Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Microelectronics Journal journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mejo A zero charge-pump mismatch current tracking loop for reference spur reduction in PLLs R.R. Manikandan n, Bharadwaj Amrutur Electrical Communication Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t Article history: Received 12 March 2014 Received in revised form 25 November 2014 Accepted 10 March 2015 The charge-pump (CP) mismatch current is a dominant source of static phase error and reference spur in the nano-meter CMOS PLL implementations due to its worsened channel length modulation effect. This paper presents a charge-pump (CP) mismatch current reduction technique utilizing an adaptive body bias tuning of CP transistors and a zero CP mismatch current tracking PLL architecture for reference spur suppression. A chip prototype of the proposed circuit was implemented in 0:13 μm CMOS technology. The frequency synthesizer consumes 8.2 mA current from a 1.3 V supply voltage and achieves a phase noise of 96.01 dBc/Hz @ 1 MHz offset from a 2.4 GHz RF carrier. The charge-pump measurements using the proposed calibration technique exhibited a mismatch current of less than 0.3 μA (0.55%) over the VCO control voltage range of 0.3–1.0 V. The closed loop measurements show a minimized static phase error of within 7 70 ps and a C9 dB reduction in reference spur level across the PLL output frequency range 2.4–2.5 GHz. The presented CP calibration technique compensates for the DC current mismatch and the mismatch due to channel length modulation effect and therefore improves the performance of CP-PLLs in nano-meter CMOS implementations. & 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Phase-locked loop (PLL) Charge-pump Current mismatch Reference spur Deterministic jitter Static phase offset 1. Introduction P spur ðdBcÞ ¼ 20 log Charge-pump phase locked loops (CP-PLLs) are widely used for frequency synthesis, up conversion and down conversion of baseband signals in RF transceivers, and clock generation in digital systems [1]. Fig. 1 shows the block level description of a conventional CP-PLL. Implementation of CP-PLLs with high spectral purity and wide frequency tuning range in nano-scaled CMOS process is quite challenging [2–4]. Severely deteriorated channel length modulation effect of nano-scaled CMOS process affects the matching between the charge-pump currents (I up and I dn ) and hence degrades the performance of PLL by introducing a static phase error between the phase frequency detector (PFD) input signals and reference spurs in the frequency spectrum of its output signal [5,6] as shown in Fig. 1. The static phase error (Te) and the reference spur level (Pspur) (using narrow-band frequency modulation approximation) due to CP mismatch current can be expressed as [7,8] T e ¼ T pfd n Δi I cp Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 9535144501. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.R. Manikandan). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mejo.2015.03.004 0026-2692/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. ð1Þ ! f ref I cp Rz K vco T pfd ΔI pffiffiffi 20 log I cp f pl 2 ð2Þ where Tpfd is the PFD reset delay, Δi is the CP mismatch current, Icp is the CP output current, Rz is the resistor value in the loop filter, Kvco is the VCO gain, fref is the reference frequency and fpl is the frequency of pole in the loop filter given by ðC z þ C p Þ=2π Rz C z C p . VCO architectures with low gain (Kvco) and wide frequency tuning range using switched capacitor banks [9] and dual path control techniques [10–13] are presented in the literature to minimize reference spurs. These techniques either require complex digital frequency calibration schemes [9] or suffer due to coarse-path leakage current and charge injection issues [11]. Randomization techniques in the charge distribution mechanism to the loop filter are proposed in [14–17] to minimize the magnitude of reference spurs. However, the performance of these techniques are limited due to the open loop generation of equal delays and increased in-band phase noise performance. Fig. 2 shows the simulated reference spur and static phase error characteristics versus the CP mismatch current. A zero PFD reset delay (Tpfd) will eliminate the reference spurs and static phase