHOUT VACUUM SYSTEM A medium-sized self-propelled sweeper machine, without vacuum, with a 2.3m³ receptacle, two frontal brushes, one central brush and water sprinkler nozzles to avoid raising dust. These machines are used for the mechanical sweeping of roads with fast moving traffic and represent a good option wherever human sweepers would be in danger of being run over. Figure 51 - Mechanical sweeper without vacuum 134 10. Street cleaning MECHANICAL SWEEPER WITH VACUUM SYSTEM A 14ton TGW sweeper machine with a capacity of 6m³ and a vacuum system driven by an auxiliary engine. It has lateral and central brushes, both driven by hydraulic motors, and water sprinkler nozzles to avoid raising dust. LARGE MECHANICAL SWEEPER A self-propelled sweeper and vacuum machine with two lateral brushes, one central brush and water sprinkler nozzles to avoid raising dust. This machine is used for sweeping tunnels, bridges and large streets with high traffic volumes. When its waste receptacle is full it can be emptied directly into a dump truck that operates together with it, thus avoiding having to move the sweeper itself to empty its load in a transfer station. Figure 52 - Large mechanical sweeper MINI-VACUUM Small vacuum machine that sucks debris through a flexible tube manoeuvred by the operator. This machine is used for cleaning cycle ways, pavements and parks. 135 Figure 53 - Mini-vacuum 10.3.2 Weeding and scraping services Where sweeping is not regularly undertaken or rain carries debris onto surfaced streets, earth can accumulate in gutters and weeds begin to grow. In such cases weeding and scraping services are necessary to remove earth from the gutters and re-establish good drainage conditions and the appropriate appearance of the street. Figure 54 - Weeding 136 10. Street cleaning In general these services are carried out using very sharp 3½ pound hoes and the waste is collected using shovels or four pronged pitchforks. When the earth is very compact hoes or picks are used to scrap it. A scraper is used to deal with mud. Wheelbarrows, plastic bags, wheelie bins or stationary containers can be used for waste collection operations. Rakes can be used to complete weeding and brushes to finish the cleaning. It is important that drains are cleaned at the same time as weeding and scraping operations are undertaken, as they tend to become clogged when gutters are covered with earth and weeds. When there is a large amount of earth, usually after intense rain in streets close to slopes, small or big mechanical loaders are used for scraping, depending on the amount of material and on the type of access and space for manoeuvring. Figure 55 - Hoe, pick and scraper Figure 56 - Rake Types of weeding Weeding operations can be manual or chemical. The main advantages and disadvantages of each method are listed below: Manual ! uses unqualified labour; ! is a simple and well known method; ! involves fewer environmental risks, the main one being erosion processes due to the inappropriate removal of vegetation; ! machines and tools are easy to obtain and operate; ! the operation uses more time; ! requires large numbers of workers. 137 Chemical ! the operation uses less time and requires fewer workers; ! facilitates the removal of vegetation, which quickly dies; ! when done well, with appropriate techniques and products, it involves few environmental risks; ! requires qualified labour; ! its use is restricted to specific situations and is always an auxiliary to manual weeding; ! represents a risk to the environment when used without fulfilling technical requirements; ! the use of machines and tools involves diverse operating, cleaning and maintenance techniques. Planning of weeding operations The first planning task is to determine the type of weeding: manual or chemical. This decision depends on the characteristics of each particular area and the more common method employed is manual weeding. Chemical weeding uses herbicides and should always be undertaken in compliance with the producer’s specifications and the relevant legal and environmental restrictions, and exclusively under the guidance of a specialized professional. It should only be used as an auxiliary and complementary method side by side with manual weeding, and when it is adopted regulatory restrictions and requirements should be rigorously observed as should the instructions on the product labels. 10.3.3 Cutting services Cutting services are necessary when grass or vegetation is too long and can be carried out manually or mechanically. Manual cutting uses tools such as scythes and slicers that can also be used for cutting tree branches. For the manual cutting of grass a broad scythe is used. Figure 57 - Scythe, slicer and broad scythe 138 10. Street cleaning Rakes can be used to complete the operation. The manual cutting of grass and other vegetation with sickles or scythes does not produce good quality results or represent good productivity (only 100m² per worker per day). Figure 58 - Manual cutting Mechanical cutting employs machines such as portable cutters, lateral cutters, tractor cutters, tractor mounted side-arm cutters and cutters towed by an agricultural tractor. Portable mechanical cutters that operators carry on their backs and cutters mounted on small, medium and large tractors are currently available and produce a good quality result with good productivity. Portable cutters are suitable for rough land and places that are difficult for larger cutters to access. One of these machines can cut approximately 800m² per day. The cutters attached to tractors are appropriate for relatively flat land and can cut between 2.000 and 3.000m² per day. For cutting operations on the borders of roads cutters with articulated arms laterally mounted on agricultural tractors can be used. Figure 59 - Portable cutter (backpack type) 139 Figure 60 - Cutter attached to a tractor Cut vegetation and the refuse that inevitably appears should ideally be gathered on the day of the cutting operation using standard or long rakes. Waste can be put in bags and cut vegetation organized into piles to await collection, which should not be delayed for more than two days to avoid them catching fire or becoming scattered. Four to ten pronged pitchforks and long rakes should be used for gathering and removal operations. Figure 61 - Long rake and four pronged pitchfork Mechanical equipment for cutting vegetation Commonly used mechanical equipment: portable cutter; chainsaw; tractor mounted side-arm cutter; mini-tractor grass cutter; towed grass cutter and stationary or towed branch-grinder. Portable cutter An approximately 11 kg cutting machine powered by a petrol engine with the rotation transmitted to the cutting head through a flexible cable. The cutting can be done by a blade, a disc or a nylon string depending on the type of vegetation. The nylon string is appropriate for light vegetation and grass and where the machine is used as an edge cutter, while the toothed disc and the blade are appropriate for thicker vegetation and 140 10. Street cleaning bushes such as guinea grass (Panicum maximum). The machine’s useful life is short, approximately 2,000 hours, after which maintenance costs are excessively high. Precautions should be taken to isolate the area surrounding the work site because the blades, which rotate at high speed, can throw out objects such as small stones from under the vegetation with the risk of causing injury to people or animals. Figure 62 - Backpack cutter Figure 63 - Chainsaw Chainsaw A tool powered by a two stroke petrol engine. It is used to prune and cut trees or large branches, where for example they are likely to fall and cause accidents, principally after storms and gales. Tractor mounted side-arm cutter A hydraulic arm with wheeled head that is mounted on the rear part of a mediumsized agricultural tractor. At the extreme of the arm there is a hydraulically operated rotating axis blade cutter. It is used to cut large lineal extensions such as roadside strips and slopes. Figure 64 - Tractor mounted side-arm cutter 141 Mini-tractor grass cutter A compact machine on wheels with a central blade. It is appropriate for cutting large flat and even extensions of grass. This machine does not cut edges but has the advantage of not throwing out stones or other objects while in use. Figure 65 - Mini-tractor grass cutter Towed grass cutter An implement towed by an agricultural tractor. Its cutting width is up to 1.20m and is appropriate for relatively flat land. As with the micro-tractor grass cutter, this implement does not throw out stones or other objects while in use. Figure 66 - Towed grass cutter Stationary or towed branch grinder This machine is powered by a diesel motor. Branches and foliage are fed into the grinder and the ground material passes through a tube to be deposited in a dump truck or container. It is used in areas with many trees and bushes where frequent pruning takes place. 142 10. Street cleaning Figure 67 - Branch grinder An important rule for mechanical vegetation cutting: Work should only be undertaken in a screened off area using protective netting to stop the circulation of people near the area of operations in order to avoid people, vehicles or objects being hit by stones thrown out by machines. Workers should use all the recommended IPE (individual protection equipment). 10.3.4 Drain cleaning services A well functioning street sweeping system significantly reduces the volume of waste that falls into storm drain inlets or is carried there by rainwater. Consequently the cleaning of drain inlet boxes is usually assigned to the body responsible for urban cleaning. As some sweepers may otherwise sweep debris into the drain inlet boxes, thus slowly clogging them, in general sweepers themselves are responsible for cleaning them. The first step of this operation is to remove the covering grill using a drain key. If the grill is stuck it can be levered out. Where asphalt type material used for repairing the road surface is partially covering the grill it can be removed with a hammer and chisel taking care not to break the grill. The same procedures should be followed when working with any type of rainwater drain. Waste that has accumulated in drain inlet boxes can be removed using worn hoes, which are narrower than new ones, grub hoes or special shell shaped tools. Waste with a low specific weight (leaves and branches) can be put into bags and collected together with sweeping waste. Earth extracted from drains should be collected by dump trucks. 143 (1) (2) (4) (3) Figure 68 - Clogged drain Figure 69 - Lever (1), hammer (2), chisel (3) and drain key (4) Drain inlet boxes can also be cleaned using special machines with suction hoses (VacAll type) or sweepers with vacuum suction equipment. The cleaning of the rainwater drainage network is done with special machines through points of access to the drainage system. Figure 70 - Pumping truck A pumping truck is used in urban and industrial operations for cleaning drain boxes, drain accesses, septic tanks, separated chambers and sewers. Waste is pumped through a four inch diameter hose and the most commonly used models have a capacity of 6, 7 or 8m³ corresponding to a truck TGW of 12, 14 or 16 tons respectively. Mechanical sweepers with suction systems usually have tubes appropriate for drain cleaning. The cleaning of drain inlet boxes in areas that are susceptible to flooding in the event of heavy rain should be regarded as a priority. 144 10. Street cleaning 10.3.5 Market cleaning services In most Latin American and Caribbean countries there are informal public street markets set up particularly for the sale of vegetables, fruit, fish and other types of food. Many people go to them and generate large amounts of waste. It is therefore necessary to plan appropriate cleaning services in order to keep the markets clean from the moment they begin functioning until the stalls are dismantled. Market cleaning is done manually and the size of teams should correspond to the size of the market, i.e. the number of stalls and the number of people visiting it. Independently of the market cleaning services that it provides, the Municipality should take firm measures to ensure that stall operators themselves avoid waste being discarded in the street and install receptacles to store waste by their own stalls. While large markets are functioning workers can be collecting waste produced by stall owners and their customers by circulating with manual collection carts lined with large plastic bags. When full these bags can be kept at a storage point adjacent to the market in a location chosen to incur the minimum possible nuisance to the public and facilitate collection by the collection vehicle. Where possible 240 litre plastic containers with lid and wheels should be used to store waste produced while the market is operating. Special attention should be given to stalls selling fish, chicken and pork products. Figure 71 - Containers located close to a market When the market is dismantled a larger team of between four and eight workers sweeps and cleans the area. For this task sweeper brooms are used together with shovels and brushes for collecting the waste. In some cities large wooden squeegees are used as an auxiliary tool. Waste is collected by a compactor truck or a dumpster carrier truck. 145 Once it has been swept the street should be washed by a street washing truck with a pressure water jet, paying particular attention to areas around fish stalls sites, which, along with the drains, should be washed with disinfectant and deodorant products. (1) (2) (3) (4) Figure 72 - Sweeper broom (1), brush (2), wooden squeegee (3) and shovel (4) used in market cleaning 10.3.6 Manual and mechanical waste removal services In many cities with large wasteland areas refuse is often irregularly discarded there. Open wastelands and uncared for public areas, in combination with inadequate urban cleaning systems, generate what are called “waste accumulation sites”. The accumulation often begins with construction rubble being dumped and, as “rubbish attracts rubbish”, this is followed by the addition of pruned vegetation, old tyres, the remains of packaging, and organic waste. Later weeds start to grow and the entire scenario results in blocked drains and serious sanitary and environmental consequences. To deal with this type of problem cleaning services should establish a specific operational methodology as these situations involve not only clearing activities (weeding and vegetation cutting) but also the removal of all types of waste that have accumulated on such sites. This work requires machines and tools appropriate for each type of waste, not only for clearing tasks but also for collection and transport to the final destination, all of which places an additional burden on the system through higher operational costs due to the extra personnel and machines required in these cases. This type of activity is commonly called waste removal and can be manual or mechanical. The removal of unpackaged refuse such as common waste, soil and rubble can be done manually with shovels, lifting it directly into the box of a dump truck or into metal containers that will later be removed by appropriate trucks with cranes. To remove cut vegetation a four pronged fork is used. A three or four pronged pitchfork 146 10. Street cleaning is used to separate the pile of accumulated waste in order to facilitate its handling and transport. In cases where there is a large amount of waste and especially where a lot of soil or rubble has to be removed the use of a wheeled front loader (mechanical loader) is recommended. Figure 73 - Mechanical loader at work Figure 74 - Three pronged pitchfork 10.3.7 Beach cleaning services Sandy beaches have to be kept clean by the application of various complementary measures. The first and most important of these is to reduce the amount of waste that gets onto the beach by installing rubbish bins both on the beach itself and on pavements that border it so that people can deposit waste in them. Each summer, awareness raising campaigns should be initiated to promote the use of rubbish bins for waste generated on the beach. Where it is not possible to install purpose made rubbish bins, alternative structures for depositing waste can be used such as setting vertical concrete pipe sections on the beach lined with plastic bags. Once these basic measures have been adopted, the planning of services should involve the following principal elements: ! the frequency of beach cleaning operations should be organized with a view to the beach always being as clean as possible and in good condition for use by citizens; ! the timing of operations should be compatible with beach activities so as not to inconvenience users; ! labour requirements are calculated according to the surface area to be maintained, the required frequency of operations and productivity rates determined by field measurements; 147 ! service organization can be based on defined sectors or on the entire extension of the relevant beach. Beach cleaning services can involve both manual and mechanical operations. The manual cleaning of the beach surface should ideally be done at the end of every sunny day using wire rakes (usually having 20 to 25 prongs with a 1cm gap between them), ten pronged pitchforks and plastic net sieves, as well as plastic bags and containers for carrying the waste to the compaction vehicle or dump truck that accompanies the team as it progresses. The labour productivity rate varies depending on diverse factors such as user behaviour and the availability of rubbish bins. An average of 1.000m² per hour per worker can be taken as an initial base value. (1) (2) (5) (3) (4) Figure 75 - Wire rake (1), plastic net sieve (2), ten pronged pitchfork (3), concrete pipe section with plastic bag (4) and container (5) Figure 76 - Waste containers Figure 77 - Manual removal of beach waste 148 10. Street cleaning Figure 78 - Transfer of beach waste from a tractor drawn trailer to a truck Figure 79 - Manual beach cleaning Mechanical cleaning is appropriate for beaches with large amounts of waste and big extensions of sand. In these cases purpose built machines towed by agricultural tractors are used and have a productivity of approximately 10,000m² per hour. This type of cleaning collects large and medium-sized waste but leaves ice cream sticks, straws, cigarette ends and food remains. On very wide beaches (where there is more than 30 metres of sand between the water and the land), four wheel drive agricultural tractors with trailers can be used to accompany the cleaning team as they progress along the beach and transport waste to a truck similarly progressing along the street bordering the beach. In out of season periods beaches should be cleaned with machines that stir the sand, pass it through a vibratory sieve in order to catch smaller objects and produce a bactericidal effect by exposing lower layers of sand to sunlight. Beach cleaning machines towed by four wheel drive mini-tractors with a maximum potency of 60hp are used. The operation of this machine is entirely mechanical. Sand is taken from a maximum depth of 20cm, sieved, aired and returned to the beach. The type of net used in the sieve varies according to the characteristics of the beach. Figure 80 - Mechanical beach cleaning 149 An option that may be considered for very crowded beaches is to replace sand above the tide line with sand from below it that has been washed by the sea and is therefore cleaner. Such an operation should be carried out using tractor-bulldozers and mechanical loaders after an environmental study has been undertaken by specialists. 10.4 How to reduce street waste The amount of solid waste in streets can be reduced through: ! smooth surfaces and appropriate inclination for streets, gutters and pavements; ! appropriate dimensions and maintenance for rainwater drainage systems; Figure 81 - Smooth pavements and gutters facilitate cleaning Figure 82 - Uneven gutters make cleaning difficult ! planting tree species in combinations that do not result in abundant leaf fallings several times a year; ! instalment of rubbish bins in streets with high pedestrian concentrations, on corners, at bus stops and in front of bars, cafes and supermarkets; Figure 83 - Rubbish bins 150 10. Street cleaning ! regular sweeping and waste removal from waste accumulation sites (“rubbish attracts rubbish” while “cleanliness promotes cleanliness”); ! public awareness raising campaigns related to the maintenance of cleanliness; ! establishment of legal devices that sanction citizens who disobey urban cleaning regulations. As can be seen, urban cleaning issues are related to various aspects of public urban works and should be taken into account by the respective municipal bodies when urban improvement projects are being planned. Figure 84 - A dirty square The dirty and uncared for appearance of the square is added to by so-called “white waste”, made up of papers, plastic and packaging. In general it can be observed that in well cared for and well maintained streets passersby are more conscious of cleanliness and discard less rubbish on the ground. Commercial establishments should not be allowed to sweep their waste onto the street. Those who persist in doing so should be fined and for this the municipality needs to have a good supervision system. (Figure 85) Figure 85 – Figure 85 - Waste being swept into the street 151 10.5 Street cleaning in tourist cities As is the case with domestic waste collection, an influx of tourists to a city causes considerable problems for the street cleaning service, principally in regard to sweeping and, in the case of coastal cities, beach cleaning. An underlying cause of these problems is the temporary population increase and the resultant increase in demand for public services. A good example is the increase in the number of people circulating through the streets and the consequent generation of waste in different quantities and at different times than those in the normal routine of the city. Another aspect that creates difficulties for cleaning services is that in general tourists are not acquainted with the operational routine of cleaning in the city and many times they do not do what they should as users to cooperate with the body providing the service. There are also cultural and behavioural questions with some tourists who take the view that as it is not their city they are not interested in keeping it clean. They discard rubbish indiscriminately and fail to comply with behavioural norms and regulations. These however are the same tourists who will not return to the city if they consider it dirty or not well cared for. In regard to sweeping, the measures that have to be implemented to maintain required levels of street cleanliness are: ! increase the hours of work shifts (overtime) on some sweeping routes in order to respond to the greater seasonal demand for services, taking into account the limits imposed by employment legislation; ! restructure existing routes increasing the number of sweeping shifts and contracting extra workers on a temporary basis. Figure 86 - “Molok” type container in use 152 10. Street cleaning It is also important to increase the numbers and maintenance of containers and rubbish bins strategically positioned in streets, squares and other public spaces to facilitate appropriate waste disposal. The aesthetics of these units and their integration with the landscape should be taken into account. In the case of coastal tourist cities the problems are more difficult to solve as, with few exceptions, they do not maintain teams exclusively for beach cleaning services, which are complex, difficult to mechanize and relatively labour intensive. For an effective provision of this service during the tourist season the most appropriate course of action may be to contract a separate team to undertake the cleaning of the beach and its bordering seafront, and equip it with all the tools necessary to carry out this service. Extending work shifts and giving seasonal tasks to workers who normally perform other activities is in general neither feasible nor sufficient to solve the problem completely. One general administrative measure that a municipality can take to reduce problems faced by the urban cleaning sector during the high tourist season is to schedule employees’ holidays for the months of the low season so that during periods when demand for services is at its greatest the entire staff is available. An ongoing awareness raising campaign can be run throughout the high tourist season with the participation of companies that benefit from tourism, such as hotels, restaurants and entertainment establishments. The campaign should encourage people to take better care of the city and guide visitors to cooperate in maintaining hygienic conditions and cleanliness in the streets. Such a campaign can and should be directed to the entire city but may concentrate more on neighbourhoods associated with tourism and along the seashore where applicable. 153 11 154 Recovery of recyclable materials 11. Recovery of recyclable materials 11.1 Concept With the growing prominence of environmental conservation policies citizens are becoming increasingly concerned about solid waste issues. The increased per capita waste generation, fruit of capitalist society’s high consumption model, not only concerns environmentalists but also governments and the general public. This concern with waste issues is due both to the potential for contamination and the continuous need to find new final disposal sites, not to mention the negative impacts caused by an irrational consumption of non-renewable natural resources. On an international level these issues have prompted a debate about the consumption habits of societies and the responsibility of companies, resulting in what is known as 4Rs practice (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recover). This concept establishes the principle of waste generation prevention, taking as its departure point reduction. That is, a reorientation of consumers’ needs and purchasing preferences, and therefore of companies’ production, favouring products that are less damaging to the environment and avoid wastage. In spite of the integral nature and order of the 4Rs, recycling is the one that provokes most public interest principally due to its clear claims to environmental benefits. 