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Champion Briefs
March/April 2015
Lincoln-Douglas Brief
Resolved: Just governments
ought to ensure food
security for their citizens.
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The$Evidence$Standard$$
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March/April$2015$
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The$Evidence!Standard$
!
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Speech!and!Debate!provides!a!meaningful!and!educational!experience!to!all!who!are!involved.!
We,!as!educators!in!the!community,!believe!that!it!is!our!responsibility!to!provide!resources!that!
uphold!the!foundation!of!the!Speech!and!Debate!activity.!Champion!Briefs,!its!employees,!
managers,!and!associates!take!an!oath!to!uphold!the!following!Evidence!Standard:!
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1. We!will!never!falsify!facts,!opinions,!dissents,!or!any!other!information.!
2. We!will!never!knowingly!distribute!information!that!has!been!proven!to!be!inaccurate,!
even!if!the!source!of!the!information!is!legitimate.!
3. We!will!actively!fight!the!dissemination!of!false!information!and!will!provide!the!
community!with!clarity!if!we!learn!that!a!thirdEparty!has!attempted!to!commit!deception.!
4. We!will!never!support!or!distribute!studies,!news!articles,!or!other!materials!that!use!
inaccurate!methodologies!to!reach!a!conclusion!or!prove!a!point.!
5. We!will!provide!meaningful!clarification!to!any!who!question!the!legitimacy!of!
information!distributed!by!ourselves!or!by!any!thirdEparty.!
6. We!will!actively!contribute!to!students’!understanding!of!the!world!by!using!evidence!
from!a!multitude!of!perspectives!and!schools!of!thought.!
7. We!will,!within!our!power,!assist!the!community!as!a!whole!in!its!mission!to!achieve!the!
goals!and!vision!of!this!activity.!
!
These!seven!statements,!while!seemingly!simple,!represent!the!complex!notion!of!what!it!means!
to!advance!students’!understanding!of!the!world!around!them,!as!is!the!purpose!of!educators.!
Champion)Briefs)
)
4$
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
Table&of&Contents&
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The&Evidence&Standard&.............................................................................................&4&
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Table&of&Contents&........................................................................................................&5&
!
Topic&Analyses&...........................................................................................................&24!
Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian&..........................................................................................&25!
Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried&.......................................................................................&37!
Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt&..........................................................................................&48!
Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge&..........................................................................................&54&
!
Topic&Analysis&by&Jared&Woods&...........................................................................&59&
!
Framework&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried&............................................................&76&
!
Evidence&for&the&Affirmative&......................................................................&83!
Ableism)AC)...................................................................................................................................)84!
Disability&is&a&significant&risk&factor&for&food&security.&....................................&84!
Establishing&access&to&food&as&a&right&is&key&to&including&people&with&
disabilities&is&key&to&including&them&within&the&global&development&
agenda.&.............................................................................................................................&85!
Establishing&access&to&food&as&a&right&is&key&to&including&people&with&
disabilities&is&key&to&including&them&within&the&global&development&
agenda.&.............................................................................................................................&88!
The&interests&of&people&with&disabilities&are&largely&ignored&within&
food&security&policy&but&now&is&the&key&time&to&include&them&within&
mainstream&discussions&of&development.&........................................................&91!
Disability&studies&is&a&useful&lens&through&which&to&view&food&security&
issues.&...............................................................................................................................&93!
The&disabled&do&not&have&security&in&many&parts&of&the&world.&..............&94!
Champion)Briefs)
5&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
Disabled&people&are&excluded&from&discussions&of&food&security.&.........&95!
A&disability&perspective&is&necessary&in&the&study&of&food&security.&.....&97!
Modeling&the&Gaibandha&Food&Security&Program&by&establishing&
income&generating&activities&can&solve.&.............................................................&98!
Contracts/Polls)AC)...................................................................................................................)99!
The&Brazilian&Constitution&defends&food&security&as&a&national&right.& 99!
The&World&Declaration&and&Plan&of&Action&for&Nutrition&represents&an&
overwhelming&international&consensus&that&food&security&is&a&right.&......&100!
All&major&international&human&rights&covenants&address&and&recognize&
the&right&to&food&and&the&government’s&obligation&to&ensure&that&right&
for&their&citizens.&.......................................................................................................&101!
The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&recognizes&the&right&to&
food&on&a&national&and&international&level.&....................................................&102!
The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&recognizes&the&right&to&
food&on&a&national&and&international&level&and&is&legally&binding.&......&103!
ICCPR&has&one&of&the&largest&memberships&in&the&world&and&recognizes&
a&governments&obligation&to&provide&food&security&for&its&citizens.&...&104!
Deontology)AC).........................................................................................................................)105!
Food&insecurity&kills&military&readiness.&........................................................&105!
Changing&unequal&gender&dynamics&is&a&key&tenet&of&food&security&and&
proper&child&development.&...................................................................................&108!
The&right&to&adequate&food&is&firmly&established&under&international&
law.&..................................................................................................................................&110!
Ending&world&hunger&is&the&highest&priority&of&the&international&
community.&..................................................................................................................&111!
Increasing&interdependence&makes&it&more&difficult&for&countries&to&
stabilize&the&cost&of&food&domestically.&............................................................&112!
The&Universal&Declaration&on&the&Eradication&of&Hunger&and&
Malnutrition&affirms.&...............................................................................................&113!
Champion)Briefs)
6&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
Food&is&important&beyond&a&physical&need&for&hunger.&............................&114!
The&issue&of&food&security&is&a&question&of&whether&it&is&justified&by&a&
principle&of&charity&or&justice.&.............................................................................&115!
Providing&citizens&with&food&security&is&a&perfect&duty&for&the&state.&.&116!
Any&moral&theory&that&values&human&dignity&must&recognize&the&right&
to&food&regardless&of&the&distinction&between&positive&and&negative&
rights.&.............................................................................................................................&117!
Consumers&act&deontically.&...................................................................................&119!
Those&without&food&security&face&social&stigma.&..........................................&120!
The&fetal&origins&hypothesis&states&that&those&born&to&malnourished&
parents&are&more&likely&to&get&disease&later&in&life.&....................................&121!
The&Dutch&famine&shows&a&relation&between&malnutrition&and&
cardiovascular&disease&in&later&life.&..................................................................&123!
Famine&during&gestation&is&linked&to&increased&risk&of&pulmonary&disease.
&...........................................................................................................................................&124!
HIV&hinders&food&security.&.....................................................................................&125!
Ethics)of)Care/Feminism)AC)..............................................................................................)126!
Empowering&women&is&key&to&providing&food&security&and&fighting&
child&malnutrition.&...................................................................................................&126!
Food&security&that&is&attentive&to&gender&relations&are&key&to&
preventing&gender&related&violence.&.................................................................&128!
Feminism)AC)............................................................................................................................)129!
There&are&gender&specific&implications&to&food&insecurity.&....................&129!
We&must&examine&the&sexist,&racist,&and&classist&history&of&the&food&
movement.&....................................................................................................................&130!
Women&are&disproportionately&harmed&by&food&insecurity.&..................&132!
Naturalism)AC).........................................................................................................................)133!
Entitlements&to&food&are&a&societal&norm.&......................................................&133!
Corporations&have&taken&over&the&world’s&food&supply.&..........................&134!
Champion)Briefs)
7&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
Government&must&stop&Monsanto&from&bullying&farmers.&......................&135!
GMO&crops&make&it&harder&to&farm&and&the&government&needs&to&do&
something.&....................................................................................................................&136!
Political&organization&to&acquire&food&is&natural.&.......................................&137!
Because&political&organization&is&always&driven&by&biological&
imperative&even&larger&states&should&naturally&secure&food&for&their&
citizens.&..........................................................................................................................&138!
Generic)Utilitarian/Human)Rights)AC).........................................................................)139!
Food&security&policy&does&not&have&contribute&to&violence&if&done&
correctly&it&can&create&a&more&peaceful&society.&..........................................&139!
Food&insecurity&causes&chronic&disease&and&nutritional&deficiencies&
among&children&and&adults.&..................................................................................&140!
Food&security&programs&can&have&a&stabilizing&effect&that&improves&the&
perceived&legitimacy&of&the&country&Brinkman&and&Korbel&writes:.&...&142!
Food&security&interventions&also&improve&the&sustainability&of&
infrastructure&and&livelihood.&.............................................................................&143!
Food&security&initiatives&promote&social&cohesion&especially&among&
young&people&and&groups&with&ethnic&tension&which&are&the&strongest&
contributors&to&unrest&and&violence.&................................................................&145!
Food&security&is&not&just&the&ability&access&food&but&also&ensuring&that&
everyone&has&the&means&to&afford&it.&.................................................................&147!
The&issue&is&generally&not&a&lack&of&food&but&rather&inability&to&afford&it.
&...........................................................................................................................................&148!
Rising&cost&of&food&and&declining&food&stocks&contribute&to&cost&of&food&
harming&impoverished&people.&...........................................................................&149!
Transnational&companies&aggravate&the&issue&by&decreasing&ecological&
productivity&and&exploiting&desperate&farmers.&.........................................&150!
Children&are&the&most&vulnerable&and&are&disproportionately&affected&
by&food&insecurity.&....................................................................................................&151!
Champion)Briefs)
8&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
The&International&Food&Security&Treaty&is&key&to&enforcement&and&
international&cooperation&to&end&world&hunger.&........................................&152!
The&IFST&is&key&to&enforcement&and&accountability.&..................................&154!
The&IFST&is&key&to&accountability&because&it&requires&participating&
states&to&report&their&data&meaning&they&can’t&backslide&or&hide&
failures.&..........................................................................................................................&155!
The&IFST&is&also&key&to&checking&back&international&corporations&to&not&
exploit&their&workers&if&they&wish&to&business&in&participating&
countries.&......................................................................................................................&157!
Purely&economic&approaches&to&food&security&are&inadequate&at&
addressing&the&problem&only&the&IFST&can&solve.&........................................&158!
The&IFST&is&also&key&to&ensuring&international&security&and&reducing&
civic&conflict.&...............................................................................................................&160!