error issues in the charge-pump-PLL. However, an appropriately designed smaller Tpfd is necessary for a dead-zone free PFD operation [8] and therefore the CP mismatch current should be minimized for an ideal PLL operation. R.R. Manikandan, B. Amrutur / Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 Several CP mismatch current calibration schemes are presented in the literature to minimize the pump current mismatch [18–26]. A replica CP based mismatch current calibration scheme was presented in [18]. However, Ref. [18] calibrates the CPs under different control voltages and hence difficult to compensate for the mismatch due to channel length modulation effect. A digital mismatch current calibration approach was presented in [5,18,19]. However, the CP circuit implementations in these reported works consume a larger current of 3nIcp, which is not suitable for high output current (Icp) applications. Charge-pump architectures with negative feedback using high gain OPAMPs to minimize the mismatch current are presented in [22–26], but the non-ideal effects of OPAMPs such as stability and offset voltage limit the performance of CP. Bulk-driven circuit techniques are highly useful in the design of ultra low voltage analog circuits [27–30] and to compensate for variation effects (PVT, die-to-die and within-die), and to reduce the leakage power in digital circuits [31,32]. In this paper, we present a charge-pump mismatch current calibration technique utilizing an adaptive body bias tuning of its current source transistors which provide a very fine resolution in the mismatch current calibration and a zero CP mismatch current tracking PLL architecture to minimize the static phase error and reference spurs. The proposed technique compensates for the DC current mismatch and the mismatch current due to channel length 423 modulation effect and hence improves the performance of CPPLLs in the nano-scaled CMOS process implementations. This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the proposed CP mismatch current calibration scheme. The zero CP mismatch current tracking loop operation and its measured results are presented in Sections 3 and 4, respectively. Finally, the conclusions are given in Section 5. 2. Charge-pump mismatch current calibration technique The current steering charge-pump circuit used in the PLL is shown in Fig. 3a. M7 and M3 are the up and down current source transistors in the charge-pump, respectively, and their saturation currents can be expressed as 1 W I up ¼ μp C ox;p ðV gs;p V T;p Þ2 ð1 þ λV ds;p Þ ð3Þ 2 L p 1 W I dn ¼ μn C ox;n ðV gs;n V T;n Þ2 ð1 þ λV ds;n Þ 2 L n ð4Þ Fig. 4 shows the measured output current characteristics of the CP. As the CP output voltage (Vctrl or VCO control voltage) increases, V ds;n increases and V ds;p decreases, and hence Idn (NMOS current) increases and Iup (PMOS current) decreases due to the channel length modulation effect. Therefore, the CP currents Iup and Idn are matched only for a single voltage point (zero mismatch current point) and the mismatch current (I up I dn ¼ ΔI a 0) exists for all other control voltages. This mismatch between chargepump currents creates ripple on VCO control voltage as shown in Fig. 3b. 2.1. Proposed CP mismatch current calibration technique The threshold voltage of a PMOS transistor (M7 in Fig. 3a) is given by qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffi V T;p ¼ V T0;p þ γ ð ϕ þ V bs;p ϕÞ ð5Þ Fig. 1. Conventional Type II, 3rd order integer-N charge-pump PLL. In a conventional CP case, the body terminal of PMOS transistor is connected to the supply voltage (V b ¼ V s ¼ V dd ) and its threshold voltage is equal to V T0;p . Forward body biasing of PMOS transistor (M7) with V b o V dd reduces its threshold voltage (V T;p oV T0;p ) and increases the magnitude of UP current (Iup) as shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 2. Simulation conditions: Icp ¼ 100 μA, Kvco ¼ 300 MHz/V, Rz ¼ 28:18 KΩ, Cz ¼84.58 pF, Cp ¼ 6.51 pF, and fref ¼5 MHz. 424 R.R. Manikandan, B. Amrutur / Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 CP LPF Fig. 3. Current steering charge-pump circuit and its transient wave-forms for I up o I dn . Fig. 4. Measured charge-pump output current characteristics. Fig. 5. Simulated I D ; V T dependence on body voltage (Vb) of PMOS transistor (W ¼ 30 μm, L ¼ 3 μm). Fig. 