4 Rs practice: reduce – aimed at diminishing the amount of disposable packaging and containers, through a change in consumption habits. The reorientation of consumers’ preferences, favouring products with more durability and less packaging, putting pressure on producing companies to use the least amount of packaging possible. reuse – the reuse of a material or product without changing its shape or original nature. Different types of waste can be reused such as bottles, newspapers, magazines, books and other products. recycle – the transformation of materials into raw material for production processes. This process requires the segregation of waste at source, in transfer stations or at final disposal sites. One of the most important incentives for recycling is the saving of energy and natural resources. recover – principally related to appropriate waste incineration processes that produce energy and consequently conserve fossil fuels. Reduce, the less waste the better; Reuse, maximize or diversify the use of a given consumer product; Recycle, a positive contribution where reduce and reuse are not applicable; Recover, mostly associated with energy generation. 155 11.2 Selective collection programs A significant role can be played by educational programs that promote 4Rs practice and foster the development of environmental awareness amongst citizens. These programs, for the most part related to pre-recycling waste segregation, can become instruments for income and employment generation, particularly in less developed countries. This aspect has a significant relevance to many Latin American and Caribbean cities where social crises have resulted in large numbers of people turning to refuse segregation as a means of survival through the commercialization of recyclable materials, almost always in extremely precarious conditions. The principal benefits of recycling discarded materials (plastic, paper, metal and glass) are: ! the saving of non-renewable raw materials; ! the saving of energy in production processes; ! the prolongation of sanitary landfills’ useful life; ! the generation of income and employment. The great challenge in implementing selective collection programs is to find a model that is in itself economically sustainable. Traditional models applied in developed countries almost always involve public subsidies and are difficult to apply in developing countries. However the social and environmental benefits of these programs also have to be considered. In practice, a model involving the selective collection of materials at the source of generation (houses, offices, shops and factories) and associated with a program of income and employment generation, is the one most applied in Latin American and Caribbean cities. A scarcity of resources often hinders the implementation of such programs but some municipalities are endeavouring to promote alternative models adapted to fit their particular economic circumstances. For example, where large parts of the population live in poor socioeconomic conditions projects can be established that involve the “bartering” of recyclable materials for food and an increased level of community participation. Another example is the establishment of partnerships between public authorities and civil organizations, such as segregator cooperatives, in which the latter undertake the collection of materials. 156 11. Recovery of recyclable materials Amongst the options available for the segregation of recyclable materials at the source of generation are: ! selective door to door collection; ! voluntary drop-off centres; ! segregator organizations. 11.2.1 Selective door to door collection The most commonly used model for selective collection programs is the segregation by residents of discarded recyclable materials, which are then collected by specialized vehicles from each housing unit, in a similar way to conventional domestic waste collection. Figure 87 – Selective collection by compactor truck Figure 88 – Selective collection by truck without compaction The separation of recyclable materials in households can be done in two ways: identifying and separating different types of recyclable material and storing them in separate containers, or putting all recyclable materials in one container. 157 The system in which different types of recyclable materials are separated requires more space for keeping the containers, one for each type of recyclable material, which makes it more difficult in apartments or small houses. This model also requires a collection truck with a box divided into compartments to transport materials separately. With the other more commonly used model residents separate domestic waste into two categories: ! organic material (damp) – including the remains of food and non-recyclable materials that are stored in a container for this category and are collected by the normal domestic waste collection service; ! recyclable materials (dry) – paper, metal, glass and plastic, which are stored in a container for this category and are collected by the selective collection service. In most cities where the system is operated, door to door selective collection can be made once a week using open box trucks. The relatively long interval between selective collections is possible because of the inert nature of recyclable materials. Once collected, recyclable materials should be transported to a segregation plant, generally equipped with tables, where materials are separated by type in preparation for their commercialization. Segregation plants should also have presses so that materials with a lower specific weight (paper and plastic) can be baled to facilitate storage and transport. Figure 89 – Recyclables segregation plant It is important that the public is clearly informed of the correct criteria for the separation of materials for commercialization in order to avoid the expense incurred with transporting and handling non-recyclable waste at the segregation plant. The principal disadvantages of door to door selective collection are the increased transport costs involved in the need for extra collection trucks and the high unitary cost of collection compared with conventional collection. 158 11. Recovery of recyclable materials Both before and after the initiation of selective collection services the public authority should continuously encourage citizen participation through promotional campaigns and environmental education. Consequently planning for a project has to allow for the necessary resources to run such campaigns, which are fundamental to maintaining citizen participation levels. Selective collection is not profitable when the municipality uses its own vehicles, labour and structure. Ideally it should standardize, regulate and foster the process without participating directly in its operation. As an incentive it could invest in warehouses and equipment such as bale-presses, grinders, washers, etc. to add value to the recyclable material. A selective collection system in which a municipality does not directly participate but establishes alliances with the community for operating it, results in significant economic benefits for the urban cleaning system as previously segregated recyclable materials will not need to be collected, transported and disposed of in a landfill, all of which reduces the costs and work of the municipality. 11.2.2 Voluntary Drop-off Centres (VDC) Containers sited in public places for the public to voluntarily deposit pre-segregated recyclable waste. The responsible public body usually standardizes the program to facilitate organization and community participation. It can for example define a colour code for the different types of waste, which will then be used for identifying containers and collection trucks, as well as in waste segregation educational campaigns. See the suggestions in table 15. Table 15 Colour code for recyclable solid waste Container colour Recyclable material Blue Paper and Cardboard Red Plastic Green Glass Yellow Metal Brown Organic waste Source: CONAMA resolution Nº 275 of 25/4/2001 (Brazil) 159 VDCs can be set up in partnership with private companies that can for example finance their installation in return for the use of the site for advertisements. Some municipalities are establishing partnerships with recycling companies that finance both the installation of containers and the collection of materials deposited in them. The establishment of VDCs in tourist areas should take into account potential communication problems with the labelling of containers. To overcome the language problem it is recommended that images are used to indicate the correct storage container for each type of recyclable material. Here too it is important to regularly empty VDC containers in order to avoid irregular waste accumulation on the site. Figure 90 - Special containers for a VDC Figure 91 - Examples of VDCs 160 11. Recovery of recyclable materials 11.2.3 Segregator organizations The appearance of numerous segregator organizations in Latin America and the Caribbean during recent decades reflects not only the socioeconomic crises that many of these countries have experienced but also segregators’ capacity for articulation and organization, which though still incipient has nevertheless grown significantly 4. In spite of advances, working conditions for most segregators are still very precarious and many of them continue to work without any support or acknowledgement. Improvements in this sector’s working conditions depend to a large degree on several institutions having an articulated vision and commitment that leads to the formulation and implementation of effective public policies. Many municipalities, in an effort to include a social dimension in their selective collection programs or pressed by groups of segregators themselves, establish some type of agreement or partnership with segregator cooperatives that then undertake the collection and separation of discarded recyclable materials. The principal advantages of working with segregator organizations are: ! the generation of income and employment; ! the social inclusion of segregators (who mostly live in the streets) as citizens; ! a reduction in the costs of selective collection programs; ! the organization of segregators’ work to avoid untidiness in waste collection and the storage of materials in the streets; ! a reduction in the costs of the city’s urban cleaning system due to the collection of part of the waste by segregators leaving less waste for collection, transportation and final disposal. Such savings on costs should benefit segregator organizations in the form of investment in uniforms and infrastructure (warehouses for segregation and storage, standardized carts, presses, bale lifters) so that the segregated materials increase in value in the recyclables market. It is important that municipalities adopting this model offer institutional support to segregator organizations, principally in regard to granting the use of physical space, providing juridical and administrative assistance for legalization processes and, as has already been mentioned, providing basic equipment such as bale-presses, carts, etc. Assistance should also be provided for the training of organization members to promote greater autonomy. One of the main factors that fosters the strengthening and success of segregator organizations is the profitable commercialization of recyclable materials. The less 4. Segregators from several Latin American countries met to define common strategies at the first and second Latin American Congress of Recyclable Material Segregators, held in Brazil in 2003 and 2005. 161 intermediaries that are involved in the process between the segregator organizations and the final consumer (the recycling industry) the higher the sale price will be. The following basic conditions should be met: ! good quality material (sorted by type of material, with a low impurity content and appropriate packaging or baling); ! ample scale of production and storage: the larger the production and the quantity available to the buyer, the better the selling conditions; ! regular production and delivery to the final consumer. These conditions are rarely achieved by small groups but the organization of joint commercialization centres is an option that creates better conditions for direct negotiations with recycling companies. When a public authority enters into partnership with a segregator organization it is important that it continues to offer institutional support for the provision of basic needs, the lack of which would hinder efficient performance, especially when operations are beginning to be established. Amongst the measures that should be taken in support of segregator organizations are: ! administrative and accounting support, the contracting of a professional specialized in management to train the group; ! implementation of a social assistance program for segregators and their children; ! provision of uniforms and individual protection equipment; ! implementation of literacy courses and training for segregators; ! implementation of rehabilitation programs for those with a dependency on chemical substances; ! implementation of environmental education programs for segregators. Figure 92 – Segregators from a cooperative working in the street 162 11. Recovery of recyclable materials Taking into account the lack of experience of those running the organizations, the public authority can, during the initial phase, also help with the commercialization of recyclable materials. For the eventuality of difficulties related to fluctuations in the buying market, it is recommended that the group has a small liquid capital so that segregators’ minimum incomes are guaranteed until better commercialization conditions are re-established. All these initiatives and types of support should be applied with a view to eventual sustainability, that is, it is important that the strengthening of the segregator groups leads in the long term to them gaining more autonomy and independence in their activities. 163 12 164 Solid waste treatment 12. Solid waste treatment 12.1 Concept Between collection and final disposal municipal solid waste can be subject to processes that produce technical-operational, economic and sanitary benefits. These processes, known as waste treatment, contribute to human and environmental protection. The objectives of solid waste treatment are to reduce its volume and to lower its contaminating potential by transforming it into inert or biologically stable material. Processes applied to solid waste can be mechanical, thermal or biological. Mechanical ! classification – sorting by economic criteria or as a preparatory step for subsequent processing; ! grinding – reduces the granulometry and volume of waste as well as mixing and homogenizing it; ! compaction – reduces empty spaces (increases waste density). Thermal ! incineration – controlled burning at high temperature in purpose built equipment with environmental control devices; ! pyrolysis – thermally induced waste degradation in the absence, or limited presence, of oxygen at a lower temperature than that involved in incineration, producing high energy liquids and gases and less atmospheric contamination. Biological ! aerobic – stabilization and composting processes that principally generate water, carbon dioxide and heat; ! anaerobic – important for the production of methane. Waste degradation is slower and generates fatty acids, acetic acid, other acids of low molecular weight and some unpleasantly smelling toxic gases such as sulfhidric acid (H2S). The most effective treatment is applied by the general public when they take action to reduce the amount of solid waste by avoiding wastage, reusing materials, separating recyclable material at source and appropriately disposing of waste. 165 12.2 Domestic solid waste treatment 12.2.1 Recycling The recycling process comprises: the segregation of materials such as paper, plastic, glass and metal from domestic solid waste, their sale to specialized companies and their transformation into material for producing goods that can be sold in the consumer market. Recycling offers the following advantages: ! conservation of natural resources; ! energy saving; ! economies in solid waste transport costs and in the occupation of landfills (as the amount of waste to be transported to the landfill is reduced); ! generation of income and employment; ! greater public awareness of social and environmental problems. The ideal recycling system begins with the separation of solid waste in homes so that only potentially recyclable materials are sent to segregation plants. Such prior separation reduces the amount of contamination affecting materials and in consequence increases the productivity of segregation plants. Recyclable material segregated from mixed solid waste is dirty and contaminated, so its processing is more complicated and expensive. Recyclable material contained in general domestic solid waste can be separated in the segregation plant through manual or electromechanical processes that in terms of weight usually yield only 3% to 6%, depending on the plant’s size and degree of sophistication. The high cost of recyclable material transformation processes has resulted in many recycling companies not following environmental guidelines stipulating the use of clean (but expensive) technologies. If the necessary precautions are not taken recyclable material transformation processes can be extremely harmful to the environment. In such a case, the outcome is much worse than if the waste had been disposed of in a sanitary landfill, together with the rest of the domestic waste, where it would be subject to more rigorous environmental controls. 166 12. Solid waste treatment After the segregation of recyclable material that can be used for production, the rest of the domestic waste, which is fundamentally organic, can be processed to obtain compost for agricultural use. This subject is dealt with in the next section. The gravimetric values (in weight) of the different types of solid waste after processing in a segregation plant with a composting unit, and their uses, are in general as expressed in the following flow chart of a hypothetical plant with an intake capacity of 1,500kg/ day (see figure 93). It can be seen that, provided there is compost production, from the total amount of waste that arrives for processing only 12.6% needs to be transported to the final disposal site. This material is inert and therefore not contaminating because the residual organic content has been stabilized with most of the organic matter being transformed into compost. Domestic waste collection 189kg/day (12.6%) Landfill Refuse Grinding of the predominantly organic fraction 60kg/day (humidity loss 4%) Selection table Pre-selection of bulky objects 225kg/day (15%) Recyclable materials Compost curing piles Refuse Reception Recoverable materials Loss of matter heat+CO +water Storage of composted ground material Sieving Organic preparation (compost) 456kg/day (30.4%) Figure 93 - Flow chart of the process and mass fraction proportions These percentages however are based on the optimum operational performance conditions for a segregation and composting plant, which are: ! small-sized unit (low quantity of waste to be processed) which facilitates maximum efficiency of manual segregation; ! reception of domestic waste from differentiated collections, thus avoiding a mixture of recyclable and non-recyclable waste and reducing the percentage of nonrecoverable waste; ! existence of a strong and diversified market for recyclable materials so that the commercialization of a wide range of materials is possible, thus reducing the amount of non-recoverable waste. 167 In the case of bigger recycling and composting units (in large cities) the level of recyclable material recovery tends to be less and the amount of disposable material for treatment greater, which results in a larger percentage of non recyclable waste at the end of the process. As in practice optimum conditions rarely exist, the average production of nonrecoverable waste in recycling and composting plants can be estimated as 25% of the total weight of refuse processed there. Clearly this proportion depends on the composition of the domestic solid waste generated in each city, which can be affected by local particularities, as mentioned in chapter 5. The operation of a segregation and composting plant is divided into three stages: reception, feeding and selection. Reception Here collection trucks unload domestic solid waste and the following processes are applied in sequence: ! determination of the volume or of the weight using a weighbridge, or in smaller establishments by means of estimative calculations; ! storage of unloaded waste in silos or warehouses of a size compatible with the daily processing capacity. Feeding The loading of waste onto the processing line by means of machines such as loaders, overhead cranes, or hydraulic arm grabs. In smaller plants feeding can be manual. In bigger establishments devices can be used to enable trucks to unload solid waste directly onto the processing lines, thus freeing the operation of the processing lines from dependence on the functioning of feeding equipment. Selection In this sector the flow of waste on the selection lines is regulated and segregation by type of recyclable material is carried out. 168 12. Solid waste treatment Equipment used for flow regulation comprises metal conveyor belts and mixer drums. The latter are appropriate for plants with a maximum capacity of 10tons per hour per line. The selection conveyor belt speed should be 10 to 12m/min, to allow sufficient time for the manual separation of materials by the segregators. Segregators are stationed along the selection belt next to channels or containers. The ones near the beginning of the conveyor belt separate larger objects (paper, cardboard and sheet plastic) so that smaller objects (aluminium cans, glass containers, etc.) can be seen and separated by segregators nearer to the end of the line. In general, the first position on the selection line is occupied by a worker who breaks open bags and scatters their contents across the width of the belt in order to facilitate the work of the other segregators. In establishments that have several parallel selection belts they should be installed on a level that is high enough to allow for a level below them where baling presses can operate and there should be enough space available for moving segregated materials. The distinct selection processes can be set up independently of each other or be interconnected. In general simple plants only have selection conveyor belts, while more complete ones use other equipment that itself removes recyclable materials or assists manual segregation. Examples of auxiliary equipment are: sieves, ballistic separators, magnetic separators and pneumatic separators. In plants that process up to 10tons/day, instead of a selection belt, a concrete table can be used that should be slightly inclined and have raised lateral borders to avoid the fall of waste. Waste is manually pushed along the table by segregators using small planks as recyclable materials are withdrawn. In this type of plant the waste that arrives from collection is unloaded close to the end of the selection table and is transferred to the table by a worker with a pitchfork or another appropriate tool. Figure 94 - Manual selection in a small capacity recycling plant 169 Large capacity recycling plants need to use a high level of mechanization for feeding and the movement of the large volumes of waste along the operational lines. Figure 95 - Manual selection in a large capacity recycling plant The type of recyclable material that will be separated in a segregation plant depends above all on demand from the industry. However in most plants the following materials are segregated: ! paper and cardboard; ! hard plastic (PVC, HDPE, PET); ! sheet plastic (low density polyethylene); ! entire bottles; ! transparent glass, coloured glass, mixed glass; ! ferrous metal (cans, sheet metal, etc.); ! non-ferrous metal (aluminium cans, lead, antimony, etc.). It is important to note that a segregation plant can only operate if the urban cleaning system of the city includes the selective collection of hazardous waste, such as medical waste. It is essential that this type of material does not arrive at the segregation plant in order to avoid endangering workers who handle the waste. Street sweeping waste and construction rubble should also not be brought to the segregation plant as they contain materials that can damage the machines. 12.2.2 Composting Composting is the natural biological degradation of organic materials (with carbon in their structure) of animal or vegetable origin through the action of micro organisms. It 170 12. Solid waste treatment is not necessary to add any type of substance, including chemical substance, to the mass of organic domestic waste for composting to take place. Composting can be aerobic or anaerobic, depending on the presence or absence of oxygen in the process. In anaerobic composting, degradation is caused by micro organisms that live in environments without oxygen; it takes place at relatively low temperatures, emits a strong unpleasant odour and requires more time for the organic matter to stabilize. In aerobic composting, the more appropriate treatment for domestic waste, degradation is caused by micro organisms that only live in environments containing oxygen. Temperatures can reach 70ºC, odours are not unpleasant and degradation is quicker. The final product of an organic waste aerobic composting process is compost, a material rich in hummus and mineral nutrients that can be used in agriculture to improve soil quality and as a fertilizer. Hummus is a completely bio-stabilized homogeneous organic substance, dark in colour and high in colloidal particle content that when applied to soil improves its physical characteristics for agriculture. Stages of composting The aerobic composting process can be divided into two stages. The first stage, bio-stabilization, involves a significant increase in the temperature of the organic mass, reaching 65ºC and later stabilizing at the ambient temperature towards the end of the cycle, which in natural composting systems takes approximately 60 days. The second stage, maturing, takes another 30 days. In this stage the humidification and mineralization of the organic matter takes place. Factors that influence composting A sufficient quantity of the micro organisms necessary for degrading organic matter is inherently present in domestic waste. If humidity and airing are appropriately controlled these micro-organisms proliferate quickly and homogeneously throughout the mass of waste. The waste also contains pathogenic micro organisms such as salmonella and streptococcus. These pathogenic agents are eliminated by the heat generated in the biological process as they do not survive temperatures in excess of 55ºC for more than 24 hours. Structurally the micro organisms that degrade the organic matter are approximately 90% water, therefore the water content has to be controlled during the process. 