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International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research
Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved
ISSN 2277-7156
Original Article
Influence of Wet Processing on Properties of Single Jersey Knitted Fabrics
Murugesh Babu. K * and Selvadass. M
Department of Textile Technology, Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology, Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Davangere – 577004, India
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Received 04 March 2013; accepted 15 March 2013
Abstract
The physical, dimensional and dyeing properties of the single jersey knitted fabrics were investigated after different wet
processing stages and sequences. For this purpose, 2/40’s, 100%, organic cotton single jersey greige knitted fabric was
developed. The greige fabric was subjected to pretreatment processes involving combined scouring/bleaching and
mercerization. The pretreated fabrics were then dyed and finished to ready to stitch (RTS) fabrics. At the end of each
process stage, samples were collected and analyzed for various physical properties. The change in the colour of the fabric
was also investigated at end of each process stage. Simillarly, the influence of process sequences on fabric properties was
studied by varying the wet processing sequences during the development of RTS fabrics. The results show that the
properties of the fabric changes to a considerable extent after each stage of wet processing. It is observed that the
pretreatment of the greige fabric has greater influence on the fabric properties. Further, the process sequence adopted has
definite influence on fabric properties. The preparatory process sequence that includes mercerisation process has greater
influence on fabric properties compared to scouring process alone. The dyeing process also influences fabric properties.
These include the dyeing method adopted and the strength of colour developed. The finishing process, where the dyed
fabric is padded with softener and dried in a drier alters fabric properties to a considerable extent. It improves fabric handle
and imparts a soft feel to fabric. The results of dimensional stability analysis of RTS fabrics after repeated washing show
that mercerized RTS fabrics has higher length wise shrinkage compared to scoured RTS fabrics. The dyeing behavior of
RTS fabric show that fabric dyed with mercerized RFD fabric has greater colour strength compared to RTS fabric dyed
with scoured RFD fabric.
© 2013 Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved
Keywords: organic cotton; knitted fabrics; wet processing; physical properties; dyeing properties
1. Introduction
Single jersey knitted fabrics is generally used to make
outerwear garments such as T-shirts. The knitted fabrics
undergo a series of different processing treatments like
scouring, bleaching, dyeing, softener padding and relax
drying. These processes are carried out to impart a
particular property related to that process like scouring for
absorbency, bleaching for whiteness, dyeing to impart
colour to fabric and finishing for improving softness and
handle of the fabric.
The properties of the knitted fabrics are influenced by
various parameters like raw material, yarn structure, fabric
structure, processing stages and finishing. The process
adopted affects the fabric properties and its overall
performance. The amount of changes occurred in the
properties of the fabric due to pretreatment, dyeing and
finishing process makes the subject complex. During the
finishing process, internal stresses stored during spinning,
knitting is removed and the fabrics attain an almost fully
18
relaxed state. By adopting different processes and finishing
methods, different kinds of end products in a sense of
aesthetic and utility properties can be produced from the
same unfinished fabrics [1]. Further, the determination of
the changes in physical and dyeing properties during
different stages of wet processing is important for the
control of process parameters to get the final product as per
the requirements of the customer.
There have been a number of studies on the influence of
different fiber types, fabric structure and processing
parameters on various properties of knitted fabrics [2-5].
However, limited number of studies on influence of wet
processing stages and process sequences on the physical,
demensional and dyeing properties of the cotton knitted
fabrics has been reported so far [1,6].
In this study, the influence of the wet processing stages and
sequences on the physical, dimensional and dyeing
properties of organic cotton knitted fabrics are investigated
in order to see the differences, the results are then
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
compared. In order to study the influence of wet processing
stages on fabric properties, 2/40’s, 100%, organic cotton
single jersey greige knitted fabric was developed. The
greige fabric was subjected to pretreatment processes
involving the
combined scouring/bleaching and
mercerization to develop scoured and mercerized to ready
for dyeing (RFD) fabrics. The pretreated knitted fabrics
were then dyed using reactive dyes. The dyed fabrics were
then finished to ready to stitch (RTS) fabrics. At the end of
each process stage, samples were collected and analyzed
for various physical properties. Further, the change in the
colour of the fabric was also investigated at end of each
process stage. The physical properties include the fabric
weight (grams per meter square), loop density, tightness
factor, thickness, drape, air permeability and bursting
strength. The dyeing properties include colour, colour
strength and colour difference values. Simillarly, the
influence of process sequences on fabric properties was
studied by varying the wet processing sequences during the
development of RTS fabrics.
2 Experimental
2.1 Influence of process stages on fabric properties
Global Organic Textile standards (GOTS) approved 40’s
count, 100% organic cotton single yarn supplied from
Armstrong Spinning Mills, Erode, India was purchased
from M.P.Shan Tex, Tirupur, India. The single yarn
purchased (100 kg) was twisted as double yarn at Selvam
Twisting, Tirupur, India using two-for-one twisting
machine. The yarn was knitted to greige fabric at M.P.Shan
Tex, Tirupur, India using 24 gauge, 4 track, Mayer &Cie,
single jersey knitting machine.