The&IFST&is&a&key&starting&point&to&ending&world&hunger.&.......................&161!
International)Law)AC)...........................................................................................................)162!
A&right&to&food&is&enshrined&in&international&law.&.......................................&162!
The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&guarantees&food&security.
&...........................................................................................................................................&163!
The&Declaration&on&the&Right&to&Development&requires&states&to&
provide&food&security.&.............................................................................................&164!
The&International&Covenant&on&Economic,&Social&and&Cultural&Rights&
mandates&that&states&should&provide&adequate&food&for&their&citizens.
&...........................................................................................................................................&165!
The&American&Declaration&of&the&Rights&and&Duties&of&Man&includes&a&
right&to&food&security.&..............................................................................................&166!
The&Convention&on&the&Rights&of&the&Child&includes&provisions&for&food&
security.&.........................................................................................................................&167!
States&have&a&duty&to&provide&food&security&for&children.&........................&168!
International&law&codifies&food&security&as&a&human&right.&....................&169!
Champion)Briefs)
9&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
International&mechanisms&exist&to&transfer&food&to&those&in&need.&....&170!
The&UN&is&clear:&everyone&should&get&food&based&on&international&law.
&...........................................................................................................................................&172!
Governments&only&need&to&provide&the&conditions.&They&don’t&need&to&
distribute&the&food.&...................................................................................................&174!
The&international&legal&right&to&food&shares&connections&with&the&idea&
of&food&security.&.........................................................................................................&175!
MacIntyre)AC)...........................................................................................................................)176!
Communities&need&agreements&about&what&the&common&goods&each&
individual&is&entitled&to&are&in&order&to&end&the&tolerance&of&structural&
injustice.&Only&with&this&agreement&can&we&stop&being&heedless&
towards&the&impoverished.&...................................................................................&176!
Though&there&is&a&multiplicity&of&ways&one&might&lead&a&good&life&there&
are&essential&things&which&are&good&for&humans.&........................................&178!
Humans&live&in&a&state&of&vulnerability&which&requires&humans&be&
concerned&with&the&things&they&are&dependent&upon.&...............................&179!
There&are&certain&evident&facts&about&the&world&around&us&that&we&
ignore.&............................................................................................................................&181!
We&ignore&that&our&access&to&cheap&food&comes&at&the&expense&of&other&
people.&...........................................................................................................................&182!
Those&who&have&been&discarded&by&our&economy&do&not&have&access&to&
food.&................................................................................................................................&183!
There&is&structural&injustice&in&the&economy&regarding&who&has&access&
to&food,&but&heedlessness&prevents&us&from&being&aware&of&this.&.........&184!
Political)Instability/Conflict)Advantage)AC)...............................................................)185!
China’s&water&is&running&dry,&which&is&a&national&security&concern.&..&185!
China&must&fix&its&food&production&or&cause&international&chaos.&.......&186!
Poverty)AC)................................................................................................................................)187!
Hunger&is&a&problem&of&poverty&rather&than&lack&of&food&resources.&..&187!
Champion)Briefs)
10&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
The&majority&of&malnourished&people&are&in&poverty.&..............................&189!
Hunger&and&poverty&are&linked&in&a&cycle.&......................................................&190!
We&ought&to&reject&food&insecurity&and&poverty.&.........................................&191!
In&India&poverty&and&hunger&are&so&intimately&linked&that&government&
measures&of&poverty&don’t&even&fully&appreciate&the&problem&of&
hunger.&...........................................................................................................................&192!
In&order&to&examine&food&security,&we&must&examine&social&
inequalities.&.................................................................................................................&193!
Food&security&and&environmental&justice&are&intrinsically&linked.&.....&194!
Food&security&protects&labor&workers.&............................................................&195!
Farm&workers&live&in&poor&conditions&`&four&warrants.&............................&196!
Immigrant&labor&workers&are&tricked&into&poor&work&conditions.&......&197!
Legal&reform&is&key&to&help&farm&laborers&`&they&have&been&exploited&
for&decades.&..................................................................................................................&198!
"Food&deserts"&disproportionately&exist&in&low&income&communities.
&...........................................................................................................................................&199!
Two&reasons&why&chain&grocers&don’t&solve.&.................................................&201!
Those&without&readily&accessible&food&are&viewed&negatively.&.............&202!
Rich&countries&horde&food&and&countries&have&to&rely&on&trade&for&food&
security.&.........................................................................................................................&203!
Food&security&varies&based&upon&goal.&.............................................................&204!
Children&are&harmed&by&food&insecurity.&........................................................&205!
Poverty&and&food&insecurity&may&correlate,&but&are&separate&
phenomena.&.................................................................................................................&206!
Factors&that&contribute&to&food&insecurity.&....................................................&207!
Reductions&of&welfare&and&mobility&contribute&to&food&insecurity.&....&208!
Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&study&account&for&state&by&state&variations.&......&209!
Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&study&account&for&federal&food&assistance.&........&210!
Champion)Briefs)
11&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
Summer&meal&programs&lower&risk&for&food&insecurity.&..........................&212!
Taxes&increase&food&insecurity.&..........................................................................&213!
AT&Libertarian&NC&`&There&is&not&significant&relationship&between&tax&
burden&and&food&insecurity.&.................................................................................&214!
Stability&is&key&`&unemployment&is&not&directly&linked&to&insecurity.&215!
Family&who&are&not&poor&still&struggle&with&food&security.&.....................&216!
Racism)AC).................................................................................................................................)217!
Race&is&crucial&in&food&studies.&............................................................................&217!
The&current&status&of&food&security&threatens&the&sovereignty&of&
indigenous&peoples.&.................................................................................................&218!
Education&is&key&to&undo&the&racist&view&of&the&US&food&system.&..........&220!
Public&pedagogy&disrupts&whiteness&in&the&food&movement.&.................&221!
Rawlsian/Social)Contract)AC)...........................................................................................)222!
On&pain&of&contradiction&we&must&recognize&the&right&to&subsistence&as&
a&general&duty.&............................................................................................................&222!
The&global&food&system&links&environmentalism&with&social&justice.&.&223!
India’s&food&security&program&is&financially&unsustainable.&..................&224!
Income&Generating&activities&as&a&method&of&food&security&can&be&used&
to&empower&people&with&disabilities.&...............................................................&225!
Income&Generating&activities&as&a&method&of&food&security&can&be&used&
to&empower&people&with&disabilities.&...............................................................&226!
Increased&income&and&food&consumption&leads&to&increased&beef&
consumption.&..............................................................................................................&227!
Livestock&used&to&satisfy&beef&demand&is&the&leading&cause&of&warming.
&...........................................................................................................................................&228!
An&overwhelming&majority&of&Americans&across&all&ideological&groups&
support&the&government's&role&in&ensuring&food&security.&.....................&229!
Concerns&of&overpopulation&are&based&on&a&false&understanding&of&how&
populations&sustain&themselves.&........................................................................&230!
Champion)Briefs)
12&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
Justice&requires&distribution&of&food.&...............................................................&233!
Food&justice&requires&a&system&when&individuals&are&represented&in&its&
governing.&.....................................................................................................................&234!
Food&justice&shouldn’t&just&be&about&participation.&It&should&also&be&
about&participation.&.................................................................................................&235!
Food&Security&is&promoted&by&a&welfare&state.&.............................................&236!
Community&connections&are&key&to&food&security.&......................................&237!
Infrastructure&and&community&connections&are&key&to&prevent&food&
insecurity&`&studies&prove.&.....................................................................................&238!
Affordable&housing&is&another&alternative&to&promote&food&security.&239!
Food&access&problems&harm&community&values.&.........................................&240!
Rule)Util)AC)...............................................................................................................................)241!
Hunger&is&a&large&and&growing&problem.&.........................................................&241!
When&there&are&no&other&actors,&government&should&give&as&much&as&
possible.&........................................................................................................................&242!
Hunger&is&a&serious&issue.&......................................................................................&243!
Agricultural&growth&needs&to&be&matched&with&social&guarantees&
against&hunger.&...........................................................................................................&244!
Food&security&promotes&economic&egalitarianism.&....................................&245!
Soft)Power)Advantage)AC)...................................................................................................)246!
The&Democratic&Republic&of&the&Congo&can&bargain&with&the&West&over&
food&resources.&...........................................................................................................&246!
The&DRC&can&increase&its&bargaining&power&by&providing&food&security&
for&its&people.&..............................................................................................................&248!
Specific)Plans)..........................................................................................................................)249!
Just&states&ought&to&participate&in&an&international&treaty&to&guarantee&
food&security&through&domestic&legislation&and&ratification&of&a&treaty.
&...........................................................................................................................................&249!
The&campaign&clarifies&what&accessibility&means.&......................................&250!
Champion)Briefs)
13&
Table&of&Contents&
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March/April&2015&
A&countries&obligation&would&be&three`fold.&..................................................&251!
GMO&Crops&Plan:&Demographic&pressures&will&rise&in&the&future.&
Science&has&helped&us&in&the&past.&......................................................................&252!
GMO&Crops&Plan:&Today's&environment&requires&genetic&engineering&to&
raise&global&crop&yields.&.........................................................................................&253!
GMO&Crops&Plan:&China's&agricultural&plan&solves&the&future's&global&
famine.&...........................................................................................................................&254!
GMO&Crops&Plan:&the&Chinese&Plan&requires&government&investment.
&...........................................................................................................................................&256!
Food&stamps&are&necessary&to&break&individuals&from&the&cycle&of&food&
insecurity.&.....................................................................................................................&257!
Food&stamps&create&an&economic&demand&for&more&stores.&...................&259!
Food&safety&nets&are&a&good&idea.&.......................................................................&260!
Food&stocks&could&make&intervention&easier,&help&vulnerable&
populations,&and&prevent&speculation&causing&price&volatility.&............&261!
Market&regulation&and&transparency&would&reduce&price&volatility.&.&262!
Fish&Plan:&Increased&fishing&can&help&curb&food&insecurity&in&Africa.&263!
Fish&Plan:&Fish&provide&subsistence&and&economic&growth&to&villagers.