171 In aerobic composting the metabolism of the micro organisms needs oxygen. Factors such as humidity, temperature and granulometry influence the availability of oxygen. A lack of oxygen produces unpleasant odours. Compost is aired by stirring the material with mechanical loaders or special machines. In small units it can be stirred manually with pitchforks or other tools. During the aerobic stage the more the matter is exposed to oxygen, the quicker the degradation. In addition, the smaller the particles, the greater the surface area that is exposed to oxygen and therefore the shorter the composting process. However, if particles are too small an excessively compacted mass can result, which makes the airing process more difficult. Simple composting plants Simple plants make compost naturally in the open air. In such plants the waste is fragmented in a hammer-mill and then “piles” are set. The organic matter remains there until its bio-stabilization and is stirred with a predetermined frequency (for example, on the third day after the formation of the pile, and from then on, every 10 days until completing 60 days). Once it is biologically stable the material is refined in a sieve and is ready to be used in the preparation of agricultural soils. The surface of the area where piles are set in a composting plant should be smooth, well compacted and if possible surfaced, with enough of a slope (2%) for rainwater and leachates produced in the composting process to run off. These effluents, which in well managed piles are produced in very small quantities, should be sanitarily treated in stabilization ponds. When designing the composting area sufficient space has to be planned for between the piles so that trucks, mechanical loaders and special machines for stirring the piles can circulate. Sufficient space for the storage of compost that is ready for use should also be made available. Composting piles should have a pyramidal or conical shape, with bases of up to 3m per side or 2m diameter and be no more than 1.50m to 2m in height. Figure 96 - Aerobic composting in a small capacity plant 172 12. Solid waste treatment Figure 97 - Aerobic composting in a large capacity plant If the height of the piles is more than 2m it is difficult to stir and air the organic mass. A conical form facilitates the running off of rainwater and avoids the pile becoming saturated. Characteristics of compost The principal characteristic of compost produced by domestic waste composting is the presence of hummus and mineral nutrients, the amounts of which determine the quality of the compost. Hummus makes soil more porous thus facilitating the airing of roots and the retention of water and nutrients. Mineral nutrients can comprise up to 6% of the weight of the compost and include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron, which are absorbed by plant roots. Compost can be used for any type of cultivation, whether or not chemical fertilizers are being used. It can be used to correct soil acidity and rehabilitate eroded areas. Compost quality In general compost quality is standardized on the basis of parameters established by public institutions in each country with a view to ensuring its effective application in agriculture. In Brazil, for example, commercialized compost produced by domestic waste composting plants must comply with minimum values established by the Ministry of Agriculture. These values are presented in table 16 as a reference. Table 16 Values established in Brazil for commercialized compost Parameter Value Margin Organic matter > 40% - 10% Total Nitrogen > 1.0% - 10% Humidity < 40% + 10% C/N relation < 18/1 PH > 6.0 21/1 - 10% 173 Compost must be periodically subject to physical and chemical analysis in order to verify its compliance with the minimum quality standards established by the relevant governmental body. One of the main concerns of compost users is the presence of heavy metals in sufficient concentrations to be prejudicial for cultivation and/or produce consumers. Some components of domestic waste such as coloured paper, textiles, rubber, ceramics and batteries contain heavy metals. Composting plants’ segregation operations must remove these materials as much as is possible from the waste that is received. In most Latin American and Caribbean cities, especially in small and medium-sized ones, it is unlikely that compost produced from domestic waste will contain a concerning level of heavy metals because of the socioeconomic characteristics of most of the population and therefore the type of waste generated. 12.2.3 Choosing a treatment option Segregation and/or composting plants are alternatives that municipalities should consider when planning the treatment of domestic solid waste that they collect. However, before proceeding they should examine the practicalities of the following required conditions: ! existence of a reasonably efficient and regular collection system; ! existence of selective collection for domestic, public and medical waste; ! existence of a market for recyclables and compost in the region; ! availability of sufficient space to establish a segregation plant and/or composting area; ! availability of resources to finance initial investment; ! availability of personnel with sufficient technical training to select appropriate technology, supervise the setting up of a plant, maintain machines and supervise their operation. When determining which machines to install it should always be taken into account that the more sophisticated and automatic they are, the higher the initial investment and maintenance costs and the lower the level of employment generation. 174 12. Solid waste treatment In Latin American and Caribbean countries, where there is high unemployment, labour intensive systems are recommended such as manual segregation plants. A considered economic feasibility study of any proposed project should be undertaken taking into account on the one hand the advantages of installing a plant (reduction of the amount of waste to be transported and buried, sale of compost and recyclable material, generation of incomes and employment, environmental benefits), and on the other, the implementation, operational and maintenance costs. ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDIES Prior to the establishment of a segregation or composting plant an economic feasibility study should be carried out covering the following points: Investment ! environmental licenses; ! purchase and legalization of land; ! architectural and engineering planning and works; ! purchase of machines and tools; ! capital expenditure (interest and amortization) and depreciation. Expenditure ! personnel (non-qualified labour; technical, management and administration teams); ! operation and maintenance; ! energy and tariffs of public service concessionaires; ! spare parts and machine replacement. Income ! direct ! ! sale of compost and recyclable material. indirect ! ! savings through the reduced cost of transport to the sanitary landfill; savings through reduced sanitary landfill costs resulting from reduced waste volumes. 175 Environmental ! energy savings; ! natural resource savings; ! reduced environmental contamination from waste. Social ! provision of dignified and formal employment for segregators – the participation of segregator organizations in plants should be prioritized whenever possible; ! income generation; ! promotion of public environmental awareness. It is unlikely that the direct income from a segregation and composting plant will cover its expenditures and the project should not be entered into as a profitable undertaking from a strictly commercial perspective. However, taken as a whole, it can be seen as being extremely positive when indirect income and the potential for significant environmental and social benefits are considered. Segregation and composting plants generate income and employment and reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of in sanitary landfills or refuse dumps. The use of recyclable material results in a saving of energy and resources that would otherwise be used in the transformation of raw materials and this, together with the transformation of organic matter separated from waste into compost that improves agricultural soils, represents a significant environmental and economic benefit from segregation and composting plants. RECYCLABLE MATERIALS MARKET The market for recyclable material is growing rapidly and offers significant rates of return, although there has been a concomitant increase in quality requirements. Companies that buy recyclables impose three basic conditions: 176 ! sufficient production scale; ! regularity of supply; ! good quality material. 12. Solid waste treatment Materials that are appropriately segregated, relatively clean, and so more valuable, are easier to commercialize in the market. The commercialization of these products, including the sale price and production flow, depends on the existence of local recycling companies that are interested in them. Market prices vary and are directly influenced by the price of raw materials as well as other factors such as the level of demand from recycling companies for a particular recyclable material at certain periods of the year. Some segregator cooperatives seek ways of increasing the value of their recyclable material by for example endeavouring to make it as clean as possible and at least segregating and baling the different types of paper and cardboard, aluminium cans and hard plastic. They will also endeavour to sell directly to companies, eliminating intermediary agents. Another fundamental requirement is to have a storage place for the materials in order to rationalize their transport to the customer and be able to offer larger amounts of recyclable material and in consequence obtain better prices. 12.3 Treatment of special domestic waste 12.3.1 Construction rubble The most common treatment of construction rubble is its segregation, cleaning and grinding for reuse in the construction industry itself. Recycled rubble can be used in the base and sub-base of roads or as gross aggregate in construction works, reinforced concrete works of art and pre-moulded elements. The recycling of construction rubble has the following advantages: ! a reduction in the extraction of raw material; ! the conservation of non-renewable raw material; ! an improvement in the urban environment due to reduced indiscriminate dumping of construction rubble in the streets; ! the availability on the market of cheaper construction materials; ! the creation of employment for unqualified labour. The establishment of recycling plants for this type of material should therefore be fostered and the possibility of charging special tariffs should be considered to ensure their economic viability. Three factors should be analyzed in a pre-establishment evaluation for a rubble recycling plant in a particular location. In order of importance they are: Demographic density – a high demographic density in the area is essential to ensure a constant supply of rubble to the recycling plant. Availability of natural aggregate – a scarcity of, or difficult access to, natural deposits of raw material favours rubble recycling. However an abundance of, and 177 easy access to, natural deposits does not necessarily exclude the viability of rubble recycling. Technical level – it is necessary to use appropriate technologies to avoid environmental degredation. The location of a recycling plant on the periphery of an urban area is of fundamental importance in order to keep the final cost of the recycled product down. Also, the following factors should be studied: In connection with rubble received: ! ! ! ! rubble characteristics (quantity, type and quality, place of origin, responsible agent, regulations in force); demolition and renovation (techniques applied, rubble transport); collection and final disposal possibilities (prices, distances, existing local regulations); processing (feasibility, technical team, organization and machines). In connection with commercialization: ! natural raw material (quality, price, reserves); ! market conditions (type, current consumption, standards); ! recycled material (technical quality, quantity, price). Figure 98 - Rubble recycling plant - basic features 178 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 - Administration Control centre Entry checkpoint Feeder Grinder Conveyor belt Rubble to be recycled Storage Area Reception Area Green Belt Garden 12. Solid waste treatment Construction rubble recycling can be done in two ways: automatic and semi-automatic. The automatic process employs a robust machine of great potency, able to receive and grind construction rubble without the prior separation of iron rods that therefore remain inside concrete blocks. After being ground the material passes through a magnetic separator to remove ferrous material, which is pressed, baled and commercialized. The rest of the material passes through a revolving sieve that segregates it according to granulometric characteristics. In the semi-automatic process iron is separated before grinding. Figure 99 - General view of a rubble recycling plant The plant should receive only inert waste so that there is no possibility of releasing contaminating substances. The appropriate procedures and control devices should be adopted to avoid the emission of particles. The grinder feeder should be equipped with water sprinklers to minimize the emission of dust and a rubber lining to keep noise levels within the limits established by environmental control bodies. Operational sequence for a semi-automatic plant ! rubble brought in by collection trucks is weighed on the recycling plant’s weighbridge and sent to the reception area; ! in the reception area it is superficially inspected to determine whether the load is compatible with the grinder. If it is not of an appropriate type, the unloading of the vehicle will not be allowed and it will be sent to a sanitary landfill; 179 ! if the material is compatible with the machinery the vehicle unloads in the reception area. Manual segregation takes place there, separating out material of no use such as plastic, metal and small amounts of organic matter; ! during manual segregation a mechanical loader is used to stir the material and facilitate the work of segregators; ! the separated out material is categorized into what can be commercialized (scrap iron) and what is for disposal (the rest of the material), and is put in separate areas for storage and future disposal respectively; ! material with larger dimensions than those of the feeding mouth is not accepted, nor concrete blocks with internal iron rods that can damage the mill by breaking the hammers. In some cases reception area workers can break the blocks and separate out the iron; ! material in which significant amounts of plastic are incorporated must never be admitted as it can damage the machines; ! rubble from small construction works often arrives in bags and is manually unpacked before the feeding and grinding operations; ! once material that is of no use has been removed, the rubble is lightly dampened by a sprinkler system in order to minimize the dust generated during grinding. A mechanical loader then places it in the feeder, which regulates its entry into the grinder. Figure 100 - Rubble recycling plant - feeder and grinder ! from the feeder the material passes to the mill where it is ground. From the grinder the material moves along a small conveyor belt equipped with a magnetic separator to separate iron that was not seen during the manual segregation and was introduced into the impact mill; 180 12. Solid waste treatment ! later the material passes to the vibratory sieve that segregates it according to predefined granulometry; ! each type of material is transported to its respective storage area on a conventional constant speed conveyor belt. Conveyor belts are mounted on wheels so that they can be moved sideways in a semicircle in the storage area. This facilitates direct transportation to the storage area in an interrupted operation that avoids the need to move piles of ground material with a mechanical loader. Figure 101 - Rubble recycling plant - grinder and conveyor belt The conveyor belt wheels should move on a concrete surface strong enough to support its weight. The sideways movement of the belt is a manual operation carried out by storage area workers each time that the pile of ground rubble reaches the maximum height allowed by the incline of the belt. In the storage area the ground material should always be kept damp to avoid scattering by the wind and dust generation. Vehicles that take ground rubble away are loaded with a mechanical loader similar to the one used in the reception area. Products made with recycled rubble include: ! pavement paving slabs; ! road sub-base and base; ! breeze blocks for cheaper housing walls and masonry; ! fine aggregate for surfacing; ! aggregate for storm drain inlet, kerb and gutter construction. 181 The costs presented here are based on the establishment and operation of a large automatic rubble recycling plant with a 100 ton/hour production capacity located 10km from the urban perimeter: ! cost of the plant (construction work + machines): US$ 1,091,274.33 ! unit production cost: US$ 10.30/ton The establishment and operational costs for a semiautomatic plant are as follows: A 120 ton/day capacity plant: ! investment costs: US$ 45,000.00 ! construction work: US$ 25,000.00 ! maintenance/operation: US$ 11.50/ton A 240 ton/day capacity plant: ! investment costs: US$ 80,000.00 ! construction work: US$ 30,000.00 ! maintenance/operation: US$ 13.60/ton 12.3.2 Tyres Problems caused by the inappropriate disposal of tyres in wasteland, watercourses and streets, especially in peripheral urban areas, are a source of growing concern for public authorities due to their significant environmental impacts. Due to climatic conditions and other characteristics particular to Latin American and Caribbean countries, the problem is of equal concern from a public health perspective as inappropriately discarded tyres become a shelter and breeding ground for disease vectors due to the water that accumulates in them. In the United States, where the consumption of tyres is equivalent to one tyre per inhabitant per year (approximately 300 million tyres a year), the most common treatment is burning in thermoelectric plants. However due to difficulties involved in this process it is applied to no more than 5% of used tyres. In both the 100 million dollar Modesto plant in California, which burns 4.5 million tyres a year generating 15 megawatts and providing energy to 14,000 houses, and the Sterling plant in Connecticut, which burns 10 million tyres a year generating 30 megawatts, operational costs are double those for coal burning plants. 182 12. Solid waste treatment The disposal of used tyres in sanitary landfills is inappropriate as there are operational problems involved in burying them and they provoke empty spaces that cause points of instability in the mass of waste. Consequently alternatives have been sought to address this problem but up to now no definitive solution has been found. This problem came to the fore in Brazil in the mid 1990s when the annual tyre production had reached 35 million. At the end of that decade CONAMA introduced a requirement obliging tyre companies to take responsibility for the disposal of waste resulting from their production (used tyres) under the “polluter pays” principle. Burning in cement industry clinker furnaces was the immediate solution that producers turned to. However not all furnaces were adapted to burn tyres and there were some restrictive factors associated with the procedure because of a change in the quality of the cement produced and the emission of gases not in compliance with limits established by environmental bodies. In recent years the ongoing search for new technological processes has seen developments such as one in Brazil that uses organic solvents to separate rubber from the wire and nylon in tyres facilitating its recovery and recycling. However, many of these new developments are not economically viable. In spite of these efforts the problem continues and, as in other situations, it is the urban cleaning system that has to bear the significant expenditure involved in dealing with used tyres habitually discarded in unpopulated peripheral areas as it has an obligation to collect them for sanitary and environmental reasons. In this context, an initiative that can serve as an example for other urban cleaning bodies in Latin American and Caribbean cities is the COMLURB “ecotyres” experience in Rio de Janeiro. Concerned with the growing number of used tyres discarded in the city, a study was carried out on the route taken by tyres from their moment of purchase in different neighbourhoods of the city to the moment when they are discarded, in general in peripheral zones. The study found this route to be: producers, dealers, recovery agents and tyre workshops. Tyres without any further possibility of use are discarded on wasteland, in drainage channels or are burned. This data led to the following measures: the registering of all locations, both formal and informal, where tyres are repaired; the implementation of the “ecotyres” system 5 in cooperation with the private tyre sector; and the development of an information program on the use of the “ecotyres” system covering dealers, tyre mechanics, bus companies and haulage companies. 5. A network of locations with the minimum infrastructure necessary for the reception and storage of unusable tyres that, when a predetermined number have accumulated, are then taken away by the private sector to be recycled. 183 The public authority should introduce specific regulations that consolidate the application of the “polluter pays” principle by establishing the responsibilities of producers and distributors for waste generated when their products are discarded. 12.3.3 Batteries and fluorescent tubes The number of batteries present in domestic waste continues to increase as the use of electrical and electronic gadgets spreads in modern society and plays an increasing role in people’s daily lives. The incidence of this type of waste in the overall composition of domestic solid waste is clearly dependent on the socioeconomic condition of the population as here the relation between consumption and disposal is direct. In Latin American and Caribbean countries the problem has therefore yet to reach the concerning proportions that it has in the United States, Japan and European countries. However immediate action is necessary to establish control mechanisms for this type of waste as it should receive the same level of treatment as hazardous industrial waste. Fluorescent tubes fall into a similar category and due to their high level of toxicity, together with the difficulties involved in controlling environmental contamination from them, they should be dealt with in the same way as toxic waste. In the cases of both batteries and fluorescent tubes specific legislation is required to consolidate the “polluter pays” principle. Under such legislation responsibility for the treatment and final disposal of these types of waste would be assigned to producers, with the participation of dealers and distributors in the reception of discarded material and of the general public in separation, appropriate storage and delivery. 12.4 Treatment of waste from special sources 12.4.1 Industrial solid waste It is usual to treat industrial waste with a view to its reuse, or at least to leaving it inert. Due to its diversity however there is no pre-established universally applicable process so research and development for economically viable processes is always needed. This waste should not be the responsibility of the urban cleaning authorities but of the waste generators themselves, the industrial companies that produce it. Such an 184 12. Solid waste treatment approach requires comprehensive legislation and effective supervision mechanisms to avoid irregular disposal of the waste. Recycling and recovery In general there is a trend towards transforming waste into base material for other processes, thus generating savings in the industrial process. However transformation processes require significant investment and offer unpredictable returns as the scope for corresponding charges on the price of the product is limited, but this risk reduces as technological developments provide more secure and economical ways of using the material. To encourage waste recycling and recovery, some states issue free periodical publications in which industrial companies anounce waste that they have for sale or donation, or waste that they want to purchase. Other treatment processes The most common treatment processes are: ! neutralization – for waste with acid or alkaline characteristics; ! drying by mixing – the mixing of waste that has a high humidity content with dry waste or inert material such as sawdust; ! encapsulating – the lining of waste with a coat of impermeable synthetic resin with a very low leaching level; ! incorporation – the adding of waste to a mass of concrete or clay in a proportion that does not damage the environment, or the adding of it to combustible material where gases that are harmful to the environment will not be generated during burning; ! thermal destruction – incineration and pyrolysis. 