The greige fabric was scoured and finished to RFD fabric at
Victus Dyeing, Tirupur, India. The process involved the
demineralisation and combined scouring/bleaching using
100 kg Thies softflow dyeing machine. The fabric is then
squeezed in a Bianco SPA squeezer & padding machine
and dried using Santex CH9555 relax dryer machine. This
fabric is known as the scoured RFD fabric. The scoured
RFD fabric was divided into two parts. One part of the
scoured fabric was kept aside. The other part of the scoured
RFD fabric was mercerized using a Dornier tubular knitted
fabric mercerization machine. The mercerization process
consists of cold mercerization, two hot wash, neutralization
and a cold wash. The scoured mercerized fabric was then
dried in monforts dynair 5000 dryer machine. This fabric is
known as the mercerized RFD fabric. The recipes of
demineralization, combined scouring/bleaching and
mercerization process is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Chemicals and auxiliaries used in demineralization, combined scouring/bleaching and mercerization process
Process
Chemicals
Product name
Quantity
Water
1:06
Demineralization
Wetting agent
Ciba Ultra 1EL
1gpl
Demineralization agent
Invertex SA
2gpl
Water
1:06
Wetting agent
Ciba Ultra 1EL
0.5 gpl
Sodium hydroxide
Caustic soda flaks
2.0 gpl
Scouring
Hydrogen peroxide
2.0 gpl
Peroxide stabilizer
Clarite CBB
0.2gpl
Acetic acid
2.0 gpl
Wetting agent
1gpl
Mercerization
Sodium hydroxide
Caustic soda flaks
0.1 kg/kg fabric
Acetic acid
2gpl
The scoured and mercerized RFD fabrics were dyed
separately to develop three colours. Dyeing was done using
10 Kg Thies softflow dyeing machine present in D.K.T.E.
Society’s Textile and Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji,
India The fabric was finished in open width form by
padding the fabric with the silicon softener and dried in an
stenter machine. The quantity of dyes used in dyeing
process was kept constant for both the scoured and
mercerized fabrics. The dye bath recipes used in the dyeing
process is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Dye bath recipes for dyeing scoured (S) and mercerized (M) organic cotton knitted fabric with reactive dyes using
salt and alkali by exhaust dyeing process
Sample
Colour
S5 / M5
Maroon
S6 / M6
T Blue
S7 / M7
D Green
19
Dye
Navacron Yellow HRN
Navacron Red HB
Navacron Navy H2G
Navacron Yellow HRN
Navacron Blue HRN
Navacron T Blue
Navacron Yellow HRN
Navacron Blue HRN
Navacron T Blue
Qty (gpl)
1.85
4.27
1.00
0.21
2.30
0.45
0.90
1.10
4.00
Total qty (gpl)
salt (gpl)
soda (gpl)
7.120
80
20
2.960
80
20
6.000
80
20
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
To determine the physical and dyeing properties of knitted
fabrics, samples were collected immediately at the end of a
particular process stage. The samples collected include
greige fabrics, scoured and mercerized RFD fabrics, dyed
unfinished (UF) fabrics and dyed finished (F) fabrics. The
samples were tested for the physical and dyeing properties
at room temperature and atmosphere after allowing it to dry
relax for one hour.
2.2 Influence of process sequences on fabric properties
2.2.1 Procurement of organic cotton hosiery yarn
Global Organic Textile standards (GOTS) approved 2/40s,
100% organic cotton super combed hosiery yarn was
obtained from Sambandam Spinning Mills Limited, Salem,
India with the help of Shahi Exports Pvt. Ltd. (Knits
division), Bangalore, India. Initially 200 kg of yarn was
purchased for knitting. At the later stage, 250 kg of 40s,
100% organic cotton single yarn supplied from Armstrong
Spinning Mills, Erode, India was purchased from M.P.Shan
Tex, Tirupur, India. The yarn was twisted as double yarn at
Selvam Twisting, Tirupur, India using two-for-one (TFO)
twisting machine. The yarn obtained from the Sambandam
Spinning Mills Limited was knitted to greige fabric at
Shahi Exports Pvt. Ltd., Tirupur, India using 4 track Mayer
& cie single jersey knitting machine. The yarn supplied by
Armstrong Spinning Mills, Erode, India was knitted at
M.P.Shan Tex, Tirupur, India using 4 track, Mayer &Cie,
single jersey knitting machine.
2.2.2 Development of readyto stitch fabrics
The greige fabric knitted at Shahi Exports Pvt Ltd, Tirupur
was sent for processing at Brindhaa Textile Processing
Mills, Tirupur, India. The greige knitted fabric was divided
into two parts. One part of the fabric was demineralised
and scoured using Thesis Softflow dyeing machine. The
fabric was then squeezed in Bianco SPA pad & squeezer
machine and dried using Santex CH9555 relax dryer
machine. This fabric is scoured RFD fabric. The other part
of the greige fabric was mercerised using Dornier tubular
knitted fabric mercerisation machine. The mercerisation
process consists of cold mercerisation, two hot wash,
neutralisation and a cold wash. The greige mercerised
fabric was then dried in monforts dynair 5000 dryer
machine. The dried greige mercerised fabric was then taken
to demineralisation and combined scouring/bleaching
process in a softflow dyeing machine. The fabric was then
squeezed in Bianco SPA pad & squeezer machine and dried
using Santex CH9555 relax dryer machine. This fabric is
greige mercerised scoured RFD fabric.
The greige fabric knitted at M.P.Shan Tex, Tirupur, India
was scoured/bleached and finished to RFD fabric at Victus
Dyeing, Tirupur, India. The scouring process is similar to
development of scoured RFD fabric discussed in previous
section. Then half the quantity of scoured fabric was taken
for mercerisation at Brindhaa Textile Processing Mills,
Tirupur, India to develop scoured mercerised RFD fabric.
The tubular scoured and mercerised fabrics were converted
to open width fabrics using a slit opening machine.
The tubular scoured and mercerised RFD fabrics were dyed
seperately to develop seven colours. Dyeing was done
using softflow dyeing machine. The fabric was finished in
tubular form by padding the fabric with silicon softener and
drying in relax dryer machine. Similarly, the open width
scoured and mercerised RFD fabrics were dyed seperately
to develop three colours using non-silicate cold pad batch
(CPB) dyeing method. The fabric was finished in open
width form by padding the fabric with silicon softener and
drying in stenter machine.