6a shows the measured output current characteristics of the charge-pump circuit (Fig. 3a). In this design, the CP currents Iup and Idn are matched for a lower VCO control voltage to emulate the I up oI dn mismatch current scenario, when V b ¼ V s ¼ V dd . Forward body biasing of UP current source transistor increases the PMOS current (Iup) and shifts the zero mismatch current point to a higher VCO control voltage as shown in Fig. 6a. Therefore, by adaptively adjusting the body bias voltage of PMOS current source transistor with respect to VCO control voltage, the zero mismatch current point can be shifted to all VCO control voltages as demonstrated in Fig. 6a. Thus minimizing the mismatch between CP currents Iup and Idn generated due to the channel length modulation effect. Fig. 6b shows the CP mismatch current characteristics (ΔI ¼ I dn I up ) measured across the VCO control voltage range 0.3– 1 V. Measurements show a CP mismatch current of less than 0.3 μA (0.55%) and 9.44 μA (17.2%), with the body bias tuning enabled and Fig. 6. Measured CP currents with the PMOS transistor body voltage varied between 1.3 V and 1.2 V (4 bit control, I up o I dn ). disabled, respectively. The obtained matching performance between the CP currents with a mismatch of less than 0.55% using body bias tuning is comparable to those reported in [23–26] and the presented technique is extremely useful in reducing the channel length modulation effects on PLL performance. 3. Zero charge-pump mismatch current tracking PLL architecture The PLL architecture with the CP mismatch current reduction loop is shown in Fig. 7. For an automatic charge-pump mismatch current calibration with respect to VCO control voltage, we used an auxiliary loop based calibration method [12,18,19]. The mismatch current reduction loop monitors the polarity of static phase error R.R. Manikandan, B. Amrutur / Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 425 Fig. 7. Zero charge-pump mismatch current tracking PLL architecture. Fig. 8. Simulated step response of VCO control voltage (2.4–2.5 GHz). Fig. 9. Charge-pump output current characteristics: SAR algorithm. between the reference and feedback signals and calibrates the CP mismatch current by adjusting the body bias voltage of UP current source transistor. The mismatch current reduction loop consists of a phase error monitor, lock detector, 4-bit successive approximation register (SAR) controlled logic and a digital to analog converter (DAC): The lock detector enables the mismatch current reduction loop and is implemented using standard digital logic circuits [10–17]. Fig. 10. VCO control voltage in the zero CP mismatch current tracking mode. Fig. 11. SAR controller operation: PMOS bulk voltage and CP mismatch current. The phase error monitor outputs the lead/lag status of the reference signal over the feedback signal and is implemented using conventional D-type flip-flop based symmetric bang– bang phase detector [33]. The SAR controller is implemented using conventional digital logic circuits [34] and the DAC uses a charge-sharing capacitive DAC architecture [35]. The SAR controller along with the DAC performs body bias tuning based on the lead/lag status output of the phase detector. 426 R.R. Manikandan, B. Amrutur / Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 Fig. 12. Simulation conditions: Icp ¼ 100 μA, Kvco ¼ 300 MHz/V, Rz ¼ 28.18 kΩ, Cz ¼ 84.58 pF, Cp ¼6.51 pF, fref ¼ 5 MHz, and Tpfd ¼5 ns. The PLL operates in three modes: 1. initial coarse locking mode, 2. zero CP mismatch current tracking mode, and 3. steady state mode. The step response of VCO control voltage explaining the different modes of operation of PLL is shown in Fig. 8. In this design, the charge pump currents are matched for a lower VCO control voltage (point C in Fig. 9) and for higher voltages Iup is lesser than Idn. Coarse locking mode: In this mode, the PLL operates in its conventional closed loop architecture and tries to acquire lock to an output frequency set by the reference signal (Fref) and divider value (in the case of Fig. 8, Fout ¼2.5 GHz and Fref ¼1 MHz). The lock detector output is low with the SAR controller digital bits set to high (1111) and the DAC output controlling the PMOS current source transistor's body voltage is held at VDD (1.3 V). For a VCO control voltage of 0.912 V (Fout ¼ 2.5 GHz), the