12.4.2 Radioactive waste There are still no economically viable treatment processes for radioactive waste. Atomic stabilization processes for radioactive material have been developed but still cannot be used on an industrial level. As has already been explained this type of waste is the responsibility of a specialized national body that operates within international regulations and safety procedures, without any participation by the urban cleaning sector. 185 12.4.3 Port and airport waste This type of waste is not usually treated in a special way except in the case of waste generated on boats or planes coming from regions where a particular disease is endemic. In such cases it is important that the work of the urban cleaning team is integrated with that of the professionals responsible for sanitary vigilance so that appropriate sanitary and environmental procedures can be applied to the storage, collection, treatment and final disposal of this waste. Incineration, or another equivalent treatment, is usually recommended for waste with a high potential risk. In general most waste generated on these sites has similar characteristics to domestic waste and can be collected and sent to the same final disposal units. 12.4.4 Medical waste There are many technical processes for the treatment of medical waste. Until a short time ago the debate on medical waste treatments was between incineration and autoclave treatment as many countries do not allow its disposal in septic tanks at sanitary landfills. Recent progress in environmental research led to the discovery of atmospheric contamination risks in the incineration process and resulted in a requirement for very expensive treatments of generated gases, which has imposed economic restrictions on its use. New technical processes have led to the development of several treatments that are already available on the market. Irrespective of its technical basis any waste treatment that is adopted should: ! reduce the biological content of waste in accordance with stipulated requirements, that is, the elimination of bacillus stearothermophilus in the case of sterilization and of bacillus subtyllis in the case of disinfection; ! comply with regulations established by the government’s environmental control body for effluents and gas emissions; ! avoid the de-characterization of waste thus ensuring that it is recognizable as medical waste; ! process sufficient volumes in relation to the capital and operational costs of the system in order to be economically viable in terms of the local economy. The available commercial processes that meet these fundamental requirements are: incineration, pyrolysis, autoclave, microwave, ionizing radiation, electro-thermal deactivation and chemical treatment. 186 12. Solid waste treatment INCINERATION Incineration is a burning process in the presence of a high level of oxygen, through which carbon based materials are decomposed, releasing heat and generating ashes as residue. Normally the amount of oxygen used in incineration is 10% to 25% greater than is necessary in the common burning of waste. Correctly carried out waste incineration is also an effective means of reducing the volume of waste and leaving it absolutely inert in a short time. However installation and operational costs are generally high principally because of the need for filters and sophisticated technological devices to reduce or eliminate the contamination of the air with gases produced during the burning of waste. Basically an incinerator consists of two combustion chambers. In the first chamber solid and liquid waste is burned with a high level of oxygen at a temperature of 800ºC to 1,000ºC, transforming it into gases, ashes and scoria. In the second chamber gases produced by the initial combustion are burned at a temperature of 1,200ºC to 1,400°C. Gases resulting from the secondary combustion are rapidly cooled to avoid the recomposition of their extensive toxic organic chains and are then treated in washers, cyclones or electrostatic precipitators, before being discharged into the atmosphere through a chimney. As the waste burning temperature is not high enough to melt and volatilize metals, they become mixed with the ashes from where it is possible to separate and recover them for commercialization. In the case of toxic waste that contains chlorine, phosphorus or sulphur, gases not only need to remain for more time inside the chamber (approximately two seconds) but also require treatment by sophisticated systems before they can be discharged into the atmosphere. In the case of waste composed exclusively of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms all that is required is an efficient system to filter particles expelled together with the combustion gases. There are different types of incineration furnace, the most common being fixed grate, moving grate and rotary kiln. 187 Fixed grate incinerators In this process waste is deposited on a fixed grate where it is burned. Air is introduced from above the grate to minimize the trailing of ashes. Ashes and scoria resulting from the burning process fall through the holes of the grate into an ash pit, from where they are removed mechanically or by water. To ensure the level of oxygen necessary for the complete combustion of waste and gases, the air flow is augmented by an extractor located at the base of the chimney. Chimney Overhead crane Feeding Collection truck Air blower Fixed grate Reception pit Contamination control equipment Combustion chamber Ash outlet Air extractors Ash outlet Figure 102 - Fixed grate incinerator Moving grate incinerators The grate consists of stepped cast iron sheets connected to a hydraulic system for moving it in a swaying motion that conducts the waste from the access door through to the ash and scoria pit. The combustion grate is divided into three sections, the first one is for drying and the waste is completely burned in the second and third sections. Air for combustion in the furnace is provided by two blowers, one that blows air amongst the waste (air below fire) and the other that introduces air above the waste (air above fire). Hot ashes and scoria from the burning are continuously deposited in a pit located under the furnace from where they are removed mechanically or by water. 188 12. Solid waste treatment Chimney Ventilation blower Swaying grate Steam control valve Overhead crane to transport waste Use of heat generated by waste Steam turbine Condensation tank Overhead crane to transport ashes Heater Condenser Gas cooler Filter sleeve Gas re-heater Overhead crane for bulky waste Reagent catalytic reactor Fly ash treatment Furnace Bulky waste pit Bulky non-combustible waste Magnetic separator Aluminium separator Ferrous material press Hammer grinder Ferrous material storage Rotary sieve Ventilation blower Ash pit Conveyor belt for ashes Waste pit Gas washer Bulky combustible waste Ground combustible material Slow speed blade grinder Aluminium press Aluminium storage Figure 103 - Moving grate incinerator Rotary kiln Rotary kilns are useful for the thermal destruction of infectious waste but are more used for burning hazardous industrial waste. They are cylindrical incinerators with a diameter of approximately four metres and a length of up to four times the diameter, mounted with a slight incline in relation to the horizontal plane. The entrance is at the higher end, the opposite end to the burners, so that the waste moves slowly downwards due to the rotation of the cylinder. Gases generated pass to a secondary burning chamber that accommodates burners for liquids and gases. Gases resulting from this burning flow into heat interchangers and washing equipment. Chimney Heat interchanger Feeder system Gas washer Liquid waste burner Rotary kiln Washer water oxidation Electrostatic filters Air extractor Collection truck Reception pit Post-burning chamber with chimney Figure 104 - Rotary kiln 189 PYROLYSIS Like incineration, pyrolysis is a thermal destruction process with the difference that it absorbs heat and takes place in the absence of oxygen. In this process, carbon based materials de-compose into combustible gases or liquids and carbon. Pyrolytic furnaces are very much used in the treatment of medical waste, where the calorific value of the waste maintains a certain temperature during the process. There are single chamber models where the operating temperature is approximately 1,000ºC and dual chamber models with temperatures of between 600ºC and 800ºC in the primary chamber and between 1,000ºC and 1,200ºC in the secondary chamber. Primary air Temperature Gradient Drying Secondary air Decomposition Gasification , Cyclone Boiler Air extractor Ash extractor Figure 105 - Pyrolytic furnace The feeder system can be automatic (continuous) or semi-automatic (by lots) and the auxiliary burners can burn diesel or gas. Its main advantages are: ! effective treatment is guaranteed given optimum operational conditions; ! substantial reduction in the volume of waste to be disposed of (almost 95%). Its main disadvantages are: ! 190 high operational and maintenance costs; 12. Solid waste treatment ! maintenance difficulties requiring constant cleaning work in the auxiliary fuel feeder system, unless natural gas is used; ! high risk of air contamination from dioxins generated by the inappropriate burning of chloro materials present in PVC bags and disinfectants; ! risk of air contamination due to the emission of particulate matter; ! high cost of effluent treatment. It should be noted that neither incineration nor pyrolysis completely solve the medical waste final disposal problem as both the ashes that are produced and the sludge resulting from the treatment of gases require an appropriate final disposal. Figure 106 - Medical waste incineration plant with a capacity of 250kg/hour AUTOCLAVE Originally used for the sterilization of surgical equipment, this process was adapted and developed for waste sterilization. Basically it consists of a feeder system that conveys the waste into a hermetic chamber where a vacuum is created and steam is then injected (from 105ºC to 150ºC) under certain pressure conditions. 191 The waste remains in the chamber for a certain period until it is sterile, after which water is discharged from one side and the waste from the other. Figure 107 - Autoclave Advantages: ! relatively low operational costs; ! does not emit gases and effluent is sterile; ! relatively easy and cheap maintenance. Disadvantages: ! there is no guarantee that the steam will reach all parts of the mass of waste unless it has been appropriately ground before the sterilization phase; ! does not reduce the volume of waste unless it is previously ground; ! waste is processed in lots, continuous treatment is not possible. MICROWAVE In this process waste is ground, dampened with steam at 150ºC and is fed, as a continuous process, into a microwave furnace where there is a device to stir and transport the mass so that all of the material uniformly receives the microwave radiation. 192 12. Solid waste treatment Advantages: ! absence of emissions or any type of effluent; ! continuous process. Disadvantages: ! relatively high operational costs; ! the volume of waste to be buried is not reduced unless it is ground. Figure 108 - Microwave IONIZING RADIATION In this process, waste in its natural form is exposed to the action of gamma rays, generated by a source of enriched cobalt 60, which render micro organisms inactive. This process has the following disadvantages in comparison with previously mentioned processes: ! treatment effectiveness is questionable as a possibility exists that part of the mass of waste is not exposed to the electromagnetic rays; ! the used cobalt 60 source (radioactive) requires appropriate disposal. Its advantages are the absence of any type of effluent emission and the fact that it is a continuous process. 193 Deodorizer Deodorizer HEPA Filter Pre-filter Dust collector HEPA Filter Pre-filter Hydraulic press Automatic doors Weighbridge Reception pit Primary grinder primary cyclones Secondary grinder secondary cyclones Liquids Grinding and homogenization Waste reception Processing unit To the landfill Container Press Control panel Transport Class C waste Treatment Figure 109 - Ionizing radiation ELECTRO-THERMAL DEACTIVATION This process consists of double grinding prior to treatment, followed by the exposure of the ground mass to a high potency electrical field, generated by low frequency electromagnetic waves, reaching a final temperature of 95ºC to 98ºC. In this process there is no effluent or gas emission. The advantages and disadvantages of this process are the same as those for the microwave process, with the addition of equipment maintenance difficulties, and there is no volume reduction unless a post-treatment grinding system is installed. CHEMICAL TREATMENT In this process waste is ground and then submerged in a disinfectant solution that can be sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide or formaldehyde gas. The mass of waste remains in the solution for some minutes and the treatment is by direct contact. 194 12. Solid waste treatment Before being deposited in the outlet container, waste passes through a drying system generating an environmentally harmful effluent that has to be neutralized. The advantages of this process are its low operational and maintenance costs and the effectiveness of the waste treatment. The disadvantages are the need for effluent neutralization and the absence of volume reduction unless the waste is ground, which would have to be a separate process. Particle filtering Bags of medical waste Air extractor HEPA filter Rotary discharge screw conveyor Grinder Nº 1 sc re w In cli ne d ½ to 2 inch grater Pulverizer Nº 1 (disinfectant) co nv ey or Mixer Grinder Nº 2 ½ to 2 inch grater (dry) Vertical screw conveyor Pulverizer Nº 2 (disinfectant) Feeder Vapour Gas washing Discharge tube Sodium hypochlorite solution Im m er sio n Horizontal screw conveyor Figure 110 - Chemical disinfection 195 13 196 Solid waste final disposal 13. Solid waste final disposal 13.1 Introduction Urban cleaning systems have to face the challenge not only of collecting solid waste from streets and buildings in ever-growing cities but also of ensuring an appropriate final destination for such waste. The latter issue deserves attention because if collection is inefficient public pressure is put on the municipality to improve service quality due to it being an exposed and visible activity, while if the final disposal of waste is carried out in an inappropriate way, few people will be directly disturbed by this and so it will not generate complaints. Consequently, as many municipalities in Latin America and the Caribbean have a limited budget, the urban cleaning system will tend to leave final disposal in the background giving priority to waste collection and street cleaning. As a result in many municipalities, particularly the smaller ones, it is common to find refuse dumps where collected waste is deposited directly on the ground without any supervision or environmental care, contaminating soil, air, the water table and neighbouring land. In addition to the sanitary and environmental problems that refuse dumps present, there are serious social problems connected with the segregators that they attract. These people make their living from the separation of recyclable material and often live in huts and shacks on the site of the dump, raising families and even forming communities. The only appropriate form of solid waste final disposal is in sanitary landfills or, provided certain conditions that will be described later are fulfilled, in controlled landfills. All the other processes that are regarded as disposal (recycling, composting and incineration plants) are in reality waste treatment processes that need a landfill for the final disposal of the remaining waste. The initiation of a sanitary landfill presents difficulties not only because it involves environmental studies, specific sanitary engineering and environmental planning and a relatively high initial investment before it is established, but also due to the natural resistance that arises in people when they know that they will be living close to a place where waste will accumulate. This rejection stems from a perception that society has of solid waste disposal sites as being inadequately set up and badly managed. It is therefore necessary to defeat this stigma through thorough studies and project planning, and with a broad awareness raising process in society that communicates the difference between sanitary landfills and dumps. At the same time, it is essential that the political will exists to allocate the necessary budgetary resources for the implementation and correct operation of the approved project. 197 13.2 Impacts of inappropriate solid waste disposal Problematic situations often encountered around the site of incorrect municipal solid waste disposal and their respective consequences are: ! proximity to bodies of water ! water contamination; ! lack of covering, or only partial covering, of waste ! vector proliferation, odours, unsightliness and landscape contamination; ! practice of burning waste ! safety risks for people, atmospheric contamination, energy wastage; ! lack of physical barriers (areas without fences) and a vegetation belt ! access for people and animals, dispersion of odours and waste particles; ! inappropriate disposal of medical waste mixed with domestic waste ! increased risk to people and of environmental contamination; ! pig raising and presence of other animals ! zoonosis and other public health risks; ! proximity to population centres, educational centres and kindergartens ! inhabitants subject to various nuisances and sanitary risks; ! segregation activities carried out by women, men, old people and children ! citizenship degradation, exposure to unhealthy conditions, health risks and accidents; ! proximity to environmentally protected areas (ecological reserves and equivalents) ! degradation of the area and environmental contamination risks. Landfills are a kind of melting pot for chemical and biological activity and reactions that produce effluents, the nature of which depends on the components of the waste, hence the previous segregation of special waste is indispensable. At the final disposal site the biological decomposition of the remains of food and other organic material contained in domestic waste generates an effluent with a high BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) that moves and incorporates other substances contained in the mass of waste. As a result this leachate is highly contaminating due to its high BOD and chemical reactions between its components (heavy metals, for example). In addition domestic solid waste anaerobic decomposition processes generate biogas, principally composed of methane, which is explosive in concentrations of 5% to 15% in the air. Biogas is not only toxic but is one of the contributory factors to the greenhouse effect. The composition of this biogas includes gases with an unpleasant smell such as hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans. Measures to avoid the negative effects that result when waste is inappropriately disposed of on the ground should include the creation of an environment less favourable for 198 13. Solid waste final disposal undesirable chemical and biological reactions. It is therefore necessary to isolate or minimize the contact between waste components that could react with each other. Finally it is necessary that effluents and gases are dealt with in an appropriate way. A solid waste final disposal project should therefore incorporate technical solutions that comply with the basic guidelines for avoiding the above mentioned environmental impacts. In a solid waste final disposal unit the soil is the principal receptor and conductor of contaminants. Nevertheless it can also serve as protection against the contamination of underground water and the environment provided that it is sufficiently deep and impermeable. Where these favourable conditions do not exist naturally, engineering resources should be used to comply with the required technical specifications and applicable regulations. The recommended method for domestic waste final disposal is the sanitary landfill. In Latin American and Caribbean countries an acceptable alternative for smaller municipalities with limited economic resources is the controlled landfill, which can be used provided that technical and environmental norms established by regulatory legal instruments are respected. 13.3 Sanitary landfill The objectives and principles of sanitary landfill construction and operation can be defined in different ways. In our opinion the most appropriate definition is the one established by the Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences Pan-American Centre (CEPIS, in Spanish), of the Pan American Health Organization, which has been incorporated in many technical norms and adopted by environmental bodies and entities. It states that: “The sanitary landfill is a technique for the final disposal of solid waste in the ground that causes no nuisance or danger to public health or safety; neither does it harm the environment during its operations or after its closure. This technique uses engineering principles to confine the waste to as small areas as possible, covering it daily with layers of earth and compacting it to reduce its volume. In addition, it anticipates the problems that could be caused by the liquids and gases produced by the decomposition of organic matter.” A sanitary landfill unit of construction is called a cell, in which each day’s solid waste (or the waste from a shorter period if the daily amount of waste is too great) is deposited in compacted sloping layers and is covered with a layer of earth that is also compacted. The cell is built against a retaining wall that can be a pre-existent natural elevation, a berm previously formed with compacted earth or other cells. Cells are constructed next to each other, each one supported by the previous one, forming a “landfill level”; the landfill can have two or more levels, depending on project requirements. 199 When determining the dimensions of a cell, some basic criteria should be taken into account: ! the width of a cell’s work face should not be greater than is necessary for the safe manoeuvring of machines and vehicles; ! the height should be between 3 and 6 metres depending on the amount of waste to be dealt with (sanitary landfill capacity); ! the advance should be calculated according to the daily volume of waste, the width of the work face and its height; ! dimensions are adjusted according to the stability and availability of the land. A sanitary landfill consists of operational and support units. Operational units ! domestic waste cells; ! medical waste cells (where the municipality does not have a more effective final disposal process for this type of waste); Figure 111 – Construction of the operational area - Embankment ! waterproofing of the bottom (obligatory) and of the top (optional); Figure 112 – Waterproofing of the operational area 200 13. Solid waste final disposal ! collection and treatment system for percolated liquid (leachate); Figure 113 – Leachate collection and treatment ! biogas collection and burning (or use) system; Figure 114 – Biogas collection and burning ! rainwater drainage and channelling system; Figure 115 – Rainwater drainage system 201 ! environmental, topographical and geotechnical monitoring systems; ! storage area for materials. Figure 116 – Storage area for materials Support units ! fence and vegetation barrier; Figure 117 – Vegetation barrier ! access and service roads; Figure 118 – Preparation of an internal service road 202 13. Solid waste final disposal ! weighbridge for trucks and waste checkpoint; Figure 119 – Weighbridge for weighing loads ! entrance checkpoint and administrative offices; ! mechanical and tyre workshops. Figure 120 – Support units The sanitary landfill pre-operational process consists of the selection of the site, obtaining the necessary licenses, formulating the project master plan and installation. 13.3.1 Sanitary landfill site selection The selection of the sanitary landfill site is a complex task. The intense urbanization and land use in cities limits the availability of sites that are both close to where waste is generated and large enough for the installation of a sanitary landfill that will meet the needs of the municipality. Many other factors have to be taken into account such as the technical requirements of the norms and guidelines issued by relevant public bodies, juridical aspects, 203 governmental requirements, the governing plan of the corresponding municipality, local and regional development centres, the distance over which waste will have to be transported, access roads and political and social aspects involved in the approval of the project by politicians, the media and the community. Economic and financial factors must be a major consideration as municipal resources always have to be used in a balanced way. Requirements for the appropriate establishment of a sanitary landfill are therefore very rigorous and it is necessary to carefully define an order of priorities. The selection strategy for a new sanitary landfill site consists of the following steps: ! preliminary identification of land available in the municipality; ! determination of all selection criteria; ! definition of the selection criteria order of priority; ! a critical analysis of each potential site in relation to the prioritized criteria, so that the site that most complies with the required conditions in terms of its natural land characteristics is selected. Applying this strategy minimizes the corrective measures that have to be taken to adapt the land to technical requirements and thus reduces the need for initial investment. PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION OF AVAILABLE SITES The preliminary identification of available sites in the municipality should be carried out as follows: ! preliminary calculation of the total area needed for the sanitary landfill; To make an approximate calculation of the minimum total area necessary for the installation of a sanitary landfill, in square metres, some experts multiply the quantity of waste collected daily, in tons, by the factor 560. This factor is based on the following landfill project parameters: Useful life = 20 years; landfill height = 20 m; slopes of 1:3 (vertical : horizontal) and an 80% operational occupation of the land. However the operational usage as a percentage of the total area will depend on the particular conditions of each site (topography, hydrology and geometric shape, for example). 