The shade and recipe for dyeing of light colour samples
using an 10 kg industrial softflow dyeing machine (exhaust
dyeing) is presented in Table 3 for scoured (S1 – S4) and
mercerised (M1 – M4) fabric. The dyeing was done at
Victus Dyeing, Tirupur.
For dark shades, 3 colours were selected. The recipe for
dyeing scoured (S5 – S7) and mercerised (M5 – M7)
organic cotton knitted fabric is presented in Table 4. The
dyeing was done using 10 Kg softflow dyeing machine at
DKTE Society’s, Textile & Engineering Institute,
Ichalkaranji, India. The fabric was finished at Loyal Super
Fabrics, Cuddalore, India. Navacron H series regular dyes
were used.
The recipes for dyeing samples using non-silicate CPB
dyeing method for scoured (S8 – S10) and mercerised (M8
– M10) knitted fabric in open width form is presented in
Table 5. The dyeing and finishing was done at Loyal Super
Fabrics, Cuddalore, India.
Table 3: Dye bath recipes for dyeing scoured (S) and mercerised (M) organic cotton knitted fabric with low impact
reactive dye using salt and alkali by exhaust dyeing process
Sample
Colour
S1/M1
Yellow
S2/M2
Stone
S3/M3
D violet
S4/M4
Brown
20
Dye
Levafix Brill Yellow CA
Levafix orange CA
Levafix Blue CA
Remazol Yellow RR
Remazol ultra caramine RGB
Remazol Blue RR
Remazol ultra yellow RGB
Remazol ultra caramine RGB
Remazol Blue RGB
Remazol yellow RR
Remazol ultra caramine RGB
Remazol Blue RR
Scored (S)
Qty
Total qty
(gpl)
(gpl)
0.4190
0.0572
0.501
0.0245
0.1180
0.0546
0.260
0.0876
0.4980
0.5190
2.077
1.0600
0.9330
0.2950
1.758
0.5300
Mercerised (M)
Total qty
Qty (gpl)
(gpl)
0.3660
0.0546
0.442
0.0216
0.1090
0.0515
0.249
0.0889
0.3630
0.3410
1.438
0.7340
0.6370
0.2070
1.245
0.4010
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
Salt
(gpl)
Soda
(gpl)
20.0
6.0
12.5
5.0
40.0
10.0
35.0
9.0
Table 4: Dye bath recipes for dyeing scoured and mercerised organic cotton knitted fabric with low impact reactive dye
usingsalt and alkali by exhaust dyeing process
Sample
Colour
Dye
Qty (gpl)
Total qty (gpl)
salt (gpl)
soda (gpl)
S5 / M5
Maroon
Navacron Yellow HRN
1.85
Navacron Red HB
4.27
7.120
80
20
Navacron Navy H2G
1.00
S6 / M6
T Blue
Navacron Yellow HRN
0.21
Navacron Blue HRN
2.30
2.960
80
20
Navacron T Blue
0.45
S7 / M7
D Green
Navacron Yellow HRN
0.9
Navacron Blue HRN
1.10
6.000
80
20
Navacron T Blue
4.0
Table 5: Dye bath recipes for dyeing scoured and mercerised organic cotton knitted fabric with low impact reactive dye
usingsalt and alkali by cold pad batch dyeing process
Sample
Colour
Brand
Qty (gpl)
Total qty (gpl)
Soda (gpl)
Caustic (ml/l)
S8 / M8
Royal Blue
Drimarine Royal Blue HFCD
40.00
40.00
20.00
5.50
Remazol ultra yellow RGB
6.00
S9 / M9
24.00
20.00
3.25
Red
Remazol ultra caramine RGB
15.00
Levafix Azure CA
3.00
S10 / M10
Black
Remazol Black GSA
50.00
50.00
20.00
80.00
The process sequences adopted for development of RTS is further summarized in Table 6.
Table 6: Process sequences adopted for development of scoured and mercerised RTS fabric
Cotton cultivation
Yarn & gray
Ginning
fabric
Spinning
development
Knitting
Fabric
S1-S4
S5-S7
S8-S10
M1-M4
M5-M7
Demineralisation
Slit opening
Mercerisation
Demineralisation,
Fabric preparation
Drying
combined
scouring &
Open width fabric
bleaching
scouring/bleaching
Pretreatment
Combined
Demineralisation,
processes
scouring &
combined
Demineralisation
Drying
bleaching
scouring &
bleaching
Stenter drying
Mercerisation
Dyeing
Exhaust dyeing
using softflow
dyeing machine
Non-silicate
CPB dyeing
Finishing
Relax drying
Stenter drying
The developed RTS fabrics were tested to study the
influence of process sequences on physical, dimensional
and dyeing properties.
2.3 Testing methods
The properties of the fabrics were measured in accordance
with the relevant standards: fabric weight, ASTM D377696; loop density BS 5441: 1988; fabric thickness, ASTM
D1777 – 96(2011)e1; fabric drape, BS 5058:1973; air
permeability, ASMT d737-04(2008)e2; bursting strength,
ASTM D3786 – 2006. The tightness factor (TF) was
determined using the formula TF = [(T) 1/2 / l], where T is
the linear density of yarn (Tex) and l is loop length in cm
[7, 8]. The colour specification, colour strength and colour
difference of fabric samples were determined by Minolta
CM-3301d spectrophotometer that uses JAYPAK 4808
quality control system software. The colour measurement
21
M8-M10
Slit opening
Fabric preparation
Combined scouring
& bleaching
Demineralisation
Stenter drying
Mercerisation
Stenter drying
Exhaust dyeing
using softflow
dyeing machine
Softner padding
Relax drying
Compacting
Non-silicate
CPB dyeing
Stenter drying
was done using standard formula CIE 76, 10 deg observer
and D65 source.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1 Influence of wet processing stages on physical
properties
3.1.1 Fabric weight
The influence of wet processing stages on the fabric weight
(grams per square meter) of the organic cotton knitted
fabrics is presented in Fig.1.The results show that the
weight of greige fabric increases after the pretreatment
processes. Similarly, the weight of the scoured and
mercerized RFD fabrics increases after dyeing and
finishing process. Further, it can be observed that the
weight of the mercerized fabrics is slightly more compared
to the scoured fabrics at the end of all processing stages.