charge-pump currents are Iup ¼52.44 μA and Idn ¼56.12 μA (points A and B in Fig. 9, respectively). This mismatch between the CP currents creates ripple on VCO control voltage and frequency modulates the VCO output signal. Zero CP mismatch current tracking mode: The lock detector enables the mismatch current reduction loop on the detection of phase lock between the reference and feedback signals. Initially, the reference signal leads the feedback signal (I up o I dn , Vb ¼ 1.3 V) and the phase error is positive. A calibration clock generated by dividing down the reference signal is used to trigger the 4 bit-SAR controller. The charge-pump current characteristics demonstrating the SAR controller operation in minimizing the mismatch between Iup and Idn are shown in Fig. 9 and are explained as follows: Transition 1: On the 1st rising edge of the calibration clock, SAR controller calibrates its MSB (“1111” to “0111”) and forward body biases the UP current source transistor (Vb ¼1.25 V in Fig. 11) to increase the magnitude of its output current, shifting the zero mismatch current point to a higher VCO control voltage. Transition 2: On the 2nd clock rising edge, the charge-pump current Iup is lesser than Idn, phase error is positive and the SAR controller adjusts its output bits from “0111” to “0011” to further increase the magnitude of Iup (Vb ¼1.225 V). Transition 3: On the 3rd rising transition of calibration clock, I up 4 I dn with the phase error negative and the SAR controller reduces the magnitude of forward body biasing of PMOS transistor and the magnitude of UP current (“0011” to “0101” and Vb ¼ 1.2375 V). Transition 4: On the 4th clock rising edge, I up oI dn and the phase error is positive. The SAR controller calibrates its LSB (”0101” to ”0100” and Vb ¼1.23125 V) increasing the magnitude of UP current. At the end of nth calibration cycle of a n-bit SAR controller, the current points A, B and C in Fig. 9 almost coincide with each other minimizing the charge-pump mismatch current and the magnitude of ripple on the VCO control voltage. This is a simple first order loop operation and auxiliary loop added forms an unconditionally stable system. Figs. 10 and 11 show the effect of SAR R.R. Manikandan, B. Amrutur / Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 427 Fig. 14. Measured VCO transfer characteristics (VCO þ EC output, PVT calibration bits, B5 to B0). Fig. 13. Die photograph of the fabricated test chip in 0.13 μm CMOS process and the experimental setup used to demonstrate the proposed concept. controller operation on the VCO control voltage and PMOS transistor body voltage (Vb), respectively, during the zero chargepump mismatch current tracking mode. Steady state mode: After n cycles of mismatch current calibration (for a n-bit SAR controller, in this design n ¼ 4), PLL operates in its steady state mode with the SAR controller and DAC holding the optimized body voltage for a minimum CP mismatch current condition. The magnitude of CP mismatch current and pk–pk ripple on VCO control voltage in this mode are 0.013 μA and 0.6 mV, and 3.68 μA and 5.9 mV with the mismatch current reduction loop enabled and disabled, respectively, as shown in Figs. 10 and 11. Fig. 12 shows the static phase error and reference spur levels simulated across the PLL output frequency range 2.4–2.5 GHz, for a Tpfd of 5 ns. In this simulation, the PFD reset delay is assumed larger than the optimum value to emulate the experimental conditions used in the implementation (described in Section 4). The static phase error and reference spur levels observed at 2.5 GHz output frequency are 423 ps and 66.46 dBc, and 9.3 ps and 86.8 dBc, respectively, with the mismatch current reduction loop disabled and enabled, respectively, thus demonstrating the efficiency of proposed technique in improving the reference spur and static phase error performance of PLL. The results can be further improved by having an optimum reset delay in the phase frequency detector design. The overall settling time of the synthesizer is less than 120 μs for a 100 MHz frequency step (2.4–2.5 GHz shown in Fig. 8) and it can be improved by increasing the frequency at which the mismatch current reduction loop operates or by increasing the loop bandwidth of PLL. The DAC and other digital circuits in the mismatch current reduction loop operate at a