204 13. Solid waste final disposal ! perimeter delimitation of rural and industrial zones and conservation areas existing in the municipality; ! survey of the available sites within the delimited perimeters, where there are no zoning or land use restrictions and sites have dimensions compatible with the preliminary calculation, giving priority to land owned by the municipality; ! determination of ownership of surveyed sites; ! study of documents relating to the sites, excluding those where the documentation is not in order. It is very important that the legal situation in relation to the ownership of a site is in order to avoid potential problems for the municipality and delays in the licensing process. SELECTION CRITERIA The criteria are divided into three groups: technical and legal, economic-financial, and socio-political. Technical and legal criteria The selection of a sanitary landfill site for domestic solid waste final disposal should fulfil the technical criteria imposed by technical norms and regulations stipulated by the different levels of authority in each country. All the conditions and restrictions commonly stipulated by technical norms and relevant regulations are listed in table 17. It should be noted however that specific aspects of legislation in any particular country may vary from the concepts and dimensions described here, which in such cases should be appropriately modified. Table 17 Technical and legal criteria Criteria Observations The site should be outside the limits of any environmental Land use conservation areas and in a zone where designated land use is compatible with the operation of a sanitary landfill. Distance to bodies of water The site should be not less than 200 metres from major bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, lagoons and oceans and should be not less than 50 metres from any other body of water. 205 Table 17 (cont.) Criteria Observations Distance to urban The site should be not less than 300 metres from urban residential centres residential centres with 200 or more inhabitants. Distance to airports The site should not be located in the proximity of airports or aerodromes and should comply with current legislation in this respect. The minimum distances recommended are the following: ! in a sanitary landfill with plastic membrane waterproofed bottom, the distance between the water table and the membrane should not be less than 1.5 metres; Water table depth ! in a smaller landfill the bottom of which is waterproofed by a layer of compacted clay with a permeability coefficient of less than 10-6cm/s, the distance between the water table and the waterproofing layer should not be less than 3 metres. Minimum It is recommended that the site is compatible with a useful useful life life for the new sanitary landfill of at least 8 years. It is recommendable that the soil of the selected site has Natural soil impermeability good natural impermeability in order to reduce the possibility of aquifer contamination. The soil of the selected site should be clayey. Topography favourable to The rainwater drainage basin should be small in order drainage landfill. to avoid significant amounts of rainwater entering the Roads leading to the site should not have pronounced Easy access for inclines or curves and should be well surfaced in order to heavy vehicles minimize wear and tear on collection vehicles and enable them to have easy access even at times of intense rain. Availability of It is preferable that the site has, or is close to, deposits material for covering of material appropriate for covering, in order to keep the cost of waste covering low. The length of a sanitary landfill’s useful life is very important as it is increasingly difficult to find new sites close to the collection area that are suitable for receiving the volume of urban waste generated in the municipality. This is largely due to the natural rejection of residents to having this type of waste final disposal unit close to where they live. 206 13. Solid waste final disposal Economic and financial criteria Table 18 Economic and financial criteria Criteria Observations The distance that collection vehicles have to cover on existing Proximity to roads and streets between the collection area and the sanitary collection area landfill should be as short as possible in order to minimize wear and tear on trucks and waste transport costs. If the land is not owned by the municipality, and therefore Land purchase costs has to be purchased, it is preferable that it is located in a rural area where purchase prices are lower than in other areas where the landfill could be sited (industrial areas for example). Construction and infrastructure investment costs It is important that the selected site has access to service infrastructures in order to limit expenditure on water provision, collection and treatment of local effluents, rain water drainage, electricity supply, and communications facilities. Drainage system maintenance costs The selected site should have a gentle incline to avoid soil erosion and limit expenditure on cleaning and maintaining drainage system components. Political and social criteria Table 19 Political and social criteria Criteria Observations The passage of vehicles transporting waste along residential Access to the site through low streets constitutes an inconvenience for the inhabitants of demographic density areas routes to the sanitary landfill pass through areas of low those streets and it is therefore recommended that truck demographic density and preferably on roads designed to handle heavy vehicles. It is recommended that a site is not chosen if there have been previous problems between the municipality and the Local community acceptance local community, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or the media in the area as any past disharmony with the public authorities is likely to cause negative reactions to the proposed landfill. 207 SELECTION CRITERIA ORDER OF PRIORITY Table 20 shows a suggestion for the selection criteria order of priority in choosing a sanitary landfill site. Table 20 Criteria hierarchy Criteria Priority Compatibility with environmental legislation 1 Compatibility with political and social conditions 2 Compatibility with the main economic conditions 3 Compatibility with the main technical conditions 4 Compatibility with other economic conditions 5 Compatibility with other technical conditions 6 In order to determine which is the best site for the sanitary landfill, each candidate site should be the subject of an exhaustive analysis in regard to each of the established criteria. For each criterion the analysis should allocate one of the following categories and provide reasons for doing so: “total compatibility”, “partial compatibility, or total with work” or “no compatibility”. Both the priorities and the compatibility with the defined criteria are given a relative weight, as shown in table 21. Table 21 Weight given to criteria and compatibility 208 Priority of criteria Weight 1 10 2 6 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 1 Compatibility Weight Total 100 % Partial or total with work 50 % No compatibility 0% 13. Solid waste final disposal SELECTION OF THE BEST SITE Analysis of candidate sites in relation to the established criteria The site chosen for the sanitary landfill should be the one that is compatible with the highest number of criteria, taking into account the relative priority of each one. When the natural attributes of the selected site are not totally compatible with a certain criterion, its deficiencies should be remedied by the application of modern engineering solutions. As an example we present the case of a municipality that has to determine which is the best site amongst three pre-selected candidate sites, the characteristics of which are shown in table 22. The site with more points will be considered the best. Table 22 Site characteristics Criteria Priority Compatibility Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Distance from bodies of water 1 T T T Distance from residential centres 1 T T P Distance from airports 1 T T T Water table depth 1 P P T Access through low demographic density areas 2 P P P Acceptance by local community 2 N P T Land purchase costs 3 P P T Existence of infrastructure 3 T T P Minimum useful life 4 P T T Land use 4 T T T Natural impermeability of soil 4 P P P Favourable topography for drainage 4 P P T Easy access for heavy vehicles 4 T P P Coverage material availability 4 N P T Drainage system maintenance 5 P P T Proximity to collection centre 6 T P P Note: T = Total compatibility; P = Partial compatibility; N = No compatibility. 209 After the weighting process is applied, in accordance with table 21, the candidate sites have the following points: Table 23 Points for each site Criteria Priority weight Compatibility weight Points for each site Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Distance from bodies of water 10 100% 100% 100% 10.0 10.0 10.0 Distance from residential centres 10 100% 100% 50% 10.0 10.0 5.0 Distance from airports 10 100% 100% 100% 10.0 10.0 10.0 Water table depth 10 50% 50% 100% 5.0 5.0 10.0 Access through low demographic density areas 6 50% 50% 50% 3.0 3.0 3.0 Acceptance by local community 6 0% 50% 100% 0.0 3.0 6.0 Land purchase costs 4 50% 50% 100% 2.0 2.0 4.0 Existence of infrastructure 4 100% 100% 50% 4.0 4.0 2.0 Minimum useful life 3 50% 100% 100% 1.5 3.0 3.0 Land use 3 100% 100% 100% 3.0 3.0 3.0 Natural impermeability of soil 3 50% 50% 50% 1.5 1.5 1.5 Favourable topography for drainage 3 50% 50% 100% 1.5 1.5 3.0 Easy access for heavy vehicles 3 100% 50% 50% 3.0 1.5 1.5 Coverage material availability 3 0% 50% 100% 0.0 1.5 3.0 Drainage system maintenance 2 50% 50% 100% 1.0 1.0 2.0 Proximity to collection centre 1 100% 50% 50% 1.0 0.5 0.5 56.5 60.5 67.5 Points total As can be seen, site 3, in spite of being located relatively close to a residential centre, is the one that overall has the most advantages. 210 13. Solid waste final disposal After choosing the sanitary landfill site the municipality should not immediately proceed with the purchase or compulsory purchase of the land as the project first needs approval from the relevant environmental body, through a licensing process that is based on deeper environmental studies. 13.3.2 Environmental licenses The procedures for obtaining the necessary licenses for a sanitary landfill site depend on formal processes and relevant legislation in each country. The basic actions to take and process stages are presented here: STAGE I Approval of the land for landfill use The objective of this stage of the environmental license application process is to evaluate the selected site to determine whether it is appropriate for use as a landfill, in comparison with other alternative sites. The process begins with the presentation of a formal request by the applicant (the municipality or private company, for example) to the relevant environmental body. This document should be accompanied by general information about the site and the conceptual basis of the sanitary landfill project. Once the request is received, the environmental control body prepares technical instructions (or terms of reference) in which the relevant aspects to be evaluated in an Environmental Impact Study (EIS) are defined. The preliminary plan for the sanitary landfill should be ready before this study is carried out. EIS is a technical study, undertaken by specialized companies, with the objective of determining the positive and negative aspects of the project in regard to the physical (climate, geology, hydrology, pedology, etc.), biotic (flora and fauna) and anthropic (related to human activities) environment. It also establishes measures that can be taken to avoid or diminish identified negative impacts. As these studies are highly specialized, with complex methodologies and technical terminology, a second report has to be prepared that presents a summary of the principal finding of the EIS in a language that is accessible for the general public. Thus society in general can form an opinion on the subject and participate democratically in the licensing process. It is important to note that environmental studies should be carried out with the cooperation of technical teams from both the municipality and the environmental control body, so that the methodology, technical guidelines and conclusions are, as far as is possible, compatible with the policies of these entities. 211 Once completed, the studies should be immediately sent to the environmental control body, which will analyze them and issue a technical opinion. After this opinion is presented the community can be called to participate in public hearings on the approval process, where this is the policy of the environmental control body. In the specific case of a new sanitary landfill it is always advisable to hold such public consultations. EIS presentation at a public hearing should be accompanied by all available audio-visual aids as the participating public will mostly be lay people who will better be able to understand proposed solutions if they can see visual images of them. Once the environmental impact study is approved, together with the pertinent palliative measures, and after the necessary environmental impact compensatory measures are established, the environmental control body will grant the authorization document that licenses the selected site for the installation of a sanitary landfill. It should be noted however that this license does not authorize the immediate commencement of works, as first several complementary procedures have to be carried out by the applicant. STAGE II Authorization to commence sanitary landfill installation works In the initial stage of the licensing process, and on the basis of the environmental impact study, the environmental control body determines the conditions and restrictions that the applicant has to comply with in order to obtain an environmental license to commence sanitary landfill installation works. The detailed engineering plan (master plan) should therefore take into account those requirements and incorporate the concepts contained in the environmental impact control and minimization plans recommended in the environmental assessment. The compilation of field data must be completed in this stage, including detailed topographical surveys and new geotechnical probes and tests. Detailed plans that deal with environmental issues should also be completed, as should plans for layouts, rainwater drainage, the collection and treatment of leachate, the collection and burning of biogas, access and service roads, support unit buildings and landscaping. The master plan should also include a detailed operational plan covering the operation of the sanitary landfill, geotechnical and topographical monitoring, environmental monitoring, weighbridge operation (if there is one) and machine, vehicle and equipment maintenance. Finally detailed plans for foundations, superstructures, water and sanitation, electricity supply, telephones, etc. are required. Once completed, these plans should be submitted to the environmental control body that will ascertain whether the requirements and conditions established when granting 212 13. Solid waste final disposal the stage I license have been met. If they have, the environmental body will issue the license that authorizes commencement of sanitary landfill installation works. STAGE III Authorization for commencement of sanitary landfill operation Once the environmental license authorizing the commencement of works is obtained, the master plan begins to be put into practice, that is, earth works, excavation, drainage, access road construction, etc. is carried out. In this phase the applicant has to take into account that works should be carried out in a way that rigorously respects not only the engineering plan but also control plans and programs resulting from the environmental impact study that conditioned the approval of the project by the environmental control body. Consequently, paying attention to the circulation of vehicles and machines during the work, the regulation of the internal combustion engines and the dispersion of suspended particles in the work area, amongst other aspects, should be part of the daily routine of engineers, overseers and all professionals involved. Fulfilling the relevant environmental requirements and installing systems and devices in accordance with the project plans are essential for obtaining the environmental license that will authorize the operation of the sanitary landfill. Therefore, in addition to covering the work itself, planning should include an efficient and responsible environmental management strategy. 13.3.3 Master plan The sanitary landfill master plan should maximize the useful life of the available area, fully utilizing the natural characteristics of the land, minimizing installation costs and ensuring appropriate environmental monitoring and safeguards. In general it takes from 90 to 120 days to formulate a sanitary landfill master plan, which has to rigorously comply with technical norms and environmental legislation. The master plan should include the following documents: ! planialtimetric plan for the landfill in an appropriate scale, with contour lines representing each metre, and showing the location of accesses, plateaus, constructions and other significant features; ! geotechnical research and test results; ! water quality analysis results for surrounding bodies of water and the water table; 213 ! access and service roads plan, including layout, earth works, surfacing and drainage; ! construction plans, including the calculations for foundations and structures, architectural design, landscaping and structures related to water and electricity provision, communications, security and others; ! external network plans for water, sewerage, electricity and rainwater drainage systems; ! layout plan for terraces, embankments and the final configuration of the sanitary landfill and plans for each annual filling stage with cross sections; ! plans for the collection and treatment of leachate, including bottom and top waterproofing layers (where applicable), bottom drainage network, pumping network and treatment plant; ! superficial drainage plans for the landfill, including the slope of the platforms both for the landfill’s intermediate stages and for the final stage, drainage of the definitive berms, water drain pipes and discharge structures; ! delimitation plans of sanitary landfill plots; ! biogas collection and burning system plans, showing cross-sections and details; ! environmental monitoring plan, including water table monitoring wells; ! landfill operational manual covering the routine activities of solid waste disposal, including leachate treatment plant operations and rainwater drainage network maintenance; ! a record of the calculations made for landfill and construction stability studies, construction structures, superficial and deep water drainage networks, electricity and water installations, the biogas collection and burning network and quantification of machine, vehicle and labour requirements for landfill operation and maintenance; ! technical specifications of all equipment, services and materials involved in the work; ! sanitary landfill closure plan, including post-closure environmental monitoring plan. Once the master plan has been approved, it is essential that it is presented to the community using simple and direct language and the best audiovisual aids, informing citizens about the nature of a sanitary landfill, the contamination control measures that will be taken, the benefits of appropriate solid waste disposal and the compensatory measures applicable to residents of the area. Such an approach will help to avoid problems during the installation and operation of the sanitary landfill. 214 13. Solid waste final disposal 13.3.4 Landfill installation When the master plan has been approved and authorization for installation has been obtained, work on the landfill can begin with fencing, land clearing and constructing the foundations for a weighbridge (where applicable). Works should always comply with technical specifications and all the other conditions set out in the master plan, as well as with the requirements of technical norms, government bodies that establish employment and work safety policies, environmental control bodies, environmental legislation and norms and directives issued by public service concessionaires (water, electricity, telephone, fire control and others). In medium-sized and large landfills the sequence of construction is in general as follows: SITE FENCING Site fencing is necessary to discourage the entrance of non-authorized people and animals such as dogs, horses, cows or pigs. An approximately two metre high fence is recommended made of concrete or wood posts and galvanized wire with small spaces in the lower part so that small animals cannot enter. A barrier of vegetation should be planted along the wire fence with a minimum width of 15 metres. The objectives of this are to block the line of sight to the operational area, contain airborne particles and help to reduce the dissemination of characteristic waste odours. INITIAL LAND CLEARING WORKS This includes the removal of natural vegetation (clearing and stump removal) by cutting trees, grass, bushes etc. and scrapping off the vegetation layer on operational areas such as the landfill area that will receive domestic and public waste and the effluent treatment plant area, wherever possible preserving landscape composition elements even if this does not appear in the plans. 215 EARTH WORKS Earth works should rigorously respect the plans for them and excess material from cuts should be stored in an appropriate place to be used in the future as cover material for landfill cells. Layers that need to be compacted should be dampened until “ideal humidity” is achieved. Earth works finish with the organization of the storage area for materials, which should ideally be located close to the landfill operational area. ACCESS AND SERVICE ROAD WORKS Sanitary landfill access roads are categorized as external or internal and permanent or temporary. As has been previously explained, special attention has to be paid to the surfacing of external access roads and their capacity to support heavy vehicles right from the stage when alternative sanitary landfill sites are being evaluated. These roads have to be easily passable in all seasons of the year and must have appropriate surfacing and road signs so that they are safe for the heavy vehicles that will use them and for the local residents. Road maintenance should be a priority in planning for the entire projected operational life of the sanitary landfill in order to ensure the regular flow of collection vehicles to the landfill and, therefore, sound sanitary and environmental conditions. Internal access and service roads should be built with a primary surface of gravel or selected rubble. They should have a uniform incline towards one side to direct rainwater to a drainage system that runs along the side of the road. In smaller landfills internal roads can have different types of surface: brick dust, gravel, construction rubble or quarry products. The recommended thickness for a landfill’s internal road surfaces is from 30 to 50cm, compacted in layers of 15 to 25cm, depending on the volume of traffic and therefore the landfill’s size. WATERPROOFING WORKS A 3m layer of clayey soil (k<10-7cm/s) between the bottom of the landfill and the top of the water table provides an excellent protection against the contamination of underground water. As a naturally occurring formation of this type is quite rare, a technical solution that may be applied is the use of geo-membrane (plastic membrane) lining to waterproof the bottom of the sanitary landfill. 