The fabric weight (GSM) is determined by two factors that
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
interact in the knitted fabric, i.e. the loop size and the yarn
size. Keeping these two factors constant, the changes
observed in the fabric weight at different processing stages
are primarily due to the pretreatment processes adopted and
the fabric shrinkage observed during the processing. During
pretreatment of the greige fabric, there is a certain amount
of weight loss in the material.
The weight loss observed in the greige fabric during
pretreatment process is due to removing of impurities
present in the fabric. Greige knitted cotton fabric made of
cotton fibres consists of approximately 10% by weight noncellulosic substances such as lipids, waxes, organic acids,
proteins/nitrogenous
substances,
non-cellulosic
polysaccharides, and other unidentified compounds. The
presence of these non-cellulosic materials imparts poor
water absorbency [9-12]. In order to remove these noncellulosic materials or impurities from the fabric/fibres,
scouring is normally carried out with strong alkali at high
temperature for a certain specified time [13-15].The total
amount of impurities to be removed is less than 10 %
(about 5 to <10 %) of the total weight [16].
On the other hand, bleaching removes any unwanted colour
from the fibres which significantly impair the inherent
white appearance of cotton cellulose. This process also
eliminates any traces of other impurities remaining from
the previous preparation steps and improves the absorbency
of the material for the dyeing and printing process [17].
In the pretreatment of the cotton knit fabrics, the scouring
and bleaching is done as a single process known as
combined scouring &bleaching. Here, the scouring process
is accelerated in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2)
and less time is generally required to achieve good
absorbency of the material. The advantages of this process
are an increased production with the reduction of labor cost
and reduced treatment time, the loss in weight and strength
22
of material is less. H2O2 is a powerful oxidizing agent that
rapidly destroys the natural coloring matters present in
cotton without undue oxidative damage to the fibres [16].
The amount of raw material after the scouring process is
reflected by the weight (grams per meter square) of fabric,
which must be maintained for the garments. If excessive
weight loss occurs during the scouring/bleaching process,
then the GSM of fabric will be reduced significantly that it
will affect the garment quality. Again, if the weight loss is
less than the standard mentioned, then impurities will
remain in the substrate which can create quality problems
such as improper or uneven dyeing.
Further, during pretreatment process, the fabric also
shrinks. This increases the GSM of the pretreated fabrics.
The weight of the fabric is also influenced by mercerization
process. The scoured fabric subjected to the mercerization
process shrinks to a large extent. Further, mercerization
process removes the loose and protrudingfibres from the
surface of the fabric. This gives the mercerized fabric a
neat surface finish and increase the luster considerably. All
these have influence on fabric weight. Further, the fabric
weight is also affected by the shrinkage during the
processing stages. The more the number of processing
stages, the higher will be the degree of shrinkage. This
results in higher knit density and consequently higher
weight of the fabric.
The depth of colour developed in dyeing process whether
light or dark colour influences the fabric weight. It is
observed that fabrics dyed to dark colour have slightly
higher fabric weight compared to fabrics dyed to light
color. The softener padding process impact softness,
improve handle and volume of the fabric. Normally, the
increase in fabric volume through the softening depends on
the type and percentage of the softener.
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
3.1.2 Loop density
The influence of wet processing stages on the course per
inch (CPI), wales per inch (WPI) and loop density
(Loops/inch2) of the organic cotton knitted fabrics is
presented in Figs. 2, 3& 4. The results show that after
pretreatment of the greige fabric, the CPI, WPI and loop
density changes to a large extent in the resultant fabrics at
the end of each processing stage. The fabric structure
becomes more compact.
The CPI of the greige fabric increases after pretreatment
process. Further, the CPI of the scoured and mercerized
RFD fabrics after the dyeing process shows slight variation
whereas it decreases after the finishing process. However,
when the scoured and mercerized fabrics are compared at
the end of various process stages, the CPI of the scoured
fabric is slightly less compared to the mercerized fabrics.
The WPI of the greige fabric increases after the
scouring/bleaching process whereas decreases after the
mercerization process. The WPI of the scoured RFD fabric
decreases after the dyeing and finishing process whereas
the wpi of the mercerized fabrics remains almost same.
Further, it can be observed that wpi of the scoured fabrics is
more compared that of the mercerized fabrics after different
process stages.
The loop density of the greige fabric increases to large
extent after pretreatment process. The loop density of the
scoured and mercerized RFD fabrics varies after the dyeing
& finishing process. Further, when the scoured and
mercerized fabrics are compared, it is observed that the
scoured fabrics have slightly higher loop density compared
to mercerized fabrics.
The change of loop density in wet processing is perhaps
due to anisotropic swelling behavior of cotton fibres.
During all wet processing as well as laundering, cotton
fibers swell about 40 % by volume, but very little
longitudinal swelling accounting for only about a 1–2 %
increase in fiber length occurs. This anisotropic swelling
behavior is explained by the fact that the crystalline,
microfibrillar structures in cellulosic fibers are not
23
penetrated by water. Swelling therefore occurs only
between microfibrillar structures and consequently their
orientation in the fiber determines the swelling anisotropy.
During this process in knitted cotton fabrics, the shape and
orientation of the loops change to minimum energy
conformation. The loops usually become rounder in shape
causing shrinkage in the wale direction, especially when
the fabric has been previously dried under tension. In order
to release the stresses imposed by bending twisted yarns
into loops, the loops themselves tend to twist out of the
plane of the fabric. This causes shrinkage in the course
direction and often produces significant differences in twist
level in the two legs of the knitted loops [18].