lower frequency of f ref =16 and the performance of DAC is also relaxed in terms of speed, noise, and matching. Therefore, the additional power consumption from the mismatch current reduction loop is negligible. In the steady state mode of frequency synthesizer, the capacitive DAC holds the optimum body voltage for the minimum CP mismatch current condition and therefore its decay voltage must Fig. 15. Measured phase noise characteristics of 2.4 GHz signal. be kept within its LSB step. Simulations show a worst case DAC decay of 1.32 mV over a 50 ms time duration (FF, 100 1C) which is much lesser than the unit step voltage used in this implementation. In frequency hopping wireless communication applications where the frequency is reset more often, this is not an issue and for other applications, DAC architectures immune to leakage such as R-2R DAC can be used [36]. 4. Experimental setup and measurements A chip prototype containing an integer-N charge-pump PLL with the CP mismatch current reduction loop was fabricated in a UMC 0.13 μm Mixed-Mode and RF CMOS 1.2 V/3.3 V 1P8M process. The buffer A shown in Fig. 7 was not integrated onchip and as a result, the bulk leakage current disrupted the normal operation of capacitive DAC. Consequently, we implemented the CP mismatch current reduction loop (enclosed by dashed lines in Fig. 7) off-chip to demonstrate the proposed concept. Fig. 13 shows the die photograph of the PLL chip and the test setup used in the experiment. 4.1. Frequency synthesizer The type-II, 3rd order integer-N charge-pump PLL used in the experiment is shown in Fig. 7. The PLL does frequency synthesis at a lower operating frequency of 800 MHz to reduce the power consumption from its VCO and divider circuits [37–40]. A digital logic gate based edge combiner generates the 2.4 GHz RF carrier by combining the output signals from different stages of a ring oscillator VCO used in the PLL [41]. The reference signal frequency was chosen as 1.667 MHz, so that the channel spacing in the up-converted 2.4 GHz frequency band is 5 MHz (for Zig-bee applications). 428 R.R. Manikandan, B. Amrutur / Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 Fig. 16. Measured reference and feedback signals with the PLL operating in its steady state mode. Fig. 17. Measured static phase error and reference spur with the CP mismatch current reduction loop disabled and enabled (Fout ¼ 2.4 GHz, Fref ¼ 1.667 MHz). The phase frequency detector (PFD) and divider are implemented using standard digital logic circuits with tri-state dead zone free phase detector and down counter architectures, respectively. The current steering charge-pump circuit with adaptive body bias tuning (Fig. 3a) was designed to source or sink programmable currents in the range of 3–100 μA from a reference current source of 10 μA. The loop filter parameters are Rz ¼ 60 kΩ; C z ¼ 200 pF; C p ¼ 15:2 pF designed for a PLL loop bandwidth of 100 kHz and phase margin 601. The loop filter capacitors are implemented using the gate capacitance of NMOS transistors to reduce the area occupied by large capacitors on-chip. A pseudo-differential voltage controlled ring oscillator (VCO) with varactor and bias current tuning is used in the PLL. The VCO and edge combiner covers an operating frequency range of R.R. Manikandan, B. Amrutur / Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 429 Fig. 18. Measurements across PLL operating frequency range 2.4–2.5 GHz. Table 1 Performance summary and comparison. Process, (μm) Supply voltage (V) Output frequency (GHz) Reference frequency (MHz) Loop Bandwidth (KHz) Power consumption (mW) Phase noise (dBc/Hz) Reference spur (dBc) Static phase error (ps) Area (mm2) [19] [11] [21] [29] [14] This worka 0.18 1.8 5.2 10 200 19.8 110 @ 1 MHz 68.5 – 0.64 0.25 2.5 4.5 4 90 117.5 87 @ 1 MHz 45 – – 0.09 1 0.8 100 – 15 112 @ 0.2 MHz 48 o 7 40 0.048 0.065 0.4 0.35 21.875 – 0.109 90 @ 1 MHz 55.3 – 0.0081 0.18 1.8 2.4 1 – 18 110 @ 1 MHz 55 – 0.9 0.13 1.3 2.4 1.667 100 10.7 96.01 @ 1 MHz b 31.47 c o 7 70 0.31 a Mismatch current reduction loop implemented off-chip. The reference spurs are large due to undesired parasitic coupling through substrate and supply in this implementation A C9 dB reduction in spur level was demonstrated with the CP mismatch current calibration. c Limited due to the use of large PFD reset delay. b 2.35–2.55 GHz and the measured VCO transfer characteristics for different PVT calibration settings (B5 to B0) are shown in Fig. 14. The frequency synthesizer achieves a phase noise of 96.01 dBc/ Hz at 1 MHz offset from a 2.4 GHz RF carrier consuming 8.2 mA current from a 1.3 V supply voltage. Fig. 15 shows the measured phase noise characteristics of the 2.4 GHz signal generated by the frequency synthesizer. The measured phase noise performance is comparable to the other ring oscillator based frequency synthesizer implementations reported in [39,42] and can be improved by burning additional power in the ring oscillator. 