&...........................................................................................................................................&264!
Fish&Plan:&Africa&must&support&increased&aquaculture&to&provide&for&
citizens.&..........................................................................................................................&265!
Must&have&clear&goals&in&order&to&overcome&food&injustices.&.................&266!
Education&is&key&to&promoting&food&security&in&these&regions.&.............&267!
Multifaceted&laws&are&key.&.....................................................................................&268!
Must&take&multifaceted&approach&to&change&agriculture.&........................&269!
Food&security&justifies&food&stamps.&.................................................................&270!
Policy&makers&should&increase&access&to&food&assistance&programs&to&
people&who&are&not.&..................................................................................................&271!
Champion)Briefs)
14&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
We&must&tailor&policy&to&the&specific&problems&of&insecurity.&...............&272!
We&must&act&now&for&food&security.&...................................................................&273!
Util)AC).........................................................................................................................................)274!
Malnutrition&causes&drastic&physical&and&social&effects&within&weeks.
&...........................................................................................................................................&274!
Among&comparative&studies,&malnourished&patients&become&more&
susceptible&to&tuberculosis.&..................................................................................&275!
Malnourished&individuals&cannot&function&in&society,&leading&to&a&
vicious&cycle&of&hunger.&..........................................................................................&276!
US&relief&programs&targeting&food&security&help&create&healthy&
households.&..................................................................................................................&277!
Models&show&that&households&that&lack&food&are&more&likely&to&be&
unhealthy.&.....................................................................................................................&278!
Food&insecurity&lowers&levels&of&child&development.&................................&279!
We&should&look&at&comparative&moral&costs&and&benefits&of&any&policy.
&...........................................................................................................................................&280!
36&million&Americans&are&food&insecure.&........................................................&281!
Price&volatility&can&trigger&large&scale&harms&to&the&poor,&producers,&
and&the&state.&...............................................................................................................&282!
When&prices&are&low&states&often&stop&preparing&for&food&volatility.&.&283!
There&needs&to&be&strong&political&commitment&to&food&security&to&
solve&hunger.&...............................................................................................................&284!
Solving&hunger&is&possible;&history&proves.&...................................................&285!
Solving&hunger&is&possible;&we’re&making&good&progress.&.......................&286!
Even&though&progress&has&been&made&across&the&globe&there&are&still&
regions&where&more&effort&needs&to&be&made.&..............................................&287!
Growth&alone&can’t&solve.&States&need&to&ensure&security.&Latin&America&
proves.&...........................................................................................................................&288!
India&needs&food&security&now.&...........................................................................&289!
Champion)Briefs)
15&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
We&must&look&at&availability&and&utilization&when&examining&food&
security.&.........................................................................................................................&290!
Access&is&key.&...............................................................................................................&291!
Infrastructure&is&key&to&food&security.&.............................................................&292!
Climate&change&and&food&security&are&intrinsically&linked.&....................&293!
Climate&change&harms&food&security.&................................................................&294!
Food&security&depends&on&availability,&access,&and&utilization.&............&295!
We&must&fight&climate&change&to&provide&food&security.&..........................&296!
&
Evidence&for&the&Negative&.........................................................................&297!
AntiSCommunism/Communitarianism)NC).................................................................)298!
Collective&labor&is&liable&to&incentive&problems.&.........................................&298!
Collectivized&food&production&is&uniquely&difficult.&...................................&300!
Collectives&eventually&become&compulsory&–&which&destroys&
productivity&and&individual&rights.&...................................................................&301!
AntiSGovernment)Intervention)NC).................................................................................)303!
Our&only&natural&right&is&the&opportunity&to&act.&.........................................&303!
Humans&naturally&act&to&deprive&themselves&of&basic&necessities.&......&304!
In&the&US,&food&security&is&not&a&chronic&problem.&......................................&305!
Food&security&programs&are&econometrically&flawed.&...............................&306!
The&top`down&bureaucratic&model&of&government&doesn’t&work&
anymore.&.......................................................................................................................&307!
Food&stamp&had&a&negative&impact&on&food&security.&.................................&308!
FSP&leads&to&increased&insecurity.&.....................................................................&309!
Residential&stability&is&a&greater&indicator&of&security&than&poverty.&310!
Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&admits&their&results&are&incomplete.&....................&311!
Beef)DA).......................................................................................................................................)312!
Feeding&people&beef&just&makes&them&more&likely&to&die.&.......................&312!
Beef&consumption&and&production&is&shrinking.&.........................................&313!
Champion)Briefs)
16&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
Higher&demand&will&greatly&increase&production&of&beef.&............................&315!
Increased&meat&production&causes&global&warming.&.................................&316!
Cattle&produces&harmful&methane&which&contributes&to&climate&change.
&...........................................................................................................................................&318!
Beef&consumption&is&at&an&all&time&low.&...........................................................&319!
Increased&access&to&food&causes&increase&in&beef&consumption.&..........&320!
Beef&consumption&ensures&global&hunger.&.....................................................&322!
Capitalism)Kritik)NC).............................................................................................................)323!
Food&security&politics&are&really&a&means&of&neoliberal&
developmentalism&to&scale&and&reproduce&capitalist&relations.&...........&323!
Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&harming&the&ones&it&
intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy&for&spreading&
neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&populations.&............................................&324!
Food&security&is&used&by&wealthier&states&as&a&means&of&playing&state&
building&with&“weaker&nations”&in&order&to&control&and&condition&local&
population&breeding&militarism&and&coopting&them&into&the&neoliberal&
system&that&ultimately&exploits&them.&..............................................................&327!
Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&harming&the&ones&it&
intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy&for&spreading&
neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&populations.&............................................&329!
Food&security&is&tied&to&the&spread&of&imperialism&and&neoliberal&
markets&systems&that&harm&anyone&outside&of&the&market&nexus:.&.....&332!
Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&up&harming&the&ones&
it&intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy&for&spreading&
neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&populations.&............................................&335!
Food&Security&is&tied&to&infrastructural&development&and&furtherance&
of&US`centered&neoliberalism&..............................................................................&337!
Champion)Briefs)
17&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&is&central&to&the&reproduction&of&capitalist&social&
relations&and&imperialism&we&must&undertake&a&genealogical&
examination&is&key&to&resist&such&structures.&...............................................&339!
Climate)DA)................................................................................................................................)342!
Agriculture&to&create&food&contributes&heavily&to&climate&emissions.342!
Greenhouse&gas&emissions&from&agriculture&are&set&to&increase&by&
2020.&...............................................................................................................................&343!
Nitrous&oxide&from&agriculture&is&one&of&the&deadliest&greenhouse&
gases.&..............................................................................................................................&344!
Corruption)NC).........................................................................................................................)345!
Food&aid&sometimes&goes&to&terrorist&and&militant&groups.&Somalia&is&a&
good&example.&.............................................................................................................&345!
Food&assistance&isn't&going&to&the&people&who&need&it.&.............................&346!
Food&stamps&are&abused&by&the&population.&People&use&them&to&buy&
drugs&and&weapons.&..................................................................................................&347!
The&USDA&willingly&allows&corruption&in&the&food&stamp&program.&....&348!
Food&service&retailers&regularly&defraud&the&United&States&Government.
&...........................................................................................................................................&350!
Economics)NC)..........................................................................................................................)352!
Food&insecurity&quells&insurgent&violence.&....................................................&352!
Affirmative&claims&that&food&insecurity&breeds&unrest&get&the&causal&
link&mixed&up&civil&conflict&causes&food&insecurity&not&the&other&way&
around.&..........................................................................................................................&354!
While&in&theory&food&security&might&help&the&poor&in&practice&it&only&
helps&the&well&off&at&the&expense&of&those&that&depend&on&selling&
agricultural&goods&for&their&livelihood.&...........................................................&355!
Food)Sovereignty)K/PIC)......................................................................................................)356!
Difference&between&food&security&and&food&sovereignty.&........................&356!
Food&sovereignty&means&local&control&over&resources.&Food&security&
means&being&subject&to&neoliberal&markets.&.................................................&357!
Champion)Briefs)
18&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
The&difference&between&security&and&sovereignty&matters&a&lot.&.........&358!
Food&sovereignty&is&both&a&movement&and&a&theoretical&idea&which&
contrasts&with&food&security.&................................................................................&359!
An&emphasis&on&food&security&has&problematically&led&to&foreign&aid&
organizations&being&able&to&ignore&structural&problems.&........................&360!
International&markets&actually&lead&to&more&insecurity&though&land`
grabbing.&.......................................................................................................................&361!
Land&is&purchased&in&foreign&countries&to&provide&security&for&food`
importing&countries&ignoring&sovereignty&concerns.&................................&362!
Land&grabs&hurt&the&poor&and&women&most&of&all.&......................................&363!
Land&grabs&pose&a&major&challenge&to&nations&despite&their&efforts&to&
develop.&.........................................................................................................................&364!
Food&security&can’t&solve;&you&need&food&sovereignty.&.............................&365!
Food&security&is&anti`democratic&compared&to&food&sovereignty.&........&366!
Food&sovereignty&is&about&providing&people&the&capacity&to&take&part&in&
the&decisions&affecting&them.&...............................................................................&367!
Food&sovereignty&solves&security&and&is&hostile&to&market&forces.&......&368!
The&only&way&to&provide&security&is&through&alleviating&poverty&and&
that&can&only&happen&through&food&sovereignty.&.........................................&369!
Ensuring&food&sovereignty&is&more&than&just&criticizing&neo`liberalism.
&...........................................................................................................................................&370!
Food&sovereignty&is&a&conceptual&alternative&to&top`down&food&security&
programs.&.....................................................................................................................&371!
Food&sovereignty&gives&rights&to&farmers&rather&than&control&to&the&
governments&and&corporations.&..........................................................................&372!
Food&sovereignty&has&specific&policy&goals&that&separate&it&from&food`
based&rights.&Otherwise&it&strives&for&the&same&goals.&..............................&373!
Trade&liberalization&has&led&to&less&food&security&not&more.&..................&375!
Champion)Briefs)
19&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&requires&local&investment&which&means&that&local&sovereignty&is&
key.&..................................................................................................................................&376!