216 13. Solid waste final disposal The bottom of the domestic waste sanitary landfill should be waterproofed immediately after removing the superficial layer of soil from the operational area and this work consists basically of laying the high density polyethylene (HDPE) membrane on the compacted clayey soil. Once this geo-membrane is installed, it is covered with a layer of earth to protect it against perforation and cutting by materials contained in the waste. Once the waterproofing work is completed the network of leachate collection pipes should be laid. The passing of the leachate collection pipes through the plastic membrane is done by means of a special union already incorporated in the membrane that is soldered to the body of the tube. The soldering of the membrane sections should be done by a specialized team and it is recommended that the supplier provides this service. In some cases, such as smaller sanitary landfills or where soil conditions are relatively favourable and underground bodies of water are deep, the bottom of the landfill can be waterproofed with an at least 80cm thick layer of compacted clay with a permeability coefficient of less than 10-6cm/s. The viability of this solution should be verified by specific technical studies carried out by the project management and its approval depends on compliance with the relevant environmental body’s regulations and norms. DRAINAGE WORKS “Water does not enter a landfill plot from outside or come out from inside of it without being controlled.” This principle requires the installation of three drainage systems for liquids: Peripheral interception drainage that stops rainwater entering the landfill and contaminated water exiting it; Landfill bottom drainage leading effluent and contaminated water to the treatment unit; Superficial drainage installed during the operational stage minimizes rainwater infiltration and consequently reduces the flushing of contaminants, the quantity of effluent and the anaerobic reaction in the mass of buried waste. Access roads (permanent or temporary) have their own drainage systems that also serve service roads. Whenever possible rainwater drainage should be through ditches lined with cement soil, grass, etc. to avoid the use of buried pipes. The collection of percolated leachate should be done through pipes laid on the waterproofing layer at the bottom 217 of the landfill in a zigzag pattern, with secondary pipes that conduct the collected leachate into the main pipe. The liquid flows to a storage pit from where it is pumped to a treatment plant, see figure 121. These pipes should be bedded on gravel or crushed stone (blind drainage) and covered by large grain, and then medium grain sand in order to avoid the silting of the pipes by solids suspended in substantial quantity in the leachate. Geo-textile membranes can be used instead of the layers of sand. This system is the most frequently used for a sanitary landfill’s secondary drainage lines. A more effective alternative is to install a Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) or HDPE perforated tube in the gravel bed. The whole, formed by the pipe and the gravel, should be wrapped in geo-textile membrane to avoid silting. This is used for the sanitary landfill’s principal percolated liquid drainage lines. See enlargement PVC pipe Effluent treatment unit (ETU) Secondary drainage pipe Pumping unit Collection pit 1.5m 30m PLOT 1 60m PLOT 1 PLOT 2 PLOT 2 Secondary drainage pipe Principal drainage pipe L Pumping unit PVC pipe LANDFILL Bidim ® Principal drainage pipe Collection pit To ETU LANDFILL Percolated liquid minimum level Sumergible pump HDPE membrane Figure 121 - Leachate drainage system 218 PVC pipe Clay protection layer 13. Solid waste final disposal The following figure shows cross sections of these two types of underground pipe. Figure 122 - Types of underground leachate drainage pipe INSTALLATION OF EFFLUENT TREATMENT SYSTEM The determination of the best leachate treatment system and its dimensions for a particular landfill requires a previous study of the characteristics of the actual effluent generated in the sanitary landfill. This circumstance does not prevent, but on the contrary requires, the inclusion in the sanitary landfill project of an initial treatment facility (for at least primary treatment) and a final monitoring lagoon before discharge into the receptor body. The effluent treatment process can be biological, physico-chemical, physical, thermal or a mixture of these (combined processes). A low cost process that can be used is the recirculation of the effluent through the mass of buried waste, the decomposition of which tends to intensify with the addition of micro organisms contained in the effluent. At the same time the mass of waste functions as a filter, reducing the contaminating potential of the re-circulated effluent. Another advantage is the reduced volume of effluent to be treated due to evaporation by sun and wind. This stage of effluent treatment system works should therefore include at least the installation of a leachate recirculation system, storage pit and primary treatment plant. 219 Figure 123 – Leachate treatment lagoon CONSTRUCTIONS WORKS Construction works include the foundations and superstructure of support buildings and the treatment plant. Before works commence it is very important to check the location of these buildings again as this is the last opportunity to modify plans, adapting them to some condition of the site that may have been overlooked during the formulation of the master plan. As in all works of a certain size, adjustments often have to be made due to difficulties that arise on site, for example modifications in the route of internal roads may be necessary where they are incompatible with the location of support units. Any modification or adjustment of the plan should ideally be made by the planning company, or at least it should be consulted, because it holds all the information and technical specifications covering the overall context of the work. It is recommended that the planner is on site during construction work. ELECTRO-MECHANICAL INSTALLATIONS The assembly of the weighbridge should meticulously follow the manufacturer’s instructions and the weighing platform should be perfectly level. Once installed the weighbridge should be officially calibrated in the presence of the supervision team. It is obligatory that a weighbridge is mounted on pillars so that the weighing platform does not settle and therefore remains level. 220 13. Solid waste final disposal DIGGING OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING WELLS At least three monitoring wells should be dug, one upstream and two downstream from the sanitary landfill operational area, incorporating the elements shown in figures 124 and 125. Surface water should also be monitored at different points along any nearby body of water upstream and downstream from the sanitary landfill area of influence. Flow of underground water Landfill Watercourse Operational area Monitoring well Surface water sample collection points Figure 124 - Location of environmental monitoring wells Protecting structure Thread cap Cover Internal lining (Ø 4” rigid PVC pipe) Padlock Sanitary Protection slab protection Sanitary seal Ø Hole 8” Ø Pipe 4” Filling (impermeable material: clay, excavated earth) Cement seal WT (Water Table) Pre-filter (washed sand or quartz gravel) 5.00 Fixed cap (pressure or thread) Perforated or grooved pipe Impermeable layer Figure 125 - Outline cross-section of a monitoring well 221 COMPLEMENTARY WORKS Finishing works on the landfill site, including landscaping and general cleaning work. Depending on the location of the landfill, the acquisition of materials and machines can present difficulties. Construction materials should be bought from traditional market suppliers that are if possible located close to the site. Arrangements should be made so that machines and vehicles necessary for particular tasks arrive on the site in accordance with the work schedule. 13.3.5 Sanitary landfill operation Once the installation work is finished and the operational authorization has been obtained, the sanitary landfill can begin receiving loads of waste in accordance with the pre-established operational plan. The operational plan should be simple and cover all the routine activities carried out at a sanitary landfill while at the same time making provisions for their safety. The basic activities carried out at a sanitary landfill are listed below: WASTE RECEPTION CHECKING On entering the landfill site the collection vehicle goes directly to the weighbridge where it is weighed and all the information relating to its load is registered. If there is no weighbridge, the vehicle goes to the entry checkpoint where the responsible person writes down data identifying the truck and its load, including an estimate of its weight (or volume). The vehicle then goes to the operational area to unload the waste it is carrying. LANDFILL OPERATIONS When the construction method for a landfill is being determined, three main factors have to be taken into account: 222 ! topography; ! soil type; ! water table depth. 13. Solid waste final disposal In general there are three possible methods of construction and the choice depends on the concept behind the particular sanitary landfill project and, in the last analysis, the site conditions. The construction methods are: Trench or ditch method – this is the most appropriate technique for land that is flat or has only a slight incline and where the water table is relatively deep. Figure 126 – Trench method Ramp method – this is appropriate where the landfill site is flat, dry and with a type of soil suitable for use as waste covering material. A natural embankment against which cells can lean inspires the name of this construction method. Figure 127 – Ramp method Area method – this is the most appropriate technique for a completely flat site and begins with a berm (artificial embankment) of clayey soil against which the first cells of waste lean. Subsequently procedures are the same as for the ramp method. 223 BERM RUBBISH 1st Cell 2nd Cell Figure 128 – Area method Solid waste disposal processes are almost identical in the three methods. The basic rules of operation for a sanitary landfill are: ! the distribution and compaction of waste should be done if possible from the bottom to the top to achieve better results; ! to obtain good compaction the waste should be distributed in not very thick layers and a bulldozer should pass over the mass of waste of each layer three to six times; ! the height of the cell should be between four and six metres to provide optimum decomposition conditions for the buried waste; ! the usual incline of operational slopes is one metre of base for each metre of height in an active cell and three metres of base for each metre of height in a finished cell; ! the ideal thickness of the coverage soil layer is between 20cm and 30cm for the daily covering of waste; ! the final layer of covering material should be at least 50cm thick; ! the cell should be as narrow as possible but wide enough to allow the simultaneous unloading of a certain number of trucks depending on the sanitary landfill’s capacity (or the demands of collection) so that queues do not form and collection is not delayed. The procedures to be followed for each cell in each of the operational plots of the sanitary landfill, on each of the levels (superimposed layers) are: ! prepare the work face, including a truck manoeuvring area with primary surfacing that is big enough for trucks to unload their waste and make the necessary turning manoeuvres to return; ! with a provisional 20cm thick layer of soil cover the top of the cell, with an incline of 2% towards the edges, and the internal slopes; ! 224 cover the external slopes with the definitive 50cm thick layer of clay; 13. Solid waste final disposal ! some days before completing cell 1, prepare the work face for unloading waste into cell 2 in the same way as for cell 1; ! as cell 1 is being filled the gas venting system should be progressively built into it; ! repeat the operations for filling each cell and preparing the next one until plot 1 is entirely filled; ! repeat the same operations to fill plots 2, 3 and so on until the lower level is completed; ! fill cell 1 of the upper level following the same operational sequence used on the lower level; ! when burying the cells of the last level, make the final coverage of the completed cells with a layer of 50cm thick compacted clay, with an incline of 2% towards the edges; ! repeat the sequence of operations until all plots on all levels are completely filled. EFFLUENT TREATMENT The main characteristic of sanitary landfill effluent is its changing composition over time, due to progressive exhaustion of the biodegradable organic matter. Consequently, the high contaminating potential of “new leachate” gradually reduces over a period of ten years to a point when it does not need treatment. Table 24 shows the range of parameter variation for some sanitary landfill percolated liquids in Brazil and is presented here as an example of the difficulties involved in a definitive pre-establishment of the type of effluent that will be produced in a particular sanitary landfill. These difficulties arise because the type of effluent produced depends on the particular characteristics of the waste (determined by its component substances) deposited in the landfill and on a series of specific factors that influence the decomposition process in the mass of organic waste. Table 24 Range of leachate composition variation Parameters pH (un.) Range of variation Minimum Maximum 5.9 8.7 15.0 3,140.0 Nitrate Nitrogen 0.0 5.5 Nitrite Nitrogen 0.0 0.1 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 6.0 2,900.0 966.0 28,000.0 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen COD 225 Table 24 (cont.) Parameters Range of variation Minimum Maximum 480.0 19,800.0 50.0 11,000.0 Sulfates 0.0 1,800.0 Total Phosphorus 3.7 14.3 Copper 0.0 1.2 Lead 0,0 2.3 Iron 0.2 6,000.0 Manganese 0.1 26.0 Zinc 0.1 35.6 Cadmium 0.0 0.2 Total Chromo 0.0 3.9 Faecal Coliform (un.) 49.0 4.9 x 107 Total Coliform (un.) 230.0 1.7 x 108 BOD5 Chlorides Source: Data compilation, COMLURB (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), 1993. Note: all values are in mg/l, except where another unit is indicated. The volume of percolated liquid produced by a sanitary landfill registers seasonal variations depending on climatic conditions in the region and the local drainage system. It is influenced by temperature, rainfall quantity, evapotranspiration, the nature of the cell coverage material and in particular its permeability, the vegetation cover on the sanitary landfill area, and many other factors. A way of calculating the potential flow of effluent from a new sanitary landfill is by direct correlation with percolate generation data obtained from measurements in similar but already operating landfills located in regions with similar climatic conditions. However distortions may occur. Another procedure is the “Swiss method” that calculates the flow of sanitary landfill percolated liquid by means of an equation involving the dimensions of the operational area, the annual rainfall and a factor determined by characteristics of the land. Another more complex procedure calculates the production of sanitary landfill percolated liquids through the water balance. Stabilization lagoons One of the most frequently used forms of treatment involves lagoons into which leachate effluent is discharged after passing through a grate or a mechanical sieve and 226 13. Solid waste final disposal remaining for at least 24 hours in an equalization tank to homogenize its composition as much as possible. The following figure presents an outline of a typical leachate treatment system employing aerobic lagoons. Percolate drainage Equalization tank Grates Sanitary landfill First aerobic lagoon Overflow outlet Second aerobic lagoon Finishing lagoon Receptor body Figure 129 - Treatment in aerobic lagoons It is recommended that a superficial aeration device is installed in the equalization tank to improve the homogenization of the liquid mass and the aerobic condition of the effluent to be treated. In general aerobic stabilization lagoons have the following basic characteristics: ! form – truncated pyramidal; ! depth – 1.5 metres; ! retention time – 25 days minimum. Entry to the lagoons should be through a two pipe system to improve the flow of effluent in the lagoon avoiding dead zones and short cuts. The height of the effluent overflow outlet should be adjustable to ensure that leachate remains inside the lagoons for the minimum required time irrespective of the flow volume. This series of lagoons ends with a smaller one where the effluent receives a finishing treatment. This lagoon is also aerobic and has the same physical characteristics as the previous ones but only retains the effluent for seven days. Lagoon borders should be treated so that no vegetation grows in the air-effluent intermediate zone, as such vegetation could harbour mosquitoes and other vectors. In addition, sludge should be periodically removed so that the effectiveness of the treatment is not impaired. 227 This removed sludge should be put to dry in a drying bed and then deposited in the sanitary landfill, while the liquid can be directly discharged into the receptor body. In determining the type of treatment to use the more correct procedure is a laboratory study of the effluent’s characteristics. It is not advisable to use only documented data to calculate the necessary dimensions of a treatment unit. Effluent flow measurement should be carried out at a minimum of two points on the treatment system: ! immediately after the storage pit or immediately before the equalization tank ! immediately before the point of discharge into the receptor body Gross effluent and treated effluent should be periodically monitored. Recirculation Another commonly used treatment of sanitary landfill percolated effluent is its recirculation through the mass of waste using sprinklers, tank trucks or infiltration beds. In this process the effluent gradually looses its toxicity (basically its organic content) due to airing and the biological action of micro organisms present in the mass of waste. In addition part of the re-circulated effluent evaporates and to encourage this sprinkler nozzles should be adjusted to produce a fine spray, thus increasing the rate of evaporation. Evaporation is an important factor in leachate recirculation and it functions better in regions with a negative water balance, that is, regions where the rate of evaporation is higher than that of rainfall. It can also be used in other regions during dry seasons as an auxiliary procedure complementary to the principal method being used. Another important aspect to consider is that the leachate storage pit should have enough capacity to store a sufficient amount of liquid for the recirculation pump not to have to be used at very short intervals. Ideally the pit should be designed to hold one complete day’s production of leachate during the rainy season, thus making it possible for recirculation to take place only once a day and preferably during the eight hour period that the operator is present at the sanitary landfill. The disadvantages of this process stem from its high electricity consumption together with its dependence on a constant supply of electricity and the functioning of the pump. If the electricity supply or the recirculation pump fail, gross effluent will inevitably drain into some body of water producing environmental damage. 228 13. Solid waste final disposal Ideally recirculation should serve as a complementary procedure to one of the conventional effluent treatment processes, such as stabilization lagoons or an activated sludge system. The following figure shows a recirculation system using infiltration beds. Suction pit overflow Drainage valley Service roads Submergible pump Ditch for percolated liquid Recirculation area Pumping pipe PVC Ø 02” Perforated PVC pipes Ø ½” Landfill Suction pit Landfill Nº 2 gravel beds Ditch for percolated liquid Figure 130 - Infiltration bed recirculation Activated sludge Other processes that can be used in the treatment of sanitary landfill percolated liquids are the activated sludge system and evaporation. In the activated sludge system effluent passes through a preliminary treatment generally in the form of a chamber with bars after which it is directed to a primary settling tank where solids settle. It then goes to an aeration tank where aerators, usually on the surface, inject air into the liquid mass allowing the aerobic bacteria to stabilize the organic matter, which generates a secondary sludge that remains in suspension. The effluent from the aeration tank passes to a secondary settling tank where the previously generated sludge precipitates. A part of that sludge then returns to the aeration tank while the settled sludge is put together with the sludge from the primary settling tank and goes to a drying bed. The dried sludge is taken back to the landfill for disposal. From the secondary settling tank the liquid part goes to a finishing lagoon similar to the one at the end of the aerobic lagoons process, from where it is discharged into the receptor body. 229 Primary settling tank Aerators Preliminary treatment Aeration tank Secondary settling tank Finishing lagoon Receptor body Flow measurement Figure 131 - Activated sludge Evaporation In the evaporation process effluent is sent to a metal tank, the evaporator, where it is heated to a temperature of 80ºC to 90ºC causing part of the liquid to evaporate and consequently the effluent to become more concentrated. The hot vapour leaving the evaporator passes through a filter that retains humidity and then goes to a final heating chamber from where it is discharged, dry, into the atmosphere. The sludge, now more dense with 30% of it being solid material, comes out through the lower part of the evaporator and is disposed of in the landfill. The great advantage of this process is its low operational cost as the fuel used to evaporate the effluent is biogas from the sanitary landfill itself. Treated air outlet Burner T= 80ºC to 90ºC Percolated liquid inlet Evaporator Temperature of departing air 750ºC to 900ºC Biogas inlet Concentrated sludge Sludge outlet Thermal lining Chimney Humidity filter Sludge pump Average concentration 30% solid Supporting base Figure 132 - Leachate evaporator 230 Biogas inlet Combustion air 13. Solid waste final disposal Whatever treatment option is selected, treated effluent should meet all discharge standards established by the environmental control body. RAINWATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM The rainwater drainage system should be kept clean and free of obstructions, particularly underground conduits. As the sanitary landfill is constructed with solid waste, comprising mostly organic matter, the decomposition process that gradually takes place in the mass provokes frequent settlings of the surface. It is important to constantly make adjustments to the system accommodating to these movements in the mass of the landfill, at its edges, and on the slopes, in order to promptly correct potentially damaging effects on the rainwater drainage devices. GAS VENTING The gas venting system comprises vertical wells surrounded by gravel or gross ground stone, located at a distance of 50m to 60m from each other. There are two methods for installing a gas drainage system: extending the pipe as the landfill evolves (recommended) or excavating the completed cell to install the pipe. In both cases the pipe should be high enough to serve as a guide for its further extension when work begins on the next level up. Once the well is installed, the ground around it should be covered over a radius of approximately two metres with a 50cm thick layer of clay to avoid the dispersion of gas into the atmosphere. A burner should be installed in the mouth of the well. The gas venting system should be constantly monitored so that burners are always alight. Figure 133 - Installation of gas drainage wells 231 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING The monitoring of water in the area surrounding the sanitary landfill should begin before the commencement of its operational phase with the collection and analysis of samples from nearby bodies of water and the water table. The quality of these samples is evaluated so that they can be compared with future samples. The second phase of environmental monitoring commences when effluent generated by the sanitary landfill begins to be stored for treatment and gases begin to be produced. The frequency of sampling and the parameters that are analyzed must comply with regulations established by the environmental control body. Example of an environmental monitoring program: ! Monthly - physical, chemical and bacteriological analyzes of gross and treated effluent in the treatment system, including tests for pH, BOD, COD, total and fixed sedimentary residues and colimetry tests. ! Every three months - analysis of water from the monitoring wells and from water body sampling sites both upstream and downstream from the sanitary landfill, analyzing results for the same parameters in each case. GEOTECHNICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MONITORING At all times during the filling of sanitary landfill cells attention must be paid to topographical alignment, up to and including the creation of the final covering surface incline. Careful attention should also be paid to topographical aspects in determining the incline of percolated liquid drains to ensure optimum drainage conditions after collection. In addition to these considerations, concrete frameworks should be installed in the work faces for the purpose of monitoring the differential settling of the buried layers. These frameworks should be read monthly, and the frequency of readings should be increased when significant settling is observed. The reading of these frameworks will also be useful to monitor the geotechnical stability of the sanitary landfill through the measurement of horizontal displacement. 13.3.6 Equipment Commonly used machines and vehicles for the operation of a sanitary landfill are: ! bulldozer - for the distribution, compacting and covering of waste; ! dump truck - for transporting coverage material and material for surfacing internal access roads; 232 13. Solid waste final disposal ! mechanical loader - to load trucks; ! mechanical digger - for digging and maintaining drainage ditches; ! tank truck – to supply water for reducing dust on internal roads and dampening lighter waste (papers, plastics, etc.) to avoid it being scattered. Factors that have to be taken into account when selecting machinery are: the availability of financial resources, specialized labour for maintenance and spare parts for immediate delivery. The sanitary landfill’s operational method is the principal factor that determines the selection and dimensions of machinery needed for landfill operations. As this equipment represents the most significant operational expenditure for a sanitary landfill, a rigorous system controlling its use should be established not only in relation to the number of hours that machines are operating for, and the wear and tear on their components, but also in regard to their correct operation during daily tasks in order to optimize their use and minimize unproductive procedures. 