4.2. Zero charge-pump mismatch current tracking loop The designed frequency synthesizer chip has test points that bring out the PFD input signals (Fref and Ffb) and the CP PMOS transistor body terminal to the chip package pins and the zero CP mismatch current tracking loop are implemented off-chip to demonstrate the working of proposed concept. The digital circuits in the mismatch current reduction loop are implemented in the FPGA using conventional circuit techniques and the DAC is implemented from a digitally controlled variable resistor chip AD8304. Fig. 13c shows the experimental setup used in the demonstration. The non-ideal effects such as undesired coupling through substrate, supply voltage, and other parasitic interactions also contributed to the reference spurs [7,19,43,44]. Therefore, we have used a larger PFD reset delay in the implementation to sense smaller CP mismatch currents through static phase error measured off-chip and to observe the effects of CP mismatch current on the reference spur performance of PLL over the other non-ideal effects. The measured charge-pump current characteristics and the effect of body biasing in minimizing the CP mismatch current are shown in Fig. 6. The measured transient response of reference and feedback signals with the PLL operating in its steady state mode are shown in Fig. 16: In this implementation, the CP mismatch current and the PLL output frequency increase with the VCO control voltage (Figs. 6b and 14). Hence the static phase error between the reference and feedback signals also increases with the PLL output frequency as shown in Fig. 16a. Forward body biasing of PMOS transistor reduces the CP mismatch current and hence the static phase error also reduces as demonstrated in Fig. 16b. At the zero mismatch current point where I up ¼ I dn , the static phase error reaches C0 ps. Beyond this body voltage, Iup becomes greater than Idn with the reference signal lagging behind the feedback signal as shown in Fig. 16b. Fig. 17a shows the measured static phase error between the PFD input signals (Fout ¼2.4 GHz) with the mismatch current reduction loop disabled (2.215 ns) and enabled (41.09 ps). The corresponding measured PLL output frequency spectrum (2.4 GHz) with the reference spur levels 22.42 dBc (loop disabled) and 31.47 dBc (loop enabled) is shown in Fig. 17b. The measured spur levels are large due to the undesired parasitic coupling from reference and feedback signal buffers to the sensitive nodes of PLL through substrate, supply and other non-ideal effects. Similar undesired parasitical effects resulting in large spurious tones are also been reported in the literature [43,45]. The static phase error and reference spur levels 430 R.R. Manikandan, B. Amrutur / Microelectronics Journal 46 (2015) 422–430 measured across the synthesizer output frequency range 2.4–2.5 GHz are shown in Fig. 18a and b, respectively. Table 1 presents the summary of measured performance from the frequency synthesizer and its comparison with other designs. 5. Conclusion A charge-pump mismatch current reduction technique using an adaptive body bias tuning of PMOS transistors in the CP was demonstrated. The proposed technique compensates for the DC current mismatch and the mismatch due to channel length modulation effect and hence improves the static phase error and reference spur performance of CP-PLLs in the nano-meter CMOS implementations. Chip prototype of a 2.4 GHz, integer-N charge-pump PLL was fabricated in 0.13 μm CMOS process. Measurements show a CP mismatch current of less than 0.3 μA (0.55%) and 9.44 μA (17.2%) with and without body bias tuning, respectively, in the VCO control voltage range 0.3–1 V. 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