Food&sovereignty&is&conceptually&distinct&from&food&security.&.............&377!
Food&sovereignty&developed&as&a&criticism&of&food&security&and&is&key&
to&female&empowerment.&.......................................................................................&379!
Food&sovereignty&ensures&that&the&agricultural&work&that&women&do&in&
LDCs&is&recognized&and&valued.&...........................................................................&380!
Food&sovereignty&is&key&to&challenging&traditional&gendered&divisions&
of&labor.&.........................................................................................................................&381!
Only&a&food&sovereignty&paradigm&can&stop&land&grabbing.&...................&382!
Net&benefit&to&food&sovereignty&over&food&security.&...................................&383!
Sovereignty&solves&better&for&food&crisis&than&security.&...........................&384!
Gift)K)...........................................................................................................................................)385!
This&self`aggrandizing&motion&to&promote&humanity&through&aid&
destroys&the&unique&value&to&these&people’s&lives.&.....................................&385!
Food&stamps&create&a&cycle&of&need&`&the&welfare&state&is&the&new&
plantation.&....................................................................................................................&386!
State&charity&such&as&food&security&programs&just&make&recipients&lazy.
&...........................................................................................................................................&388!
Individual)Rights)NC)............................................................................................................)389!
Food&security&initiative&drive&up&demand&for&Big&Western&nations&to&
exploit&the&global&south&by&land&grabing.&.......................................................&389!
Land&Grabbing&is&a&new&means&for&Western&nations&to&institute&neo`
colonialism&in&the&Global&South.&.........................................................................&391!
Labor&workers&who&supply&food&are&often&underpaid&and&overworked.
&...........................................................................................................................................&392!
Libertarian)NC)........................................................................................................................)393!
Food&security&programs&create&a&state&of&long`term&dependence&for&the&
population.&...................................................................................................................&393!
Champion)Briefs)
20&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&should&not&be&a&right&unless&recipients&work&for&it.&......&394!
AT&Poverty:&A&right&to&any&welfare&benefit&only&encourages&people&to&
not&work.&.......................................................................................................................&395!
Food&banks&help&millions&every&year.&..............................................................&396!
Food&banks&have&become&sophisticated&enough&to&handle&food&security&
problems.&......................................................................................................................&397!
Any&state&mandated&welfare&program&leads&to&inherently&unfair&
practices.&.......................................................................................................................&398!
If&emerging&markets&are&dependent&on&larger&countries,&their&growth&is&
stunted.&..........................................................................................................................&399!
Malthus)NC)...............................................................................................................................)400!
Population&growth&means&we&can’t&feed&everyone&and&trying&will&only&
exacerbate&the&problem.&........................................................................................&400!
The&poor&can't&eat&if&there's&no&food&available&to&them.&...........................&402!
Data&shows&that&global&society&will&collapse&by&the&middle&of&the&
century.&..........................................................................................................................&403!
Positive&feedback&means&governments&can&do&nothing&to&stop&future&
famine.&...........................................................................................................................&404!
Food&data&supports&an&overpopulation&model.&............................................&405!
Carrying&Capacity&is&still&a&constraint&on&food&security&and&the&quality&
of&life.&..............................................................................................................................&406!
Nietzsche)K)...............................................................................................................................)409!
Pity&is&an&instance&of&moral&failure.&..................................................................&409!
Racism)NC).................................................................................................................................)411!
Food&is&always&caught&up&in&a&racial&apparatus.&..........................................&411!
Food&security&definitions&including&the&notion&of&cultural&
appropriateness&assume&stable&racial&groups.&.............................................&412!
The&exclusion&of&race&in&the&discussion&of&food&security&is&harmful.&..&413!
Urban&agriculture&is&a&solution&entrenched&in&whiteness.&......................&414!
Champion)Briefs)
21&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
The&food&security&movement&(specifically&alternative&food&efforts)&
does&not&take&race&into&consideration.&............................................................&415!
Securitization)K)......................................................................................................................)416!
Setting&food&within&the&realm&of&security&allows&for&the&possibility&of&
conflict.&..........................................................................................................................&416!
Inaccurate&media&sensationalizing&contributes&to&food&securitization.
&...........................................................................................................................................&417!
Food&securitization&can&contribute&to&biotechnological&corporate&
forces.&.............................................................................................................................&418!
Food&securitization&creates&a&moral&imperative&to&invest&in&biotech&
that&outweighs&other&policy&making&concerns&in&public&debates.&........&419!
Food&security&initiatives&foster&neo`colonialist&relations&of&
dependence.&................................................................................................................&420!
The&idea&of&vulnerability&to&any&outside&stressor&requires&a&complex&
system&of&quantification.&.......................................................................................&421!
The&AFF&necessarily&quantifies&people&in&order&to&assess&food&policy.
&...........................................................................................................................................&422!
The&most&widely&accepted&definition&of&food&security&is&market&
oriented.&........................................................................................................................&423!
Globalization&and&industrialization&increase&challenges&for&food&
security.&.........................................................................................................................&424!
Food&security&furthers&a&neoliberal&agenda.&.................................................&425!
The&need&for&food&security&is&driven&by&the&need&to&control&population&
and&manage&citizens.&...............................................................................................&426!
Food&security&is&linked&to&climate&change&and&terrorist&threats.&.........&427!
Post&9/11,&food&became&increasingly&securitized&by&the&US.&..................&428!
Food&security&has&lead&to&a&more&authoritarian&government.&...............&429!
U.S.&securitization&and&food&security&are&intrinsically&linked.&..............&430!
Champion)Briefs)
22&
Table&of&Contents&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&harms&global&south&countries&more&than&global&north.
&...........................................................................................................................................&431!
Food&security&is&neoliberal.&.....................................................................................&432!
Food&security&is&historically&linked&to&the&spread&of&neoliberalism.&..&433!
World&Bank&study&justifies&neoliberalism.&.....................................................&434!
Worse)Food)NC)........................................................................................................................)435!
Food&stamps&can&lead&to&a&cycle&of&obesity.&....................................................&435!
Food&security&does&not&help&farmers.&...............................................................&436!
Champion)Briefs)
23&
Champion Briefs
March/April 2015
Lincoln-Douglas Brief
Topic Analyses
Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian&
March/April&2015&
Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian&
Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.&
!
Interpretational&Issues:&
!
“Food!Security”!
!
The!term!food!security!did!not!exist!as!a!term!of!art!until!the!1974!World!Food!
Conference.!It!was!commonly!understood!as!"sustain!a!steady!expansion!of!food!
consumption!and!to!offset!fluctuations!in!production!and!prices"1.!However,!many!
took!issue!with!this!conception!because!it!largely!ignored!the!needs!of!individual!
citizens.!While!this!may!seem!like!a!slight!oversight,!the!topic!literature!demonstrates!
the!ways!in!which!particular!conceptions!of!food!security!have!major!implications!on!
how!food!security!initiatives!are!implemented.!Different!approaches!to!food!security!
define!and!maintain!different!standards!for!determining!the!scope!of!the!problem!and!
for!measures!of!success.!For!example,!the!previous!definition!reduced!food!security!to!
a!question!of!whether!countries!produced!enough!food!to!feed!their!population!but!
does!not!care!if!they!can!actually!buy!and!eat!the!food!being!produced.!However!food!
security!has!changed!substantially!since!that!time.!Sachs2!clarifies!what!we!generally!
mean!by!food!security!today:!
!
In!1996,!the!Food!and!Agriculture!Organization!of!the!United!Nations!(FAO)&
established&at&its&World&Food&Summit&the&most&widely&agreed&definition&of&
food&security:&“Food&security,&at&the&individual,&household,&national,&
regional&and&global&levels&[is&achieved]&when&all&people,&at&all&times,&have&
physical&and&economic&access&to&sufficient,&safe&and&nutritious&food&to&
meet&their&dietary&needs&and&food&preferences&for&an&active&and&healthy&
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1!!United!Nations.!1975.!Report'of'the'World'Food'Conference,'Rome'5416'November'1974.!New!York!
2!Sachs!13’YCarolyn,!Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!Crafting!A!
New!Vision,!International!Conference!@!Yale!University,!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!UniversityY!
Champion)Briefs)
25&
Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian&
March/April&2015&
life.”!Food!security!goes!substantially!beyond!adequate!global!level!production!
to!include!a!deeper!understanding!of!different!aspects!of!food!security.!!
!
!
If!past!events!are!any!indication!of!future!events!(there!is!some!reasonable!
debate!over!this!issue),!then!negative!debaters!should!notice!how!the!conception!of!
food!security!might!shape!the!approaches!to!global!hunger!and!therefore!limit!or!
improve!the!ability!to!address!the!issue.!Another!issue!worth!noticing!is!that!the!most!
common!definition!of!food!security!does!not!specify!any!particular!method!for!
ensuring!food!security.!Instead!food!security!is!just!a!state!of!affairs!that!the!
affirmative!is!obligated!to!bring!about!or!at!least!prove!the!government!is!obligated!to!
ensure!regardless!of!implementation!questions.!This!might!make!counterplan!and!
plan!inclusive!kritik!debates!confusing!because!it!is!unclear!whether!those!
counterplans!and!kritiks!really!are!negative!ground.!Affirmatives!could!simply!claim!
that!any!attempt!to!ensure!sufficient!access!to!food!is!really!their!ground.!Many!
affirmatives!may!also!use!this!as!an!opportunity!to!defend!positions!that!are!only!
topical!as!a!result!of!the!effects!of!the!affirmative.!Effects!topical!affirmatives!are!
substantially!less!predictable!because!of!the!near!infinite!variety!of!options!that!result!
in!the!affirmative!as!an!effect3.!This!may!also!be!good!news!for!a!lot!of!debates!that!
favor!truthYtesting!interpretations!of!the!resolution!as!there!is!clearly!an!issue!limits!
and!predictability!that!policy!making!interpretations!cannot!sufficiently!resolve.!!
!
“Just!Governments”!
!