13.4 Controlled landfills With everything that has been previously explained about sanitary landfills, from the planning and installation phase to the final disposal of urban solid waste, the extensive range of technical components involved in them can be appreciated as can the amount of resources that it is necessary to allocate, not only for installation but also for their ongoing operation in compliance with all the technical requirements and applicable regulations. In Latin American and Caribbean countries the limited availability of public resources and the great demands made upon them create a situation in which it is very difficult to establish sanitary landfills, to such a degree that only a few municipalities can install them. In addition, even when the necessary financial resources are available for installation there can be difficulties in obtaining sufficient resources and qualified labour to operate a sanitary landfill in a way that meets its rigorous technical requirements. Nevertheless, in spite of all these obstacles it is necessary to deal with the problem of solid waste disposal as it has such serious consequences for sanitary and environmental conditions in cities. In this context the alternative “controlled landfill” option arises, a type of landfill that is often misunderstood or badly defined even by the technical community itself. Such definitions tend to focus on specific aspects of particular projects rather than providing a wider conceptual description. The most appropriate definition of a controlled landfill is: “A controlled landfill is a modified version of a sanitary landfill where the rigorous technical requirements applicable to the latter are more flexible in order to facilitate urban solid waste final disposal on the ground, with the waste duly isolated and covered, 233 complying with minimum sanitary control requirements through the selection of a site, the natural characteristics of which minimize the risk of negative environmental impacts.” The key to a successful controlled landfill project is therefore the choice of the land where it will be installed, the principal characteristics of which should be: soil that is not very permeable (clayey) and a deep water table (at least 3 metres below the level of the natural land). Where the soil type is not appropriate the controlled landfill project should make provision for the installation of an at least 50cm thick waterproofing layer of clayey soil brought from the nearest deposit. The cells of a controlled landfill are also built with compacted layers of waste but without necessarily using specialized machines (bulldozers, self-propelled waste compactors), that is, waste can be manoeuvred using lighter equipment or manual tools, though it must be routinely covered with earth. It is common for controlled landfills to be used in small cities that collect up to 50 tons of solid waste per day and where municipalities are not in an economic condition to maintain, for example, a bulldozer exclusively and permanently allocated to final waste disposal, or to implement, operate and maintain some of the systems required by the norms that regulate sanitary landfills. Of these systems it is the absence of effluent treatment that causes such municipalities most problems. Consequently special care should be taken with the rainwater drainage system of controlled landfills, as the more effective that system is the less effluent will be produced in the landfill. In this respect it is also important that the waste coverage layers are of clayey earth and particular attention should be paid to the top covering when the landfill reaches its maximum height. There is no exact definition of a “controlled landfill”, as they vary from very simple installations to ones that are similar to sanitary landfills. A controlled landfill offers municipalities with limited investment and budgetary capacity a relatively immediate opportunity to operate a low cost urban solid waste disposal system that eliminates the environmental and social aggression of refuse dumps, and in doing so demonstrates the principle “the ideal can be the enemy of the good”. Upper waterproofing Controlled landfill Lower waterproofing Maximum water level Flow of underground water Impermeable soil Figure 134 - Cross section of a controlled landfill 234 h>3.0m Water table 13. Solid waste final disposal One of the requirements for a sanitary landfill is the permanent presence of specialized machines for the manoeuvring, compaction and covering of waste. This is not a realistic possibility for most small-sized municipalities in Latin America and the Caribbean with their budgetary limitations and the significant under use of equipment that this would imply due to the relatively small amount of waste to be disposed of, as well as the drain on equipment resources needed for other municipal services. For such municipalities a controlled landfill allows for alternative solutions such as the periodic and programmed use of machines from other municipal sectors - for example those used for road maintenance - in the preparation of the weekly work face. A mechanical digger for example could excavate trenches for future waste cells where the land type permits the employment of this method of solid waste landfill construction. In such a case resultant material would be stored in a nearby place for later use in the covering operation. A practical alternative for small-sized municipalities is to use easily obtainable manual tools for landfill operations. In this case additional compaction can be achieved by collection vehicles being driven over filled areas as the cell advances. When it is not possible to guarantee even the infrequent programmed availability of machines to do the heavier work involved in landfill routines (such as excavating earth), the selection of the site becomes fundamentally important for an effective functioning of the controlled landfill. The ideal in such a case is a small dry natural hollow. Manoeuvring and coverage work is done manually as described below. The waste can be manoeuvred and the top surface and lateral sloped (1:1) surfaces can be levelled using hoes, mallets, rakes, pitchforks and forks. The covering of waste should be done at the end of each working day. Waste compacting can be done with mallets. An entirely manual operation is recommendable only for a daily waste volume of up to 40m³ or approximately 10 tons. Figure 135 - Manual compaction of waste in a cell 235 Where a landfill is manually operated it is indispensable that workers engaged in the manoeuvring and covering of waste have, in addition to the appropriate tools, clothing, shoes and gloves that guarantee their protection and safety. On rainy days they should wear plastic waterproofs. 13.5 Environmental recuperation of refuse dumps As has been explained, a refuse dump is an inappropriate form of urban solid waste disposal as it produces a series of negative environmental impacts and poses sanitary risks for the population. Areas degraded by refuse dumps should therefore be recuperated by containing such impacts and re-establishing healthy conditions there. Theoretically the correct way to recuperate land degraded by a refuse dump is to collect all the waste inappropriately disposed of there and transfer it to a sanitary landfill, subsequently recuperating the excavated area by filling it with natural soil from the region. In practice however this procedure is not usually economically viable and in most cases it is anyway impossible to implement due to the physical characteristics of the dump site. It should be noted that the strategic context of a refuse dump environmental recuperation exercise can be: ! that the area will be recuperated after it is closed for the dumping of waste, or ! that the area will be recuperated in such a way that it will be able to continue receiving waste but on a sound sanitary and environmental basis. An analysis of these alternatives is fundamental to appropriate planning for future solid waste final disposal. It is always recommended, especially in cities with restricted financial resources, that investment in the environmental recuperation of a dump is combined with the creation of disposal service and environmental protection infrastructure in the same place, thus allowing for the continued disposal of waste there but in sanitary conditions. In this way the municipality can avoid generating negative impacts on a virgin site before exhausting the waste disposal capacity (useful life) of the area previously used as a refuse dump. Another aspect to consider is the availability of resources. Often a municipality does not have access to sufficient finance for carrying out two works, that is, the recuperation of the degraded refuse dump area and the installation of a new final disposal system on another site, so it will naturally opt for undertaking the latter and leave aside remedying the environmental liability incurred by the refuse dump. Therefore whenever possible the refuse dump site or neighbouring land should be used to install a new final disposal system, in order to optimize the use of resources and maximize sanitary, environmental, technical-operational and economic results. 236 13. Solid waste final disposal When a refuse dump is permanently closed, thus ending any type of waste disposal there, and site recuperation is undertaken, the basic procedures are: a) if there is no reliable cadastral data, previous urban cleaning personnel should be consulted to determine as precisely as possible the extent of the area affected by waste and the principal physical characteristics of the natural land; b) delimit the affected area in situ; c) carry out probes to measure the thickness of the layer of waste throughout the degraded area; d) remove the waste from the parts of the site where the layer of waste is thinner (in general less than one metre) and deposit it on the part of the refuse dump where the layer of waste is thickest; e) form lateral slopes with an appropriate incline, in general 1:3 (V:H); f) give the top surface an incline as indicated in the section on drainage; g) after they have been levelled, cover the exposed waste surfaces with an at least 50cm thick layer of good quality clay, including the lateral slopes; h) recuperate the excavated area by filling it with natural soil from the region; i) install rainwater and leachate drainage devices appropriate for the particular project; j) dig one or more storage pits for effluent collected by the leachate drainage devices; k) construct vertical wells for gas venting; l) spread a layer of top soil over the layer of clay on the top surface and slopes; m) sow grass and native plant species with short roots; n) use three of the previously made probe holes to install water table monitoring wells: one on the upstream side of the area of the recuperated dump and two on the downstream side. The recuperation of a refuse dump does not finish with the implementation of these procedures. Leachate that accumulates in the storage pits should be periodically recirculated in the mass of waste, through sprinklers (similar to those used for grass watering) or infiltration beds; gas vents should be periodically checked so that those extinguished by wind or rain can be relit; and the quality of underground water should be checked through the monitoring wells, as should the surface water in nearby bodies of water. 237 As has been previously explained, due to the difficulty of finding new sites appropriate for sanitary landfills, whenever possible a recuperated dump site should continue to be used, but as a landfill. In this case, the sequence of procedures listed in the previous paragraph is modified after point “g” in the following way: ! prepare the excavated area to receive more solid waste, waterproofing it with good quality clay and installing underground pipes to collect leachate; ! install the necessary rainwater drainage channels to stop rain water run off reaching future work faces; ! excavate one or more storage pits for effluent generated in new cells; ! as the landfill evolves build vertical wells for gas venting; ! establish procedures for distribution, compaction and covering as if it were a sanitary landfill; ! install a leachate recirculation system and (depending on the climatic conditions of the zone) an effluent treatment system with stabilization lagoons; ! dig water table monitoring wells, one upstream and two downstream from the future operational area. 13.6 The situation of segregators In the present situation of Latin American and Caribbean countries there are not enough employment opportunities in the formal work market to allow universal entrance into it by a growing population, which together with low work training levels leads people to seek any activity that at least provides a means of survival for themselves and their families. Even though recyclable waste segregation in refuse dumps and streets is an unhealthy activity, it has become an “alternative job” as a result of the now endemic large-scale social crisis. Segregators tend to circulate freely in the operational area of a refuse dump, together with collection trucks and scrap dealers, and such activity hinders distribution, compaction and covering operations, in addition to creating a serious risk of accidents involving the working machines and vehicles. Even more serious is the presence of children at dumps, either due to a lack of alternative options for parents who do not have anybody to take care of them while they are engaged in segregation work, or because the children themselves are segregating materials in order to increase family income. Refuse dump recuperation projects are therefore not limited to engineering issues but also have to solve a complex social problem that cannot and should not be the sole responsibility of the body providing urban cleaning services, but rather requires articulated action involving various governmental sectors. 238 13. Solid waste final disposal Some of the initiatives that should be implemented to gradually change this situation are the development of alternative income and employment programs (such as segregator cooperatives, for example), the provision of technical training for segregators so that they can engage in other activities in the formal labour market, cooperation with non-governmental institutions and private companies, programs that provide children with integral fulltime places in schools or sports and recreational centres and a compensatory system for parents whose children cease to engage in segregation work. Figure 136 – Recycling plant operated by a segregator cooperative 13.7 Special domestic waste disposal 13.7.1 Construction rubble disposal As has been explained in the chapter on solid waste treatment, the ideal destiny for construction rubble is recycling. However when a municipality does not have this option, it is disposed of at the bottom of a landfill. Disposing of construction rubble in a sanitary landfill is not economical as it is inert waste that is being deposited in a specialized system surrounded by technical resources designed to protect the environment, when it could be disposed of in more simple landfills at a lower cost. Depositing this type of waste in a sanitary landfill is also not economical from an environmental perspective as the useful life of the landfill will be diminished by waste that, with effective management, could be used for the recuperation of excavations resulting from the extraction of materials used in the construction industry. 239 The only appropriate types of rubble disposal in a sanitary landfill are: ! its use as base material for internal roads and unloading areas; ! its use for the temporary covering of urban waste when there is a scarcity of the usual covering material in the zone. 13.7.2 Disposal of batteries As used batteries constitute hazardous waste, particularly due to the presence of heavy metals in their composition, their final disposal should be managed with the same criteria as are applied to industrial waste that carries the same type of risk. Before organizing a system for battery separation at source, with a view to recycling or another form of treatment and final disposal, the body responsible for urban cleaning should ensure the participation of producers, dealers and other players in this economic sector, who should be responsible for financing such a process. This waste should be regarded as waste from the industrial process of its producers, who should therefore be responsible for its collection, treatment and final disposal. Corresponding regulations should be brought into force in support of this type of model to avoid the risk that the municipality will be left with responsibility for costs associated with production process waste from private sector enterprises. Two initiatives are presented below as examples of measures that the private sector can adopt for the collection and final disposal of batteries. ! develop a project together with associations of authorized technical service providers for the installation of battery collection containers on their premises. Batteries collected in this way would be removed once a month and taken to a treatment or recycling site. ! establish an agreement with mobile phone producers under which they set up a discarded battery collection program that includes the provision of a telephonic information centre providing the location of places where there are special containers for used batteries. 13.7.3 Disposal of fluorescent tubes Often small pieces of broken tubes are accidentally discarded together with common waste in sanitary landfills. However, as there is mercury in them the appropriate final disposal of such waste, especially in large amounts, is in a landfill designed specifically for industrial waste with this risk classification. In this case too the “polluter pays” principle applies. 240 13. Solid waste final disposal 13.7.4 Disposal of tyres When it is not possible to recycle used tyres or use them in cement industry furnaces, for example, they can be disposed of in sanitary landfills after being ground so that they do not cause structural problems in the landfill. The body responsible for urban cleaning should not have to take on the problematic final disposal of used tyres, which should be the responsibility of producers and distributors as it is their economic activity that generates this waste. In support of this current perspective on the problem national legislation is needed to facilitate a progressive reduction in the quantity of such waste through a policy that fosters recycling by the industry and suppliers. Finally it is necessary to pay attention to the import of used but still usable tyres as together with these goods the companies of exporter countries are also exporting the problem of disposal when they are of no further use. 13.8 Disposal of waste from special sources 13.8.1 Industrial waste disposal Soil bio-regeneration (land farming), industrial landfills, waste barrages and other forms of disposal are commonly used for industrial waste. SOIL BIO-REGENERATION Soil bio-regeneration (land farming) is a biological treatment through which the organic part of waste is decomposed by the micro organisms that live in the upper layer of soil. This treatment is very much used for the final decomposition of oil by-products and organic compounds. The treatment consists of mixing and homogenizing waste with the upper layer of soil (to a ploughing depth of 15cm to 20cm). Once the micro organisms complete the degradation work, a new layer of waste can be treated in the same soil, repeating the same steps, and so on. Although the same land can be used repeatedly the disadvantage of this method is its need for large areas of land as the layers are not thick. The following figure shows an outline cross section of a bio-regeneration area. 241 Periodic application and mixing of waste and soil Containment of rainwater that falls on the treatment area Evaporation 200 m Diversion of rainwater that falls outside the treatment area Water course Infiltration Aerobic decomposition, absorption and adsorption in the upper layer Figure 137 - Soil bio-regeneration outline INDUSTRIAL LANDFILLS Industrial landfills are classified according to the hazard presented by the waste to be deposited there. In Brazil, for example, landfills for Class I waste can receive hazardous industrial waste; those for Class II, non-inert waste; and those for Class III, only inert waste. In any type of industrial waste landfill a rainwater drainage system and bottom waterproofing are essential to avoid soil and water table contamination from rainwater that has percolated through the waste, as demonstrated in the following figure. Rain Evaporation Superficial drainage Leaching Waste landfill Leaching Percolation Maximum water level Flow of underground water Non-saturated zone Wastewater Impermeable soil Figure 138 - Flow of water in a landfill In order to reduce the amount of effluent to be treated, the first step is to avoid, by means of barriers and drainage ditches, the incursion of rainwater falling outside the limits of the landfill that would otherwise increase the volume of effluent percolating inside the landfill. 242 13. Solid waste final disposal The second step is waterproofing the bottom of the landfill with a plastic membrane in order to stop leachate contaminating the soil and the water table. The main disadvantage of an industrial landfill as a means of final waste disposal is that it requires a large area of land in order to be economically and operationally viable and it should be taken into account that the waste continues to be potentially dangerous until it can naturally incorporate itself in the environment. In this context the best course of action is to concentrate efforts on earlier stages, that is, on the reduction of waste production and its treatment so that only unusable refuse is deposited in industrial landfills. An industrial landfill with a capacity of 15,000 tons requires an initial investment of approximately two million dollars and involves operational costs of 50 to 150 dollars per ton. The operational cost varies according to the waste’s degree of toxicity. When operating an industrial landfill special precautions have to be taken to control the type of waste unloaded there as only chemically compatible wastes can be disposed of in any given landfill, that is, wastes that do not react in contact with each other or with infiltrated rainwater. The most common phenomena produced by the mixture of incompatible wastes are: heat generation, fire or explosion, production of smoke and gases that are toxic and inflammable, dissolution of toxic substances and violent polymerization. Consequently, before waste is unloaded at the landfill the list of compatible wastes published by environmental control bodies must be consulted. Industrial landfill for Class I waste Final coverage layer I = 2% Rainwater drainage h = 4 to 6m Drainage layer t = 25cm Waste t = 20 to 30cm Waste Waste t = 0.60 to 1.00m Intermediate coverage (soil – t = 25cm) Blind drainage Physical protection layer t = 30cm Vegetation coverage Pumping unit Waste Storage pit I = min 0.5% Plastic membrane (double layer) t =1.0 to 2.5mm Plastic membrane Maximum water level h > 3m To the effluent treatment unit PVC tube Leakage detection layer (t = 25cm) Figure 139 - Industrial landfill for Class I waste - typical cross-section 243 Industrial landfills for Class I waste require more rigorous waterproofing than those for Class II and III. A minimum water table depth of three metres is required and the following layers are compulsory: ! double layer of bottom waterproofing: PEAD membrane and clay protection layer (k < 10 - 7cm/s); ! leakage detection layer between the bottom waterproofing layers; ! top waterproofing layer; ! drainage layer on top of the top waterproofing layer (t = 25cm). Industrial landfill for Class II and Class III waste Final coverage layer I = 2% Rainwater drainage h = 4 to 6m Drainage layer t = 25cm Waste t = 0.60 to 1.00m Vegetation coverage t = 20 to 30cm Waste Waste Pumping unit Blind drainage Waste Storage pit I = min 0.5% Plastic membrane t = 0.8 to 1.5mm Physical protection layer t = 30cm Maximum water level h > 1.5m To the effluent treatment unit PVC tube Figure 140 - Industrial landfill for Class II and Class III waste – typical cross-section Industrial landfills for Class II and Class III waste are similar to domestic waste sanitary landfills but do not usually have a gas venting system. Beginning at least 1.5m above the highest level of the water table and going from bottom to top this type of landfill usually consists of the following layers: ! bottom waterproofing with PEAD membrane; ! physical protection for the plastic membrane; ! percolates drainage system; ! layers of waste (from 4.0m to 6.0m thick) with 25cm thick layers of soil between them; ! although it is not obligatory, a top waterproofing layer of plastic membrane or good quality clay (k = 10 - 6cm/s; thickness > 50cm) is recommended; ! 244 25cm thick sand drainage (necessary only where there is top waterproofing); 13. Solid waste final disposal ! organic soil (thickness > 60cm); ! vegetation coverage with short root plant species. The percolated liquid, collected through a drainage system similar to the one in the previous figure, should be led to a treatment unit. The type of treatment depends on the characteristics of the waste deposited in the landfill but usually a complete physicochemical process is applied, followed by a conventional biological process (stabilization lagoons or activated sludge). WASTE BARRAGES Waste barrages are used for the disposal of liquid waste as well as sludgy waste that has a humidity content of more than 80%. These landfills are not deep and cover an extended area. They have a filtration and drainage system at the bottom (flute) to collect and treat the liquid part while containing the solid matter inside the barrage. Such barrage systems use a double layer of waterproofing only on the bottom. A top waterproofing layer is not required as the surface serves to evaporate off part of the liquid content. After the closure of the landfill, when the top layer of waste has solidified, the surface is waterproofed with a layer of clay to reduce rainwater infiltration and thus the need for ongoing treatment of percolated liquids. OTHER FORMS OF DISPOSAL Highly hazardous waste can be disposed of in underground saline or calcareous caves, or can be injected into exhausted oil wells. 13.8.2 Radioactive waste disposal There are three final disposal processes for nuclear waste, all very expensive and sophisticated: ! construction of special shelters with double walls of high resistance concrete, preferably underground; ! encapsulation in an impermeable concrete covering followed by dumping in the deep ocean (this process is very much criticized by environmentalists and in some countries is prohibited); 245 ! disposal in saline underground caves that are sealed so as not to contaminate the biosphere. 