3.1.3 Tightness factor
The tightness or cover factor indicates the relative tightness
or looseness of a plain knit structure. The general definition
was that a ratio exists between the area covered by the yarn
in one loop to the area occupied by that loop. A detail
discussion of tightness factor of the knitted fabrics is
present in literature [19-22].
The influence of wet processing stages on the tightness
factor of the organic cotton knitted fabrics is presented in
Fig.5.The results show that the tightness factor of the
greige fabric after pretreatment process varies to a great
extent. Further, the tightness factor of the scoured RFD
fabrics increases after the dyeing process and decreases
after the finishing process. The tightness factor of the
mercerized RFD fabrics varies after the dyeing process and
decreases after the finishing process. When the scoured and
mercerized fabrics are compared, mercerized fabrics show
slightly higher tightness factor compared to that of scoured
fabrics.
The tightness factor is influenced by linear density of yarn
and the loop length. The linear density of yarn can change
slightly due to various processing stages. The changes in
the loop length can be attributed to change in the
dimensional properties of fabric such as cpi, wpi and loop
density due to shrinkage at the end of each processing
stages.
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
3.1.4 Fabric thickness
The influence of wet processing stages on the thickness
(mm) of the organic cotton knitted fabrics is presented in
Fig.6. The result shows that the thickness of the greige
fabric decreases slightly after the pretreatment processes.
The thickness of the scoured RFD fabrics increases slightly
after the dyeing process and then decreases after the
finishing process. The thickness of the mercerized RFD
fabrics follows similar trend as that of scoured fabrics.
When the scoured and mercerized fabrics are compared, the
thickness of the scoured fabrics is slightly high compared
to that of the mercerized fabrics.
The fabric thickness is influenced by fibre specific gravity
and yarn linear density [23, 24]. Further, fabric thickness
for a particular yarn is directly related to the yarn diameter
in fully relaxed state of fabric [25]. The thickness of the
fabric is also influenced by the course spacing which is
directly related to course density. The change may be due
to shrinkage of the fabric at various stages of processing.
Further, all dyed and bleached fabrics undergo change in
thickness, which could be due to further tightening of the
structure as a result of increased adhesion between fabric
structural elements.
3.1.5 Fabric drape
The influence of wet processing stages on the drape of the
organic cotton knitted fabrics is presented in Fig.7. The
results show that the drape coefficient of the scoured RFD
fabrics increases after dyeing process and then decreases
after the finishing process. The drape coefficient of the
mercerized RFD fabrics also follows same trend as that of
the scoured fabrics. When drape coefficient of the scoured
and mercerized fabrics are compared, it is observed that the
mercerized fabrics show higher drape coefficient value
compared to that of scoured fabrics.
Drape is an important factor when presenting the aesthetics
and functionality of both, the fabric and the created
garment. Drapeability can be described as a phenomenon of
fabric-fold formation, which arises when a fabric hangs
down without the influence of external forces. It depends
on the fabric’s parameters such as structure, yarn type, fibre
content, as well as its finishing treatments [26].
The change in drape of fabrics observed after different
processing stages can be attributed to higher relaxation
shrinkage and higher loop density. The high drape
coefficient of mercerized fabrics is mainly due to
mercerization
process
adopted.
After
combined
scouring/bleaching, the fabric is mercerized. This makes
the fabric stiffer and less stretchable than a normal
scoured/bleached fabric. The fabric also shrinks after
mercerization process. The dyeing process further makes
the fabric stiff and the drape coefficient increases to a large
extent. The dyeing process is followed by the finishing
process where the dyed fabric is padded with a softener.
After the finishing process, the drape coefficient of the
dyed fabric decreases since the application of softener
reduces the inner friction between the fibres and yarns in
the fabric structure. In finishing, the type and concentration
of the softener used is important and has significant
influence on the drape properties.
3.1.6 Air permeability
The influence of wet processing stages on the air
permeability (cc /cm2.sec) of the organic cotton knitted
fabrics is presented in Fig.8. The results show that after the
pretreatment process of the greige fabrics, the air
permeability decreases to a large extent in the resultant
RFD fabrics. The air permeability of the scoured RFD
fabrics decreases after the dyeing and finishing process
whereas, air permeability of the mercerized RFD fabrics
increases after the dyeing process and decrease after the
finishing process. When the air permeability of the scoured
and mercerized fabrics is compared, it is observed that the
mercerized fabrics show higher value compared to that of
the scoured fabrics.
Air permeability is mainly affected by two parameters,
porosity and fabric thickness [27]. When all fabric
parameters are kept constant, the air permeability is
influenced by the yarn type and twist factor. In recent studies, it has been proved that the loop length has an obvious
effect on air permeability when the other parameters such
as density and fabric thickness are constant [28].
The air permeability of the mercerized fabrics increases
compared to the scoured fabrics. This may be due to the
fibre arrangement in the cross-section of the yarn. After
mercerization of the scoured fabric, which is done by
stretching, the fibres present in the yarn are better arranged
in the cross-section than before mercerization. This reduces
the loose fibres between the loops.
3.1.7 Bursting strength
The influence of wet processing stages on the bursting
strength (kg/cm2) of the organic cotton knitted fabrics is
presented in Fig.9. The results show that after the
pretreatment process of greige fabrics, the bursting strength
decreases slightly in the resultant RFD fabrics. The
bursting strength of the scoured RFD fabric remains more
or less same after dyeing and finishing process. The
bursting strength of the mercerized RFD fabric increases
slightly after the dyeing process and further increases after
the finishing process. When bursting strength of the
scoured and mercerized fabrics is compared, it is observed
that the mercerized fabrics show higher bursting strength
compared to the scoured fabrics.