Just!like!the!January/February!topic,!this!topic!identifies!a!plurality!of!actors!
but!does!not!specify!any!particular!actor.!This!opens!the!door!for!various!different!
interpretations!of!what!actors!the!affirmative!can!legitimately!fiat.!Since!the!
affirmative!has!defend!that!multiple!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security!many!
planYfocus!debaters!could!defend!more!nuanced!interpretations!of!the!resolution.!For!
example,!debaters!could!fiat!that!international!organizations!or!multilateral!coalitions!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3!For!example,!a!“kill!all!hungry!people”!affirmative!would!result!in!the!complete!absence!of!food!
insecurity!in!states,!but!is!not!likely!a!predictable!approach!to!affirming.!!
Champion)Briefs)
26&
Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian&
March/April&2015&
ensure!food!security!as!a!means!of!bolstering!their!solvency!and!hedge!against!
common!solvency!deficits!like!backsliding.!These!affirmatives!could!simultaneously!
claim!multilateralism!advantages!that!give!the!affirmative!offense!regardless!of!
whether!they!solve!for!the!food!crisis.!Still,!many!plans!and!their!solvency!advocates!
usually!discuss!a!single!government,!many!negative!debaters!may!be!tempted!to!write!
“must!defend!multiple!actors”.!I!warn!that!the!multiple!governmental!institutions!that!
are!required!to!enact!most!affirmatives!would!make!we!meet!arguments!on!this!issue!
very!easy!to!defend!on!either!side!of!this!issue.!For!anyone!who!plans!on!winning!a!
good!theory!debate!on!an!issue!like!this!I!would!suggest!that!you!instead!explore!more!
nuanced!theoretical!criticisms!of!what!constitutes!an!acceptable!fiat.!The!resolution!
lacks!important!parameters!to!justify!who!gets!to!be!the!actor.!Depending!on!what!
counts!as!a!legitimate!affirmation!of!the!topic,!debaters!could!also!justify!a!truthY
testing!interpretation!of!the!resolution.!!!!
!
“Ought!to!ensure”!
!
!
Although!I!am!sure!we!are!all!familiar!with!the!diverse!and!often!ridiculous!
interpretations!of!ought!it!is!definitely!important!to!note!that!ensure!is!commonly!
understood!as:!
!
“ensure,!insure,!assure,!secure!mean!to!make!a!thing!or!person!sure.!Ensure,!
insure,!and!assure!are!interchangeable!in!many!contexts!where!they!indicate!
the!making!certain!or!inevitable!of!an!outcome,!but!ensure!may!imply!a!virtual!
guarantee!the!government!has!ensured!the!safety!of!the!refugee”4.!!
!
This!term!may!seem!more!straightforward!then!the!rest!but!there!is!a!question!
of!whether!it!means!that!governments!are!obligated!to!bring!about!the!result!of!food!
security!which!would!mean!that!solvency!deficits!are!a!sufficient!to!justify!a!negative!
ballot.!Conversely,!it!could!just!mean!that!the!government!is!generally!obligated!to!do!
“something”!about!food!insecurity.!Obviously!both!of!these!interpretations!have!their!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4!http://www.merriamYwebster.com/dictionary/ensure!
Champion)Briefs)
27&
Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian&
March/April&2015&
issues!but!this!issue!will!play!an!important!part!of!determining!what!cases!you!will!
advocate.!It!will!definitely!be!important!to!understand!how!far!the!and!to!what!extent!
governments!are!obligated!to!ensure!the!food!security!of!their!citizens!because!that!
will!determine!the!resolutional!burden!that!the!affirmative!has!to!prove.!!
!
“Their”!5!
!
Their!means!“Belonging!to!or!associated!with!the!people!or!things!previously!
mentioned!or!easily!identified”.!An!important!distinction!that!many!debaters!may!
ignore!is!that!the!resolution!is!not!a!question!of!whether!governments!are!obligated!to!
solve!for!the!food!security!issues!of!other!countries.!The!implication!of!this!
interpretation!is!that!the!recipient!of!food!security!is!clearly!stands!in!possessive!
relation!to!the!actor!or!to!put!it!plainly!the!government!is!ensuring!food!security!for!
their!citizens!however,!they!are!not!necessarily!obligated!to!ensure!that!same!security!
for!the!citizens!of!other!countries.!Many!affirmatives!could!use!this!to!narrow!the!
scope!of!the!resolution!and!their!burden!of!proof!by!claiming!the!government!is!only!
obligated!to!help!their!citizens!and!only!their!citizens.!Many!criticisms!philosophic!
objections!of!the!affirmative!may!claim!that!ensuring!food!security!is!only!an!
admirable!or!supererogatory!action!and!not!actually!obligatory!so!the!affirmative!
could!use!this!argument!to!get!out!of!common!criticism!of!the!affirmative.!Conversely,!
negative!debaters!should!also!think!about!the!implication!of!governments!exclusively!
ensuring!the!food!security!of!their!citizens!to!the!exclusion!of!citizens!from!other!
countries!or!even!nonYcitizens.!!
!
Case&Positions:&An&Overview&
&
Unlike!the!January!February!Topic!the!split!between!lay!and!circuit!debate!on!
this!topic!will!be!a!little!more!evenly!distributed!because!most!of!you!reading!this!will!
be!debating!this!topic!at!their!state!tournament.!I!think!it!is!important!that!your!case!
positions!can!be!adapted!for!the!diverse!set!of!judges!that!will!be!evaluating!your!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5!https://www.google.com/search?q=their+definition&ie=utfY8&oe=utfY8!
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rounds.!There!is!definitely!a!plethora!of!interesting!case!positions!on!this!topic!that!I!
would!encourage!you!to!explore!however!that!cannot!come!to!the!expense!of!lay!prep!
or!else!you!will!end!up!unable!to!adapt!and!frustrated!with!the!less!experienced!
judges.!
&
AFF&positions&
!
Deontology!and!Other!Rights!Based!Approaches!
!
From!a!deontological!perspective!this!topic!brings!up!a!lot!of!the!same!issues!
you!have!probably!noticed!a!lot!of!philosophic!similarities!between!this!topic!and!last!
year’s!March!April!topic!about!putting!conditions!on!political!aid.!That!is!because!a!lot!
of!these!debates!will!boil!down!to!more!general!questions!of!whether!we!have!a!duty!
to!be!beneficent!and!therefore!secure!the!necessary!conditions!of!survival!and!human!
dignity!as!Kant!and!Singer!would!likely!suggest!on!pain!of!contradiction.!Another!
appeal!to!positions!like!this!is!positions!like!this!can!either!have!very!dense!
frameworks!that!can!be!difficult!to!respond!to!in!addition,!it!can!be!adapted!in!front!of!
lay!judges!very!easily!saving!you!a!great!deal!of!time!preparing.!Though!Singer!is!
clearly!a!utilitarian!he!still!defends!universalizability!and!it!could!easily!be!argued!
that!we!are!obligated!to!help!others!if!we!can!at!no!great!expense.!Many!people!may!
argue!that!it!is!impossible!to!feed!everyone.!The!topic!literature!indicates!an!
intuitively!satisfying!answer:!“[b]oth!of!the!world's!leading!authorities!on!food!
distribution!(the!United!Nations!Food!and!Agriculture!Organization![FAO]!and!the!
World!Food!Programme![WFP])!are!very!clear:!there!is!more!than!enough!food!for!
everyone!on!the!planet.!The!FAO!neatly!summarizes!the!problem!of!starvation,!saying!
that!"the!world!currently!produces!enough!food!for!everybody,!but!many!people!do!
not!have!access!to!it."!Food!is!a!lot!like!money:!just!because!some!people!have!none!
doesn't!mean!that!there!isn't!enough!of!itYYit's!just!spread!unevenly.”6!So!it!seems!that!
we!actually!have!enough!food!for!everyone!but!there!is!some!greater!issue!causing!
food!insecurity!that!most!deontological!positions!could!discuss.!That!being!said,!the!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
6!https://overpopulationisamyth.com/foodYtheresYlotsYit!
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responses!to!positions!like!this!are!obvious!since!people!have!been!debating!
deontology!for!decades!(not!that!it!is!a!bad!thing)!so!it!may!be!necessary!to!frontline!a!
lot!of!the!common!objections!to!this!affirmative!such!as!property!right!or!general!
deontology!bad!arguments.!Ripstein!may!also!be!tangentially!related!to!the!topic!given!
that!the!current!food!security!likely!does!create!a!system!of!dependence!or!at!least!
some!instance!of!unequal!freedom!between!those!who!do!not!have!access!to!food!and!
those!that!do!not!which!does!open!room!for!some!interesting!deontological!plans!that!
have!become!popular!this!season.!!
!
Plans/Utility:!
!
The!topic!is!probably!too!open!ended!for!me!to!really!identify!the!best!plan!on!
this!topic!but!I!think!it!is!safe!to!say!that!possibilities!are!limitless!given!that!the!
affirmative!seems!only!to!be!obligated!to!ensure!that!food!security.!As!previously!
stated!the!potential!for!using!multiple!actors!definitely!has!a!lot!of!potential!for!
deriving!offense!but!just!doing!the!plan!that!may!be!sufficient!reason!to!affirm!
regardless!of!whether!they!increase!food!security.!In!addition!these!debaters!will!have!
the!competitive!edge!in!lay!debates!because!less!experience!judges!often!express!
discomfort!with!voting!on!CPs!which!is!probably!the!negatives!best!shot!at!generating!
offense!in!a!utility!debate.!It!is!also!pretty!clear!that!there!are!a!lot!of!harms!this!topic!
discusses!such!as!child!malnutrition!and!poverty!that!will!be!very!persuasive!in!front!
lay!panels.!In!trickier!rounds!it!would!also!be!strategic!to!argue!that!if!utility!is!true!
we!would!probably!have!little!justification!to!selfishly!withhold!foods!from!others!
according!utilitarian!theories!of!beneficence.!Many!people!will!also!probably!rush!
over!for!their!Winter!and!Leighton!cards!for!more!kritikal!approaches!to!the!topic.!
However,!the!kritikal!affirmative!literature!is!too!expansive!to!simply!address!under!
the!plans!debate.!