13.8.3 Port and airport waste disposal In some countries it is required by law that port and airport waste is disposed of by incineration. However, in many of these countries only some ports and airports comply with such environmental legislation while in the others no special attention is paid to waste disposal. In recent years the sanitary vigilance authorities of several countries have begun to implement measures that increase controls in ports and airports out of a concern for the potential economic impact of diseases such as foot-and-mouth or mad-cow disease being “imported” from other countries or regions. Port and airport waste not at risk of being contaminated by contact with waste generated in boats or planes arriving from areas with endemic diseases can be disposed of in sanitary landfills. It is therefore essential that an effective and safe solid waste storage, handling and internal transport system is implemented in order to avoid contact between common waste and waste that is contaminated or represents a potential sanitary risk. 13.8.4 Medical waste disposal The only final disposal process for this type of waste in the ground is the septic trench, a method that is very much questioned by most professionals but, due to its low investment and operational costs, is a viable option for cities with budgetary limitations. Conceptually a septic trench is in reality a Class II industrial landfill, as described in 13.8.1, which involves the daily covering of waste and obligatory waterproofing but no leachate collection. There are two types of septic trench: individual ones such as may be used by large hospitals and ones that are annexed to a municipal sanitary landfill. In the first type, trenches should be excavated with dimensions appropriate for receiving waste generated over a pre-determined period (a month, six months or a year). The bottom and sides of the excavated trench are then waterproofed and waste begins to be deposited there, the surfaces of which should be covered daily. Top waterproofing should begin as soon as the volume of waste reaches its final height and should progress at the same rate as the filling of the trench. When the septic trench is annexed to a municipal landfill, a distinct plot should be separated for medical waste disposal. This plot should be fenced and isolated from the rest of the landfill. 246 13. Solid waste final disposal The procedures for waste disposal and waterproof layer installation are similar to those previously described. Final coverage Drainage layer Plastic membrane Fence Waste Waste Top coverage 3m to 4m Waste Lateral slopes coverage Plastic membrane Figure 141 - Septic trench installed in a sanitary landfill 13.9 Sanitary landfills and carbon credits: Opportunities to help resolve environmental problems The environmental damage resulting from refuse dumps and irregular dumping always causes significant problems for municipal administrations. The unpleasant appearance and the bad odour that they emit discredit city administrations where waste is not appropriately disposed of. From an environmental perspective dumps are a real calamity as they contaminate the soil, the atmosphere, surface and underground water and represent a potential source of epidemics and fires as well as being susceptible to disintegration. Many mayors have been held directly accountable by environmental bodies, auditing tribunals and public prosecutors for poor urban cleaning management, especially in relation to the final disposal of waste. Attempting to resolve urban solid waste final disposal problems through the installation of recycling or incineration plants is often not feasible as, in spite of spectacular promotional offers by equipment manufacturers, they require significant financial investment and their operation involves a high level of complexity, both of which are beyond the capacity of municipalities that lack financial resources and specialized personnel. The simplest and cheapest option for solving the problem of refuse dumps is undoubtedly the installation of sanitary landfills, provided they are well built and correctly 247 operated. Sanitary landfills do not contaminate or emit unpleasant odours and after their final closure they can be used for the construction of sports complexes or public parks. Refuse dumps can be eliminated either by transforming them into sanitary landfills or by eradicating them altogether in an environmentally sound way, in which case they should be replaced by a sanitary landfill elsewhere that will then receive the city’s domestic waste. However such initiatives involve investment and operational costs that in general are beyond municipalities’ financial means. As a result of this situation the problem of solid waste disposal in Latin America is far from being solved, as is revealed by PAHO reports on basic sanitary services (see chapter 1), according to which the percentage of cities that still have refuse dumps is very high. One potentially positive economic factor being studied with increasing attention as a solution to this problem is the exploitation of biogas naturally produced during organic waste anaerobic decomposition processes, approximately 50% of which is methane. This combustible gas can be used to fuel boilers, furnaces and vehicle internal combustion engines or to generate electricity, with the additional advantage that its producers will receive Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), as established in the Kyoto Protocol the objective of which is to reduce the proportion of gases that provoke the greenhouse effect in the earth’s atmosphere. The naturally occurring “greenhouse effect” is a phenomenon of the Earth’s particular type of atmosphere that ensures climatic conditions favourable for life as we know it. This new opportunity is beginning to receive support from the World Bank and other international development bodies, which are offering resources and information for the installation of sanitary landfills with systems that recover and exploit “waste biogas”. In this chapter we will try to clarify the question of carbon credits as the recovery and use of biogas for fuel has already been dealt with in many technical publications. 13.9.1 Greenhouse effect: causes and consequences This phenomenon is similar to the one produced by the glass panels of a greenhouse that retain heat produced by the sun. As with the glass panels of a greenhouse, the presence of certain gases in the atmosphere, principally water vapour, carbonic gas and methane, impedes the release into space of heat generated by the incidence of the sun’s rays on the Earth’s surface, which is then reflected outwards. If this phenomenon did not exist, our planet would be as cold and sterile as Mars, for example, while if it existed to a greater degree the Earth would be similar to Venus, sterile and with an extremely high ambient temperature. Over recent decades the concentration of these gases in the atmosphere has increased, principally due to the intensive use of fossil fuels such as coal and oil in domestic and industrial activities and in transport. Consequently, the average 248 13. Solid waste final disposal temperature on Earth is increasing, thus endangering the delicate balance that makes our environment liveable. A dramatic example of what a change in the Earth’s climate can imply is the extinction of the dinosaurs that once lived all over the planet and, according to the most accepted theory, disappeared when a layer of dust was raised by the impact of a meteorite on the surface of the Earth provoking a drastic fall in global temperatures. Out of a concern to stop, or at least reduce, the acceleration of this process the UN called a summit, Rio 92, which established the “Framework Convention on Climate Change” that finally became the Kyoto Protocol 6 signed in 1997 in the Japanese city of that name. The Kyoto Protocol established that between 2008 and 2012 countries listed in its Annex 1 (developed countries) should reduce their emission of green-house gases (GHG) to a level approximately 7 % below that of 1995. Following its ratification by Russia in November 2004, the Kyoto Protocol came into force on 16th February 2005, the moment at which the timeframe for commitments taken on in that international agreement became applicable. The Protocol defined a baseline criterion separating the group of surplus emission producing countries (credit buyers) and the group of sub-baseline producing countries (credit sellers). Consequently commitments were established that defined greenhouse gas emission reduction goals for developed countries listed in Annex 1 of the Protocol and a program of reduction quota commercialization. Countries not included in Annex 1 of the Protocol, such as Latin American and Caribbean countries, are not obliged by the Protocol to reduce emissions but rather can transfer to Annex 1 countries credits corresponding to emission reductions produced by projects implemented for that purpose that qualify as what are called CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) projects. 13.9.2 The “logic” of carbon credits The interest in buying Certified Emission Reduction credits is due to differences between countries in the cost of emission reduction through processes applied to installations. In developed countries these costs can reach to values higher than US$ 500.00 per ton of carbon while in countries not included in Annex 1 of the Protocol they vary from US$ 1.00 to US$ 30.00 per ton of CO2. As a result of these cost differences the Emissions Reduction Market was created where the current value of a ton of CO2 or equivalent that is not emitted, or is captured, is approximately US$ 10.00. Global carbon markets have therefore begun to form and several international funds have been created to support the development of projects that reduce anthropogenic 6. Available on the Convention on Climate Change website http://unfccc.int/2860.php 249 carbon emissions. Each ton of CO2 that a developing country does not emit or captures (that is, transforms for example into vegetable matter, a process called fixation in plants) can be traded on the global market in the form of the above mentioned CER credits. In relation to the greenhouse effect it should be noted that each ton of methane is equivalent to 21 tons of CO2. In consequence CERs are generated to the degree that the combustion of methane takes place and the emission of CO2 equivalent is therefore diminished. For CERs to be issued, the planning, implementation and operation of a project should be certified and audited by independent bodies authorized by the UN, taking into account: ! whether the project is entered into voluntarily, that is, it is not required by law; ! whether there are real measurable long term benefits; ! whether emission reductions are additional to those that would take place if the project was not implemented (baseline). The application of CDM to sanitary landfills is very effective for emission reduction, requires low investment, is aligned with public policies for the improvement of sanitary and environmental conditions and results in a better quality of life for the urban population by contributing to the transformation of refuse dumps into sanitary landfills. To take advantage of this new economic opportunity, Latin American cities are beginning to invest in urban waste treatments that reduce methane emissions and generate income through CERs linked to sanitary landfill projects implemented in accordance with CDM. In Argentina for example, the concession for the collection and treatment of methane produced by the large sanitary landfill at Villa Dominico, Buenos Aires, has been put to tender with the support and assistance of the World Bank. This is the first Argentinean project that has been presented to the Kyoto Protocol Executive Council as a CDM. The first CDM project approved by the Executive Council is in Brazil: an electricity generating station fuelled by methane from landfill biogas in Nova Iguaçu (Rio de Janeiro). The project is expected to capture the equivalent of 2.5 million tons of carbonic gas (US$ 4.5 per ton) and its first client is the government of the Netherlands. Another Brazilian project for implementation in the Salvador Centre Metropolitan sanitary landfill (Bahia), already approved by the Brazilian government through the Inter- 250 13. Solid waste final disposal ministerial Climate Commission, headed by the Science and Technology Ministry, is at present awaiting the evaluation of the Kyoto Protocol Executive Council. The first pilot project in Latin America was implemented in Uruguay at Las Rosas sanitary landfill, Maldonando province, with the objective of capturing 18,962 tons of methane over the course of 15 years. It is therefore clear that the carbon credit market is rapidly expanding and adapting to the CDM principles established by the Kyoto Protocol. 13.9.3 Circumstances in which biogas from a sanitary landfill can be utilized For an effective implementation of a biogas recovery and utilization project, with its consequent reduction of methane emission into the atmosphere, there are requirements that have to be met. Here we present some of the essential conditions that the various sectors involved in the operation of an urban cleaning system should fulfil in order to achieve the established objective. Institutional The mayor and secretaries of departments related to municipal solid waste management and the environment should clearly and unequivocally demonstrate their intention to implement a permanent program of domestic waste collection and final disposal that covers the entire urban population (universal coverage) in order to ensure healthy conditions for everybody and the protection of the local environment. To achieve these objectives there must be a separate management unit within the municipal administration with sufficient training to carry out these functions, as well as a specific annual budget allocation to municipal solid waste management large enough to cover the system’s investment and operational costs. There should also be a national policy for solid waste management establishing minimum service provision standards and requiring the implementation of final waste disposal systems that are both sanitarily and environmentally sound. Finally, an organizational agreement should be established between the different institutions involved in the project such as the municipality; the company operating the sanitary landfill where that service is subcontracted; the electricity distribution company or gas consumer company where there is energy or gas generation using biogas; and national, provincial or municipal environmental conservation bodies. 251 Physical and operational The existence of a sanitary landfill principally dealing with the disposal of domestic waste with a high organic matter content that has already received a minimum quantity of 15,000 tons of waste (corresponding to 25,200 cubic metres, considering a density of 0.7t/m³, which occupies a volume that can be represented, to give an idea, by a 10m high prism with sides of 60m); the layer of waste is at least 10 metres deep; the surface of the landfill and its slopes are covered with clay except for the work face where trucks unload; and there is a regular reception of at least 50 tons of domestic waste per day. If the site is not operated in a sanitary way, that is, the waste is not covered with clay and there is no leachate and biogas collection, the possibility of recuperating the land at the same time as sanitary or controlled operations begin on it should be examined. Disposal operations should preferably continue on the site of the old refuse dump, provided that the ownership, urban zoning and minimum environmental conditions are appropriate, in order to avoid the difficulties involved in the implementation of a new landfill in an urban area even when it will be operated on a sound basis. Social A public awareness raising program should be instigated focusing on the issue of urban cleaning with a view to informing all citizens about sanitary problems in their region, the resources needed to solve them and the responsibilities that each party has in the process. 13.9.4 Requirements for the implementation of GHG emission reduction projects in solid waste landfills The implementation of emission reduction programs for methane produced in urban waste landfills should comply with CDM requirements, so that they can be analyzed and given different degrees of priority by the Interministerial Commission on Global Climate Change, with a view to the possible allocation of public resources or investment by the private sector at a national or international level. In addition guarantees are required not only for an effective collection of the biogas and the transformation of its methane into carbon dioxide (CO2) but also for the long term continuity of the process as biogas continues to be produced during a period of more than 15 years after the closure of a landfill as a waste disposal site. Consequently the formulation of a table of conditioning factors is recommended that can be filled in according to the specific characteristics of each project and subsequently analyzed to determine if a given project can receive preliminary approval from the national body responsible for the environment and later, where relevant, by the national body responsible for climate change issues. 252 13. Solid waste final disposal The following is a list of project related characteristics that will facilitate the analysis of a given project prior to a decision on whether or not basic CDM requirements are met: ! an urban population of more than 30,000 inhabitants; ! the existence of a body responsible for urban cleaning in the municipality; ! a qualified technical team within the responsible body; ! a waste collection system coverage of at least 80% of the population; ! a daily waste collection delivered to the site of at least 50 tons; ! a landfill operation that is ongoing and functions in a regulated way: a sufficiency of machines, a landfill growth plan that is followed, the compaction of waste and its regular coverage with a layer of clay, more than 10 metre thick layers of waste, a collection and either treatment or recirculation of leachate; ! a sub-contraction of the landfill operation; ! a municipal budgetary allocation specifically for urban cleaning services that is big enough to maintain the quality of those services at an appropriate level; ! a municipal urban cleaning or waste collection rate that covers more than 40% of service costs; ! an effective body of municipal regulations applicable to urban cleaning that may be part of a general body of municipal regulations; ! a political decision on the part of the mayor to recuperate the existing refuse dump, where applicable, and install a new sanitary landfill; ! the existence of land owned by the municipality that meets the environmental conditions necessary for installing a sanitary landfill; ! an existing or planned public awareness raising campaign on environmental issues in general or urban cleaning in particular; ! no depositing of industrial waste in the landfill. 13.9.5 General considerations The relation between sanitary landfills and carbon credits is based in the fact that landfill biogas capture and utilization projects, involving burning and transformation into CO2, are less onerous than other GHG emission reduction options. Such sanitary landfill projects are therefore likely to be of interest to large international corporations as a way of obtaining cheaper CERs. Even though income from CERs is not received immediately after the transformation of a refuse dump into a sanitary landfill, in the medium term it can represent real financial assistance for municipalities enabling them to ensure the correct operation of urban 253 solid waste final disposal installations. This offers municipalities a definitive and low cost way of fulfilling their constitutional and moral duty to appropriately dispose of waste produced in urban concentrations and provide basic sanitary conditions for the inhabitants of the city they administer. Finally it should be noted that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has recently approved a new methodology for calculating the emissions avoided by composting processes. 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WEB PAGES Associação Brasileira de Embalagens de PET – ABEPET (http//www.abepet.com.br) Associação Brasileira da Indústria de Plástico – ABIPLAST (http://www.abiplast.org.br) Associação Brasileira de Celulose e Papel – BRACELPA (http:// www.bracelpa.com.br) Associação Brasileira de Materiais Plásticos – PLASTIVIDA (http:// www.abiquim.org.br) Associação das Indústrias Automáticas de Vidro – ABIVIDRO (http://www.abividro.org.br) Virtual Library of Sustainable Development and Environmental Health (http:// www.bvsde.ops-oms.org) Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences (http:// www.cepis.ops-oms.org) Compromisso Empresarial para a Reciclagem – CEMPRE (http://www.cempre.org.br) Empresa Recicladora de Latas de Alumínio – LATASA (http://www.latasa.com.br) Environmental Industry Associations - (http://www.envasns.org) 257 GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS ABNT – Brazilian Institute of Technical Standards ASCE – American Society of Civil Engineers BOD – Biochemical Oxygen Demand CEPIS/PAHO – Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences CER – Certified Emission Reduction CDM – Clean Development Mechanism CNEN – National Nuclear Energy Commission, Brazil COD – Chemical Oxygen Demand COMLURB – Rio de Janeiro Urban Cleaning Company CONAMA – National Commission on the Environment, Brazil EIS – Environmental Impact Study EMS – Environmental Management Secretariat, IDRC GHG – Green-House Gas HDI – Human Development Index HDPE – High Density Polyethylene IADB – Inter-American Development Bank IBAM – Brazilian Institute of Municipal Administration IDRC – International Development Research Centre of Canada IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPE – Individual Protection Equipment ISWM – Integrated Solid Waste Management ISWMP – Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan LAC – Latin America and the Caribbean Region LDPE – Low Density Polyethylene MoU – Memorandum of Understanding NGO – Non-Governmental Organization PAHO – Pan-American Health Organization PET – Polyethylene Terephtalate PVC – Poly Vinyl Chloride Rio 92 – United Nations International Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) SISNAMA –National Environmental System, Brazil TGW –Total Gross Weight UN – United Nations VDC – Voluntary Drop-off Centres WCR – Waste Collection Rate 258 GLOSSARY Biogas: combustible gas naturally generated during the organic matter putrefaction process. Clean technology: technology that does not produce secondary effects or impact on the environmental balance or natural systems. Compensatory measures: measures to compensate communities or social groups for the use of non-renewable environmental resources, or for unavoidable negative environmental impacts. Composting: procedures for the transformation of biodegradable organic municipal solid waste into organic compounds. Domestic waste: residential waste and waste from small commercial generators. Environmental impact assessment: a procedure aimed at identifying and interpreting the effects of public or private actions or projects that may cause environmental impacts or alter the quality of life. Final disposal: the final process applied to solid waste resulting in its ultimate placement. Governing plan: a fundamental legally binding policy instrument for the development and organization of the municipal territory aimed at guaranteeing an appropriate social functioning of the city. Greenhouse effect: the absorption by the Earth’s atmosphere of infrared radiation emitted by its surface, resulting in increased heat on the Earth’s surface and thus an increase in the average temperature of the planet. This phenomenon stops heat from the sun leaving the atmosphere and returning to space, replicating on a planetary scale an effect similar to the one observable in a greenhouse. Healthcare institutions: public and private hospitals, laboratories, clinics, veterinary clinics, medical centres and all other establishments where any level of human or animal healthcare is practiced with a view to prevention, diagnosis, treatment or rehabilitation. Indivisible service: a public service available to all tax-payers that cannot be measured on the basis of the amount used by individual citizens. Integrated solid waste management plan: a technical planning instrument for activities linked to urban cleaning. Intermediary agents: agents involved in the commercialization of recyclable materials in general as intermediaries in sales by segregators to recycling companies, which implies a reduced financial income for segregators. 259 Leachate: liquid that drains through solid waste, contains materials in solution or in suspension and results from the decomposition process plus the infiltration of rainwater. Master plan: a document containing all of the necessary elements for the complete implementation of a project in accordance with relevant technical regulations. Medical waste: all waste generated by healthcare institutions. Municipal Treasury: the resources of a municipality out of which the municipal budget is financed. Municipal waste: solid or semisolid waste generated by activities in population centres, of residential, commercial or institutional origin, or from markets, healthcare institutions, small industries and the sweeping and cleaning of public spaces. Organic law: a municipality’s foundational law defining the areas of jurisdiction and responsibility for its executive, legislative and judicial branches. Plant: a solid waste processing site including the land, structures, works and added features. Recycling company: a company specializing in the recycling of material. Refuse: all waste produced by human activity that is not reused. Refuse dump: a place where waste is indiscriminately dumped in the open air without the application of any sanitary treatment. Segregator: a person engaged in the separation of recyclable material from refuse, also called scavenger or waste picker. Solid waste management: all technical and administrative activity, including planning, design and evaluation, that is related to appropriate solid waste management. Urban cleaning service: all activities relating to solid waste management: preparation and storage, collection, transport, transfer, street cleaning, recyclable material recovery, treatment and final disposal of solid waste. 260
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