The major reason for the increased bursting strength in the
mercerized fabrics can be due to reduction of internal
stresses and the deconvolution of the fibres in the fabric
during the swelling process.
3.2 Influence of wet processing stages on dyeing
properties
The colour specification, colour strength and colour
difference of the greige and RFD fabrics is presented in
Table 7: Comparison of colour specification, colour strength and color difference of gray and RFD fabrics
Sample
Colour
L
a
b
c
h
K/S
Gray
Gray
14.04
84.34
1.14
13.99
85.30
0.758
Scoured RFD
Off white
4.94
94.51
-0.30
4.94
93.49
0.131
Mercerised RFD
Off white
7.82
92.96
-0.17
7.81
91.25
0.218
24
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
dE
3.250
Table 7. It is observed that the pretreatment of the greige
fabric changes the colour of resultant RFD fabrics. This is
due to combined scouring/bleaching process where the
surface chemical compounds imparting greige colour to the
fabric is removed.
The comparison of colour specification of the scoured and
mercerized RFD fabrics shows that the colour of the
mercerized RFD fabric varies slightly when compared to
that of the scoured RFD fabric. The mercerized RFD fabric
is darker, greener (less red), yellower and brighter than the
scoured RFD fabric as shown by the colour difference
values.
The colour specification, colour strength and colour
difference of the scoured and mercerized unfinished and
finished dyed fabrics is presented in Table 8.
Finished (F)
Unfinished
(UF)
Table 8: Comparison of colour specification, colour strength and color difference of scoured (S) and mercerized (M)
unfinished (UF) and finished (F) dyed fabrics
Sample
Colour
L
a
b
c
h
K/S
dE
S5
Maroon
23.52
19.09
3.32
19.38
9.86
9.398
S6
T Blue
36.19
-10.74
-15.27
18.67
234.85
6.955
S7
D Green
30.52
-21.29
1.75
21.36
175.29
17.810
M5
Maroon
15.97
12.35
3.28
12.78
14.89
21.038
10.43
M6
T Blue
30.83
-9.78
-16.12
18.86
238.73
10.109
5.65
M7
D Green
27.03
-20.87
3.15
21.11
171.41
23.763
3.74
S5
Maroon
23.25
19.09
3.08
19.33
9.16
9.506
S6
T Blue
37.69
-10.78
-15.46
18.85
235.09
6.302
S7
D Green
30.48
-22.32
2.03
22.42
174.82
20.657
M5
Maroon
15.05
12.44
3.02
12.8
13.64
22.934
10.55
M6
T Blue
31.32
-9.62
-16.45
19.05
239.66
9.594
6.55
M7
D Green
26.91
-21.47
3.13
21.7
171.71
25.188
3.83
It can be observed that the mercerized dyed fabrics show 3.3 Influence of wet processing squences on physical
high colour strength values compared to the scoured dyed properties of fabrics
fabrics. The high colour difference values observed further The influence of process sequences on fabric weight is
confirms this point. The high colour strength of the presented in Fig. 10. The result shows that tubular and open
mercerized fabrics is due to changes in the chemical and width scoured fabrics has less weight compared to that of
structural properties of organic cotton fibres during the mercerised fabrics. Further, it can be observed that the
mercerization process. This results in high dye uptake from fabric dyed to dark colours has higher fabric weight
the dye bath.The colour specification, colour strength and compared to fabrics dyed with light colours. Thus, the
colour difference of the scoured and mercerized dyed weight of the fabric is primarly influnced by preparatory
finished fabrics shows similar results as that of the dyed processes adopted, the colour strength of the dyed fabric
unfinished fabrics. Further, it can be observed that the and the fabric state wheather the fabric is processed in
finishing process does not affect the colour of dyed fabrics.
tubular rope or open width form.
25
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
The influence of process sequences on the course per inch
(CPI) and wales per inch (WPI) of the organic cotton
knitted fabrics is presented in Figs. 11 & 12. It can be
observed mercerised fabrics have high CPI compared to
scoured fabrics. Similarly, the results of WPI analysis
shows that scoured fabrics have slightly high WPI
compared to mercerised fabrics. Further, the CPI of open
width fabrics is less compared to tubular fabrics. The
influence of process sequences on tightness factor is
presented in Fig. 13. The result shows that the tightness
factor of scoured fabric is less compared to mercerised
fabrics. Simillary, the tightness factor of open width fabrics
is more compared to tubular fabrics. In general, the results
show that mercerised fabrics probably due to shrinkage
during pretreatment process has high influence on weight
of fabric, CPI, WPI and tightness factor. Further, these
properties are also influenced by the fabric state whether
tubular or open width.
The influence of process sequences on fabric thickness,
drape, air permeability and bursting strength is presented in
Figs. 14, 15, 16 & 17. The results show that thickness and
drape of mercerised fabrics is less compared to scoured
fabrics. However, air permeability and bursting strength of
mercerised fabrics is more compared to scoured fabrics. In
general, the results show that as the process sequences is
varied, the physical properties of the fabric also varies. The
pretreatment process adopted, the fabric state whether
tubular or open width and the depth (strength) of colour
developed has greater influence on fabric properties.
3.4 Influence of wet processing squences on dimensional
properties
The dimensional stability of RTS fabric is analyzed as
length and widthwise shrinkage after repeated washing and
tumble drying. The dimensional stability of RTS fabric
after first wash, fifth wash and tenth washed, tumble dried
fabric is summarized in Figs. 18 & 19.
The results show that lengthwise shrinkage of scoured and
mercerized RTS fabric dyed with light colour varies
whereas that of mercerized RTS fabric dyed with dark
colour is more compared to that of scoured RTS fabric. The
results of widthwise shrinkage varies and it is less
compared to lengthwise shrinkage. Further, it can be
observed that width wise shrinkage of all RTS fabric
decrease after fifth and tenth washes.