!
Kritikal!Affirmatives!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Many!of!you!are!pretty!familiar!with!the!proliferation!of!kritikal!affirmatives!
this!year!due!to!the!growing!acceptance!of!alternative!approaches!to!debating!the!
resolution!and!this!resolution!is!definitely!not!an!exception.!The!issues!causing!food!
insecurity!probably!stem!from!larger!oppressive!phenomena!that!would!certainly!be!
relevant!under!many!different!roles!of!the!ballot!that!readers!have!become!accustom!
to!defending!or!are!interested!in!learning!how!to!run!for!their!last!tournament!of!the!
season.!There!is!the!obvious!issue!of!what!tournaments!you!will!have!the!opportunity!
to!run!positions!like!this!however!as!previously!mentioned!you!could!get!around!this!
by!also!making!more!straightforward!and!stock!versions!of!these!case!positions!in!the!
form!of!utility!or!deontology!that!might!make!it!worth!it!to!take!an!alternative!
approach!to!the!topic.!Considering!that!food!insecurity!is!likely!the!cause!of!larger!
structural!inequalities!such!as!neoYcolonialism!or!capitalism.!As!it!has!been!previously!
established,!global!food!supply!is!actually!enough!to!feed!everyone!but!marginalized!
groups!such!as!women,!children!and!people!with!disabilities!are!the!first!to!be!
affected!by!unequal!distributions!in!food.!One!position!that!I!found!to!be!particularly!
interesting!was!that!being!a!person!with!a!disability!was!one!of!the!strongest!
predictors!of!food!insecurity7!and!people!with!disability!are!largely!ignored!in!
development!policy!considerations!despite!the!fact!they!are!disproportionately!food!
insecure!in!comparison!to!other!groups8!which!I!find!personally!troubling.!Of!course!
this!is!only!instance!of!discrimination!that!food!security!policy!could!directly!address!I!
would!definitely!advise!debaters!too!look!into!positions!like!this.!
&
Negative&Positions&
&
Malthusian/Environmental!NCs!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7!http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberYwaves/2013Ymay/disabilityYisYanYimportantYriskYfactorYforY
foodYinsecurity.aspx!
8!http://www.theguardian.com/globalYdevelopmentYprofessionalsY
network/2014/feb/07/disabilityYdevelopmentYpolicyYliveYchat!
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A!glaring!criticism!of!the!affirmative!is!that!it!obligates!the!government!to!
ensure!that!everyone!has!access!to!food!which!sounds!good!in!theory!but!it!may!be!
easier!said!than!done!given!the!difficulty!of!producing!and!distributing!food.!This!
position!in!part!relies!on!the!negative!forcing!the!affirmative!to!defend!complete!
solvency!that!will!prompt!many!affirmatives!to!complain!about!the!fairness!of!this!
burden.!However,!positions!like!this!can!definitely!be!very!appealing!for!lay!judges!
who!will!intuitively!believe!that!the!Earth!has!a!certain!carrying!capacity!that!food!
security!initiatives!may!exceed!in!light!of!the!fact!that!our!population!is!set!to!exceed!
as!“Present!global!trends!will!lead!to!a!doubling!of!the!world's!urban!areas!by!2050.!
That!means!that!cities,!mostly!in!developing!countries,!will!expand!from!3!to!6!percent!
of!allYice!free!land.!It!also!means!that!10!to!15!percent!of!lands!farmed!today!would!be!
taken!out!of!production.” 9!!
Though!positions!like!this!may!seem!cruel!on!face!to!imply!that!some!people!will!have!
to!starve!to!death!I!definitely!think!the!argument!that!the!Earth!cannot!sustain!the!
food!demands!of!our!ever!expanding!population!may!be!too!much!of!a!strain!on!our!
Earth’s!resources.!!The!other!appeal!to!positions!like!this!also!allows!for!the!negative!
can!also!be!adapted!to!denser!position!about!environmental!ethics!(Plum!and!other!
Deep!Ecologist!for!example)!that!criticize!prioritizing!human!needs!over!the!interest!
of!the!ecosystem.!You!could!just!as!easily!turn!these!under!an!“ought!implies!can”!
interpretation!of!the!resolution!and!simply!win!on!terminal!defense!even!though!a!
position!like!this!is!largely!unfair!I!doubt!any!skep!or!tricks!debaters!will!care!about!
this!objection!so!long!as!they!have!frontlines.!!
!
Utilitarianism!
!
As!I!previously!mentioned!the!resolution!specifies!that!the!government!is!only!
obligated!to!ensure!the!food!security!and!not!the!security!of!other!citizens.!Though!it!
could!be!argued!that!there!is!not!necessarily!a!zeroYsum!relationship!in!food!supply!
there!is!definitely!evidence!indicating!that!tradeYoffs!do!occur!between!states.!A!lot!of!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
9!http://www.huffingtonpost.com/alonYtal/overpopulationYisYstillYt_b_3990646.html!
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interesting!disadvantages!could!be!derived!as!one!countries!attempt!to!secure!food!for!
their!citizens!may!entail!a!loss!of!food!security!for!another!country!that!may!result!in!
comparatively!worse!harms!overall!as!they!compete!for!cheap!arable!land.!A!good!
example!of!this!is!something!known!as!“Land!grabbing”!where!states!and!corporations!
buy!large!plots!of!land!at!the!expense!of!weaker!nations!who!are!more!vulnerable!and!
less!able!to!compete.!This!is!a!major!cause!of!world!hunger!because!the!increased!
demand!for!food!security!may!actually!be!largely!responsible!for!the!structural!
inequalities!causing!world!hunger.!Another!issue!with!food!security!initiatives!is!that!
they!giving!food!for!free!when!many!of!the!people!who!experience!food!insecurity!also!
rely!on!selling!agricultural!goods!for!their!livelihood.!In!fact,!there!is!a!clear!“Urban!
Bias”!that!food!security!policies!have!at!the!expense!of!agricultural!labors!who!will!be!
put!out!of!business!if!their!prices!cannot!compete!with!the!free!food!that!food!security!
initiatives!might!give.!This!is!only!one!example!but!there!are!many!utilitarian!harms!
that!are!made!worse!by!increasing!overall!global!food!consumption!that!negatives!
should!definitely!look!into.!CounterYPlans!and!PICS!will!also!be!relevant!given!that!
local!policy!judges!may!also!be!deciding!key!rounds!for!you!and!so!your!ability!LARP!
on!this!topic!will!probably!be!integral!to!your!success.!Eve!n!if!you!concede!that!
feeding!people!is!important!(because!it!probably!is)!agent!counterYplans!and!word!
PICs!might!be!a!good!trick!to!have!up!your!sleeve.!
!
Kritiks!
!
The!bulk!of!this!discussion!may!have!you!believe!that!the!affirmative!is!simply!
ensuring!that!everyone!is!fed!while!the!negative!is!some!selfish!character!out!Atlas!
Shrugged!who!has!no!concern!for!the!huddled!starving!masses.!But!as!you!recall!the!
way!we!interpret!food!security!can!shape!our!approaches!to!world!hunger!and!result!
in!us!having!“food!security”!while!still!allowing!people!to!systematically!die!of!hunger.!
In!fact!just!after!the!FOA’s!definition!of!food!security!Sachs!points!out!an!obvious!issue!
with!this!interpretation:!!
&
Champion)Briefs)
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However,&as&Fairbairn&(2012)&has&pointed&out,&this&concept&of¶&food&security&
emphasizes&market&orientation&over&state&intervention&that&is&consistent&with¶&
neoliberal&ideology.10&
&
It!is!important!to!note!that!“food!security”!does!not!actually!equate!to!“having!
and!eating!food”!and!even!if!it!does!there!still!might!be!greater!questions!of!what!
biopolitical!relationships!are!established!in!exchange!for!protection!from!hunger.!The!
negative!could!easily!concede!that!feeding!people!is!important!but!the!inherently!
market!based!approaches!to!the!problem!will!probably!increase!access!and!not!
resolve!the!structural!inequalities!between!nations!that!are!truly!responsible!for!
world!hunger.!In!fact,!instances!such!as!land!grabbing!may!indicate!that!they!make!the!
problem!worse!because!the!attempt!to!“expand!access”!may!allow!nefarious!actors!to!
exploit!Less!Developed!Countries!more!by!violating!the!land!rights!of!indigenous!
people!to!expand!food!production.!It!should!also!be!mentioned!that!many!countries!
like!the!United!States!use!food!aid!as!an!opportunity!to!interfere!with!the!affairs!
development!process!of!countries!who!are!willing!to!be!exploited!in!exchange!for!
more!food!aid.!Because!plenty!of!affirmatives!will!also!claim!that!food!security!is!an!
important!factor!in!preventing!civil!conflict!and!the!securitizing!discourse!of!the!
resolution!(why!is!it!specifically!food!“security”)!I!would!definitely!suggest!looking!
into!security!kritiks!which!could!turn!most!affirmatives!and!would!definitely!be!
appealing!inevitable!policy!judges!that!you!will!get.!Many!affirmatives!will!also!
attempt!to!make!sympathetic!appeals!concerning!the!plight!of!the!starving!masses!
that!would!make!a!Nietzsche!kritik!very!strategic!on!this!topic!for!those!who!are!able!
to!defend!it!and!have!the!right!judge.!All!this!being!said!many!affirmative!debaters!can!
still!rely!on!the!traditional!objections!made!against!kritiks!that!demand!you!have!an!
implementable!alternative!which!brings!me!to…!
!
Food!sovereignty!PICs!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
10!10!Sachs!13’YCarolyn,!Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!Crafting!A!
New!Vision,!International!Conference!@!Yale!University,!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!UniversityY!