26
Fig. 18 - Comparison of lengthwise (L) shrinkage of RTS
fabric after first wash(A), fifth wash (B) and tenth wash (C)
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
Fig. 19 - Comparison of widthwise (W) shrinkage of RTS
fabric after first wash(A), fifth wash (B) and tenth wash (C)
3.5 Influence of wet processing squences on dyeing
behavior
The colour specification, colour strength and colour
difference of scoured and mercerized RTS fabric without
washing is summarized in Tables 9 & 10. The colour
specification of scoured and mercerized RTS fabric varies.
The colour strength of mercerized RTS fabric is more
compared to scoured RTS fabric. Further, the dyeing of
samples IS1 / IM1 – IS4 / IM4 was done to get same colour
strength. Hence, no major change in colour specification is
observed between them. The dyeing of scoured and
mercerised samples IS5 / IM5 – IS10 / IM10 was done with
same dye recipe but the dyed and finished samples show
major change in colour specification and colour strength
values. The high colour strength of mercerized RTS fabric
is probably due to high dye uptake from the dye bath.
Table-9: Comparison of colour specification and colour strength of scoured and mercerized RTS fabric (unwashed
samples-I)
Sample
Colour
L
a
b
c
h
K/S
S RFD
IS1
IS2
IS3
IS4
IS5
IS6
IS7
IS8
IS9
IS10
M RFD
IM1
IM2
IM3
IM4
IM5
IM6
IM7
IM8
IM9
IM10
Off white
Yellow
Stone
D Violet
Brown
Maroon
T Blue
D Green
R Blue
Red
Black
Off white
Yellow
Stone
D Violet
Brown
Maroon
T Blue
D Green
R Blue
Red
Black
5.57
74.08
62.30
31.72
40.16
23.25
37.69
30.48
38.04
30.91
15.70
91.88
72.41
60.89
28.67
36.37
15.05
31.32
26.91
34.4
27.23
12.75
92.8
1.09
5.10
4.41
5.12
19.09
-10.78
-22.32
0.08
29.91
-0.31
91.35
2.63
5.12
4.53
5.12
12.44
-9.62
-21.47
1.57
29.67
-0.03
-0.32
33.64
5.02
0.11
8.83
3.08
-15.46
2.03
-38.19
13.14
-2.90
-0.26
35.66
5.41
-0.36
9.26
3.02
-16.45
3.13
-40.36
13.58
-2.25
5.56
33.66
7.16
4.42
10.21
19.33
18.85
22.42
38.19
32.67
2.92
8.23
35.75
7.45
4.54
10.58
12.8
19.05
21.7
40.39
32.63
2.25
93.34
88.11
44.50
1.42
59.87
9.16
235.09
174.82
270.15
23.70
263.78
91.88
85.75
46.54
355.4
61.04
13.64
239.66
171.71
272.27
24.58
269.31
0.168
0.561
0.579
3.774
2.378
9.506
6.302
20.657
4.006
5.886
13.468
0.258
0.667
0.619
4.434
2.958
22.934
9.594
25.188
5.313
8.037
19.338
Table 10: Comparison of colour difference of mercerized and scoured RTS fabric
Sample
Colour
dL
da
db
dc
dH
dE
IM1 vs IS1
IM2 vs IS2
IM3 vs IS3
IM4 vs IS4
IM5 vs IS5
IM6 vs IS6
IM7 vs IS7
IM8 vs IS8
IM9 vs IS9
IM10 vs IS10
Yellow
Stone
D Violet
Brown
Maroon
T Blue
D Green
R Blue
Red
Black
-1.67
-1.41
-3.05
-3.79
-8.20
-6.37
-3.57
-3.64
-3.68
-2.95
1.54
0.02
0.12
0.00
-6.65
1.16
0.85
1.49
-0.24
0.28
2.02
0.39
-0.47
0.43
-0.06
-0.99
1.10
-2.17
0.44
0.65
2.09
0.29
0.12
0.37
-6.53
0.20
-0.72
2.20
-0.04
-0.67
-1.43
0.26
-0.47
0.21
1.23
1.51
-1.20
1.45
0.50
0.25
3.04
1.46
3.08
3.82
10.55
6.55
3.83
4.49
3.71
3.03
Table 11 show colour specification, colour strength and
colour difference values of RTS fabric after ten washes.
The results show that colour specification and colour
strength of RTS fabric after ten washes does not show
27
major changes when compared with RTS fabric that is not
subjected to washing process. The colour difference values
presented in Table 12 show only minor differences that
further confirm the above point.