Champion)Briefs)
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Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian&
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The&notion&of&food'sovereignty&was&defined&in&2007.&It&begins&with&the&very&
simple&acceptance&of&the&notion&of&the&right&to&food!(water,!sanitation!and!
energy).!From&the&acceptance&of&the&right&of&people&to&food,&it&is&able&to&directly&
address&the&problems&that&we&are&seeing&where&food&production&and&agricultural&
production&is&done&to&ensure&profits&rather&than&the&needs&of&people.&It&
deliberately&addresses&the&problems&of&hunger&from&the&point&of&view&of&the&
production&of&food&and&the&decisions&of&peasant&producers&and&local&consumers&
in&achieving&control&of&food&production&and&distribution.&It&aims&to&eliminate&
food&dependency&on&advanced&capitalist&countries&and&the&international&market&
for&food,&reintroduce&domestic&food&production&under&the&hands&of&peasants,&
calls&for&land&reform&to&ensure&equal&access&to&land 11.&
This!is!probably!the!most!interesting!alternative!that!I!have!seen!on!this!topic!
so!far!not!only!because!it!clearly!goes!further!left!than!most!affirmative!
interpretations!of!the!topic!but!also!because!there!some!legitimate!policy!actions!that!
could!be!derived!from!this!approach!to!world!hunger!that!could!solve!a!large!portion!
of!kritikal!affirmatives!in!addition!to!the!more!traditional!approaches!to!the!topic!like!
utility!and!deontology.!As!we!previously!established!the!issue!of!world!hunger!is!an!
issue!of!distribution!rather!than!supply!so!it!is!clear!why!greater!access!will!not!
resolve!the!underlying!causes!of!hunger.!I!suspect!that!many!negatives!could!argue!
that!this!alternative!may!be!a!better!approach!that!could!also!solve!for!the!more!
negative!aspects!of!food!security.!In!addition,!I!have!definitely!read!many!authors!that!
discuss!how!food!sovereignty!can!resolve!the!capitalist!and!patriarchal!issues!of!food!
security!initiatives!and!also!has!the!opportunity!to!empower!local!populations!making!
this!a!very!strategic!position.!However,!it!is!safe!to!say!that!a!lot!of!lay!judges!may!be!
skeptical!of!a!position!like!this!or!any!other!interesting!CPs!that!you!might!put!
together!so!I!would!not!exclusively!rely!on!this!position.!!
!
Conclusion&
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
11!Essex!08’YJamey,!Human!Geography,!The!neoliberal!geopolitics!of!food!security:!The!case!of!
Indonesia,!
https://www.academia.edu/1881119/The_neoliberal_geopolitics_of_food_security_The_case_of_In
donesia!
Champion)Briefs)
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!
Despite!some!obvious!interpretational!issues!this!resolution!is!definitely!one!of!
the!better!topics!to!be!chosen.!
!
Good!Luck!!
Fred!Ditzian.!
!
!
!
!
&
&
&
About&Fred&Ditzian&
&
Fred!Ditzian!debated!3!years!at!Fort!Lauderdale!High!School!and!had!great!
success!on!the!both!the!national!and!local!circuit!making!it!to!elimination!rounds!at:!
Harvard,!Blue!Key,!Crestian,!and!Alta.!Fred!has!been!coaching!LD!since!2009!and!is!
currently!coaching!Lake!Highland!Preparatory!School.!He!has!recently!graduated!from!
the!University!of!Central!Florida!and!is!set!to!begin!his!Master’s!Degree!Public!Policy!
Analysis!at!Claremont!Graduate!University!in!the!fall.!!!
Champion)Briefs)
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Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried&
March/April&2015&
Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried&
!
!
Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.&
&
The!NSDA!seems!to!want!debaters!to!understand!the!principles!of!justice!
because!the!March/April!resolution!is!the!third!topic!this!year!to!use!the!modifier!
“just.”!This!topic!brings!along!many!other!parallels!from!the!past!few!resolutions!
regarding!governmental!obligations.!!The!March/April!topic!specifically!questions!the!
duty!of!a!government!to!provide!its!citizenry!with!food!security.!The!good!thing!about!
this!resolution!is!that!debaters!will!be!able!to!expand!on!the!substance!of!many!
debates!occurring!throughout!the!January/February!topic.!!Debates!over!whether!a!
government!should!provide!living!wages!concern!the!general!principles!of!a!state’s!
responsibility!to!uphold!good!conditions!for!the!lives!of!its!citizens.!!The!dilemma!of!
food!security!will!allow!debaters!to!hone!in!on!a!truthful!discussion!of!the!substance!
of!a!social!contract!between!citizens!and!their!states.!!The!January/February!
resolution!left!debaters!wondering!if!a!government!was!responsible!to!assure!an!
economic!foundation!within!its!boundaries.!This!resolution!will!similarly!force!
debaters!to!replace!economic!concerns!with!nutritional!ones.!!Debaters!will!need!to!
explore!whether!just!governments!have!a!duty!to!guarantee!food!security,!or!if!food!
security!guarantees!lie!dormant!outside!a!just!government’s!duties.!
!
Debaters!should!reflect!on!the!issues!raised!by!the!existence!of!global!food!
insecurity.!By!definition!debaters!in!rounds!have!a!level!of!wealth!sufficient!to!travel!
and!compete!in!tournaments.!Debaters!should!confront!this!privilege!and!think!about!
how!basic!necessities!actually!affect!those!without!them.!!Food!deprivation!is!one!of!
the!top!five!leading!causes!of!death!in!developing!countries!across!the!globe.!The!
threat!of!food!insecurity!makes!the!issues!that!confront!most!debaters!–!college,!
dating,!TOC!bids!–!seem!trivial!in!comparison.!Debaters!should!use!this!opportunity!to!
reflect!on!their!social!positions!and!to!establish!ways!to!positively!impact!their!local!
and!global!communities.!!!!
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To!effectively!prepare!for!tournaments!on!the!March/April!topic!debaters!need!
to!have!a!comprehensive!understanding!of!the!meaning!of!food!security,!and!what!a!
world!without!food!security!truly!looks!like.!Once!debaters!have!a!clearer!image!of!the!
world!they!are!defending,!they!will!need!to!demonstrate!whether!a!just!government!is!
obligated!to!ensure!food!security.!!Regardless!of!the!specific!normative!arguments!
sides!decide!to!use!in!favor!of!or!against!the!resolution,!there!are!many!common!
themes!involved!in!ensuring!food!security.!!Several!clear!questions!arise:!!
!
Is!it!possible!for!a!government!to!actually!give!food!to!all!its!citizens?!!Are!there!
any!real!world!examples!of!a!state!like!this?!!Are!governments!that!have!food!security!
moral?!!!
!
Debaters!should!consider!these!questions!in!preparing.!!
!
&
Key&terms:&
&
Just&Governments&are!the!actor!of!the!resolution.!Although!governments!are!
sometimes!described!as!selfYinterested!bodies,!the!term!“just”!seems!to!speak!to!the!
moral!quality!of!the!government!actor!in!the!resolution.!!Just!means!“in!accordance!
with!codes!of!justice,!ethicality,!and!fairness”.!!Therefore,!in!attaching!just!to!
governments,!the!framers!of!the!resolution!cast!the!government!as!an!actor!that!
adopts!moral!principles!to!govern!action;!or,!at!the!very!least,!just!governments!
implies!debaters!are!not!talking!about!governments!that!intentionally!harm!their!own!
people.!!This!is!an!important!nuance!and!implication!that!I!draw!from!the!conjunction!
of!the!two!terms!because!the!justness!of!the!government!would!seem!to!imply!that!
arguments!about!governments!purposefully!starving!or!hurting!their!own!people!are!
not!topical.!For!example,!some!proponents!of!food!security!argue!that!food!security!is!
a!necessary!check!against!stateYled!famines.!!However,!because!the!resolution!
explicitly!states!that!debaters!are!defending!the!actions!of!a!just!government,!such!
arguments!about!food!security!preventing!oppression!from!a!government!seem!
unnecessary!and!irrelevant.!!If!a!just!government!is!the!actor,!debaters!need!not!
concern!themselves!with!preventing!oppression!from!the!government.!!!
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The!nature!of!just!governments!is!not!the!only!significant!point!of!
interpretational!analysis!that!debaters!can!garner!from!the!actor!in!the!resolution.!!
Particularly!important!for!policy!debates!will!be!that!the!resolutional!actor!is!plural.!!
Plans!and!counterplans!will!need!to!defend!actions!by!multiple!just!governments!to!be!
topical.!An!affirmative!case!that!merely!proved!the!United!States!should!provide!food!
security!only!establishes!one!instance!of!the!resolution!being!true,!but!does!not!
necessarily!meet!the!plurality!condition!bestowed!upon!affirmatives!through!multiple!
“governments”.!!The!converse!of!this!is!that!the!negative!will!also!need!to!supply!
multiple!actors!for!counterplans!to!be!topical!as!well.!!!
!
!
Ought!is!the!evaluative!phrase!in!the!resolution,!meaning!it!renders!the!
debaters’!truth!burdens.!!Ought!has!various!meanings!but!typically!implies!a!moral!
obligation.!!This!means!the!affirmative!is!most!prove!an!obligation!exists!for!just!
governments!to!ensure!food!security.!!The!implication!of!the!affirmative!having!to!
prove!an!obligation!means!that!the!affirmative!does!not!affirm!by!merely!proving!that!
people!need!food!to!live.!!The!affirmative!will!have!to!prove!the!existence!of!a!
categorical!moral!obligation!adhering!to!just!governments!to!ensure!food!for!their!
citizens,!else!the!negative!may!argue!that!the!affirmative!does!not!meet!their!burden.!
!!Conversely,!to!negate!the!negative!needs!to!undermine!the!obligation.!!There!
are!multiple!ways!negative!debaters!can!go!about!disproving!an!obligation!to!ensure!
food!security.!!They!can!prove!that!there!exists!a!prohibition!on!ensuring!food!
security;!but!proving!a!prohibition!does!not!seem!to!be!a!plausible!position!for!
negatives!to!defend.!!Should!states!truly!be!prohibited!from!ensuring!food!security?!!