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
Table 11: Comparison of colour specification and colour strength of scoured and mercerized RTS fabric after ten washes
Sample
Colour
L
a
b
c
h
K/S
AS1
Yellow
71.27
0.43
31.51
31.51
89.19
0.665
AS2
Stone
58.72
5.19
4.45
6.83
40.58
0.762
AS3
D Violet
30.26
4.50
-0.20
4.50
357.41
4.177
AS4
Brown
39.06
5.39
8.17
9.79
56.58
2.568
AS5
Maroon
23.27
18.98
2.77
19.18
8.29
9.568
AS6
T Blue
35.19
-9.10
-14.74
17.32
238.28
6.893
AS7
D Green
28.12
-19.89
1.12
19.92
176.78
23.282
AS8
R Blue
38.97
-0.27
-38.59
38.59
269.56
3.770
AS9
Red
31.98
29.47
12.23
31.91
22.54
5.251
AS10
Black
15.94
-0.73
-3.63
3.71
258.57
12.907
AM1
Yellow
70.67
1.96
32.89
32.95
86.56
0.733
AM2
Stone
59.26
5.31
4.65
7.06
41.23
0.747
AM3
D Violet
29.22
4.49
-0.50
4.52
353.59
4.411
AM4
Brown
36.88
5.31
8.50
10.02
58.00
2.946
AM5
Maroon
15.13
12.71
2.93
13.04
12.96
22.707
AM6
T Blue
28.51
-8.29
-15.84
17.87
242.35
11.275
AM7
D Green
25.49
-18.83
2.02
18.94
173.87
26.183
AM8
R Blue
35.68
1.15
-40.34
40.36
271.67
4.939
AM9
Red
27.30
29.18
13.12
31.99
24.19
8.005
AM10
Black
13.16
-0.19
-2.54
2.55
265.61
18.544
Table 12: Comparison of colour difference between scoured and mercerized RTS fabric without washing (I) and after ten
washes (A)
Sample
Colour
dL
da
db
dc
dH
dE
IS1 vs AS1
Yellow
-2.87
-0.46
-2.15
-2.12
0.57
3.62
IS2 vs AS2
Stone
-3.60
0.14
-0.57
-0.30
-0.51
3.65
IS3 vs AS3
D Violet
-1.46
0.09
-0.31
0.09
-0.31
1.50
IS4 vs AS4
Brown
-1.11
0.33
-0.66
-0.41
-0.61
1.33
IS5 vs AS5
Maroon
0.01
-0.09
-0.32
-0.14
-0.30
0.33
IS6 vs AS6
T Blue
-2.45
1.65
0.84
-1.49
-1.09
3.07
IS7 vs AS7
D Green
-2.36
2.71
-0.86
-2.74
0.74
3.69
IS8 vs AS8
R Blue
0.90
-0.18
-0.50
-0.45
-0.27
1.04
IS9 vs AS9
Red
1.05
-0.43
-0.92
-0.76
-0.69
1.47
IS10 vs AS10
Black
0.21
-0.37
-0.77
0.75
-0.41
0.88
IM1 vs AM1
Yellow
-1.81
-1.81
-0.43
-2.77
0.45
3.34
IM2 vs AM2
Stone
-1.65
-1.65
0.24
-0.76
-0.71
1.83
IM3 vs AM3
D Violet
0.54
0.54
-0.09
-0.14
-0.15
0.57
IM4 vs AM4
Brown
0.50
0.50
0.21
-0.76
-0.55
0.93
IM5 vs AM5
Maroon
0.08
0.08
0.29
-0.08
-0.15
0.31
IM6 vs AM6
T Blue
-2.76
-2.76
1.29
0.70
0.94
3.13
IM7 vs AM7
D Green
-1.43
-1.43
2.96
-1.06
0.78
3.45
IM8 vs AM8
R Blue
1.28
1.28
-0.42
0.00
-0.41
1.35
IM9 vs AM9
Red
0.06
0.06
-0.49
-0.48
-0.24
0.69
IM10 vs AM10
Black
0.39
0.39
-0.13
-0.32
-0.19
0.52
4 Conclusions
The results show that the properties of the fabric changes to
a considerable extent after each stage of wet processing. It
is observed that the pretreatment of the greige fabric has
greater influence on the fabric properties primarily due to
shrinkage of material. The pretreatment process adopted
also has greater influence on the dyeing properties. Hence,
it is observed that mercerized fabrics shows high colour
strength value than the scoured fabrics due to greater dye
uptake. The various pretreatment and dyeing processes
make the fabric firm, compact and rougher. The finishing
process using softener padding imparts softness to the
28
fabric and improve fabric handle.
Further, the results show that process sequence adopted has
definite influence on fabric properties. The preparatory
process sequence that includes mercerisation process has
greater influence on fabric properties compared to scouring
process alone. This can be observed by comparing finished
scoured and mercerized RFD fabric properties. The
mercerisation process makes the fabric surface free of
fuzzy fibres and gives neat fabric surface without any
surface fibres. This improves the fabric appearance. It
further improves the luster of fabric significantly. The
unfinished dyed fabric and the finished dyed fabric that has
International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013; 3(1): 18-30
adopted mercerisation process at preparatory stage maintain
the luster even after repeated washing. The dyeing process
also influences fabric properties. These include the dyeing
method used and the strength of colour developed. The
dyeing process has greater influence on fabric handle
properties. This can be seen by comparing scoured and
mercerized unfinished dyed fabric. The fabric drape is less
indicating that the fabric has become stiff after dyeing
process. It also has a very harsh feel. Further, it can be
observed that fabric dyed with light colour has less weight
compared to fabric dyed to dark colour. Finally, the
finishing process where, the dyed fabric is padded with
softener and dried in a drier alters fabric physical
properties. It improves fabric handle and imparts a soft feel
to fabric.
The results of dimensional stability analysis of RTS fabric
after repeated washing show that mercerized RTS fabric
has higher length wise shrinkage compared to scoured RTS
fabric when dyed to dark colours. Similarly, the widthwise
shrinkage of mercerized RTS is less compared to scoured
RTS fabric.
The dyeing behavior of RTS fabric show that fabric dyed
with mercerized RFD fabric has greater colour strength
compared to RTS fabric dyed with scoured RFD fabric.
Further, the finishing process adopted after dyeing does not
alter the colour strength and the colour difference observed
is not large.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the management of Shahi
Exports Pvt. Ltd. (Knits Division), Bangalore, India for
supporting the work. We also thank Sambandam Spinning
Mills Ltd., Salem, India and M.P. Shan Tex., Tirupur, India
for providing organic cotton yarn, D.K.T.E. Society’s
Textile and Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji, India for
providing the facility to conduct dyeing trails using a
softflow dyeing machine and Loyal Super Fabrics,
Cuddalore, India for providing the facility to dye the fabric
with non-silicate cold pad batch dyeing method.
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Source of support: Nil; Conflict of interest: None declared
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