Most!likely!not.!!As!such,!the!negative!will!need!to!go!about!denying!an!obligation!
upon!just!governments!to!ensure!food!security!by!proving!that!maybe!there!exists!no!
obligation!to!provide!food!security—rather!ensuring!food!security!is!permissible.!!By!
proving!that!ensuring!food!security!is!merely!a!permissible!option,!rather!than!a!
categorical!obligation!of!just!governments,!the!negative!will!be!able!to!deny!that!just!
governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security.!!This!means!that!affirmative!debaters!
need!to!come!up!with!a!substantive!normative!framework!that!will!allow!them!to!
unconditionally!yield!an!obligation!for!a!just!government!to!ensure!food!security.!!
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Alternate!interpretations!of!ought,!like!“desirability”,!“reasonability”,!“should”,!
and!“logical!consequence”,!have!various!impacts!on!debaters’!truth!burdens.!!Debaters!
should!methodologically!push!themselves!to!explore!whether!these!varying!
interpretations!of!ought!can!have!a!positive!impact!on!a!particular!side!of!debating.!!
By!straying!outside!of!conventional!norms!and!interpretations,!debaters!will!be!able!
to!garner!a!strategic!advantage!over!others!erroneously!breeze!past!the!word!ought!in!
the!resolution.!!!
!
!
Ensure!means!to!make!certain,!or!to!guarantee.!!Much!like!the!
January/February!resolution’s!use!of!the!word!“require,”!“ensure”!casts!a!sense!of!
action!upon!the!government.!In!short,!it!requires!that!the!just!government!is!obligated!
to!take!actions!that!make!food!security!certain!throughout!a!country.!!The!positive!
force!inherent!in!the!word!ensure!implies!that!the!affirmative!must!justify!a!proactive!
action!be!taken!in!order!to!guarantee!food!for!citizens.!!Actions!in!debate!occur!
through!fiat—the!power!for!a!debater!to!cast!their!position!into!reality.!!When!
debaters!speak!of!fiat,!however,!solvency!is!required.!!Solvency!demonstrates!the!
route,!or!efficacy!of!an!action.!!Traditionally!this!occurs!through!solvency!evidence!
that!demonstrates!how!a!particular!plan!or!policy!action!will!occur.!!This!has!an!
important!impact!on!affirmatives!because!it!seems!like!“ensure”!forces!affirmatives!be!
able!to!prove!the!solvency!of!their!action!as!requisite!part!of!their!truth!burden!in!
affirming.!!If!affirmatives!cannot!prove!that!food!security!can!be!ensured,!it!seems!the!
resolution!would!not!be!a!true!statement.!!Negatives!can!persuasively!formulate!the!
argument!that!just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security!to!its!citizens!only!if!
food!security!can!be!ensured.!!This!means!negative!debaters!may!strategically!place!a!
burden!of!solvency!on!affirmatives!in!order!to!affirm.!!Naturally,!however,!affirmative!
debaters!can!quickly!preempt!this!issue!both!theoretically!in!the!AC!or!1AR!by!
offensively!explaining!they!ought!not!to!be!responsible!for!solvency!because!the!
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resolution!is!a!philosophical!question,!because!solvency!explodes!negative!ground,!or!
because!solvency!is!not!a!reciprocal!burden 12.!!!!
!
Apart!from!the!solvency!considerations!in!the!resolution,!the!word!ensure!also!
raises!questions!regarding!what!the!negative!may!advocate.!!If!the!affirmative!world!is!
one!in!which!food!security!is!ensured!by!the!just!government,!can!the!negative!run!a!
counterplan!that!endorses!the!just!government!promote!food!security!without!
ensuring!it?!!Intuitively!this!would!be!a!form!of!affirmative!ground!because!promoting!
food!security!would!affirm!the!spirit!of!ensuring!food!security.!But!this!just!points!to!
the!importance!of!semantic!wording!in!the!resolution—and!the!fact!that!affirmatives!
should!be!wary!of!word!PICs,!or!counterplans!that!eliminate!a!single!word!in!the!
resolution!to!negate.!!More!importantly,!given!that!ensure!means!“to!guarantee!food!
security”,!the!affirmative!most!likely!will!want!to!explain!that!the!negative!burden!is!
to!establish!why!just!governments!ought!not!ensure!food!security,!and!in!establishing!
such!a!burden!demonstrate!that!negatives!should!not!be!able!to!claim!offensive!
ground!from!the!benefits!of!food!security!in!a!state.!The!purpose!for!this!
interpretation!would!be!to!allow!affirmatives!to!dichotomize!the!resolution!through!
the!end!state!of!food!security—in!the!affirmative!world!there!is!food!security,!in!the!
negative!world!there!is!not!food!security.!!In!doing!so!the!affirmative!will!establish!
better!ground!for!themselves.!!!
!
!
Food&security&is!essentially!core!access!to!healthy!food!and!optimal!nutrition!
for!all!in!a!society.!!This!is!the!most!important!phrase!in!the!resolution!as!it!is!a!term!
of!art!from!which!the!majority!of!topicality!debates,!plan!texts,!and!kritiks!will!
originate.!!Food!security!is!the!government’s!promise!to!citizens!that!they!will!have!
resources!to!procure!food.!!By!assuring!citizens!food,!the!government!is!able!to!
establish!a!level!of!means!sufficient!to!live!within!the!state.!!Experts!have!ranging!
opinions!on!what!exactly!qualifies!as!food!security!and!how!food!security!ought!to!be!
reasonably!enforced.!!Different!regions!of!the!globe!have!different!socioeconomic!and!
agricultural!characteristics,!so!debating!about!comprehensive!food!security!programs!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
12
These arguments are all literally ridiculous whines and should never win ballots. The idea that debaters should not
have to solve because solving requires doing research is inane to the point of being embarrassing. Nonetheless,
debaters may want to prepare answers to them to end these arguments quickly if encountered.
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is!very!difficult!in!the!abstract.!!As!such,!many!plans!will!seek!to!specify!the!form!of!
food!security!that!governments!ought!to!give!in!particular!regions.!!But!other!cases!
will!conceptualize!food!security!in!the!abstract!as!merely!the!fulfillment!of!necessary!
means!of!sustenance.!!By!analyzing!food!security!as!a!concept!affirmative!and!negative!
debaters!will!be!able!to!philosophically!analyze!the!resolution.!!Food!security!becomes!
a!question!of!whether!the!government!should!be!responsible!to!provide!for!the!basic!
foundations!of!a!good!life!for!citizens.!!There!are!questions!that!debaters!need!to!
resolve!as!to!what!degree!just!governments!are!responsible!in!food!security!
programs—does!the!government!need!to!supply!each!and!every!meal!for!its!citizens,!
or!merely!access!to!amounts!of!money!to!be!used!for!certain!amounts!of!food.!!!
!
Throughout!history!food!security!has!meant!more!than!merely!giving!people!
food!to!live.!It!typically!refers!to!a!government’s!ability!to!prevent!against!wide!spread!
famines!and!starvation.!!Food!security!on!a!grander!level!speaks!to!the!ability!of!a!
country!to!sustain!a!steady!supply!of!food!to!its!citizens!so!that!they!will!not!have!to!
fear!for!their!lives!when!food!levels!fluctuate.!!As!such,!food!security!is!a!very!
important!term!for!both!debaters!to!contextualize!because!there!are!wideYspread!
policy!implications!to!good!and!bad!food!security!programs.!!Food!supply!is!critical!in!
wars,!droughts,!and!other!civil!disruptions!in!a!particular!area,!and!so!questions!over!
how!food!ought!to!be!secured!fall!primarily!upon!the!state.!!Therefore,!smart!
affirmative!debaters!will!couch!food!security!as!a!policy!question!that!can!only!be!
resolved!on!the!state!level,!so!ought!to!be!something!states!are!obligated!to!ensure.!!!
!
Interesting!criticisms!of!food!security!stem!from!negatives!who!criticize!a!
states!overYcontrol!and!domination!of!a!group!of!people.!!Food!security!allows!states!
to!have!the!say!over!how!a!population!is!fed!so!represents!a!critical!form!of!state!
population!control.!!Critiques!of!food!security!should!investigate!the!ways!in!which!
food!security!programs!between!two!nations!leads!to!conflicts,!and!forms!of!threat!
construction!that!lead!to!greater!international!problems.!!There!is!much!volatility!in!
the!international!arena!due!to!state!actors!fighting!over!natural!resources.!!!
!
!
For&Their&Citizens&is!the!last!phrase!of!the!resolution!and!it!merely!links!the!
object!of!the!resolution!“citizens”!to!the!actor!“just!governments”!through!the!
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adjectival!pronoun!“their”.!!Citizens!are!inhabitants!of!a!particular!country!or!state.!!
The!resolution’s!use!of!the!word!citizen!ties!the!obligations!of!the!just!government!
directly!to!“their!citizens,”!and!so!intuitively!proposes!a!reciprocal!balance!between!
individuals!and!the!state.!!The!citizens!in!the!resolution!are!the!objects!of!food!
security!programs.!!Notice,!however,!citizens!differ!throughout!the!world!due!to!the!
wide!ranging!socioYeconomic!status!of!individuals!throughout!the!globe.!!As!a!result,!
debaters!need!to!be!careful!in!assuming!trends!from!one!country!will!apply!to!
another.!!!!
!
More!importantly,!the!status!of!a!citizen!says!something!about!the!country!that!
they!reside!in.!!A!citizen!can!only!be!a!citizen!if!they!accept,!at!least!tacitly,!the!rules!of!
the!state!and!let!themselves!be!governed!by!the!state’s!policies.!!Absent!such!tacit!
compliance,!an!individual!could!not!coherently!be!referred!to!as!a!citizen!of!a!state,!
rather!a!mere!individual!residing!within!a!state’s!boundaries.!!The!impact!of!a!citizen!
accepting!a!state’s!rules!is!that!the!resolution!sets!up!a!pseudoYsocial!contract!
relationship!between!citizens!and!just!governments.!!!The!use!of!the!word!citizen!
seems!to!imply!that!the!government!has!an!obligation!to!those!people!before!
obligations!to!any!other!particular!persons.!!Citizens!creates!a!specialized!obligation!
on!the!state!to!support!their!own!citizens!before!others!in!humanity.!!This!distinction,!
between!citizen!and!traditional!individuals,!could!thus!be!the!basis!for!a!substantive!
cosmopolitanism!versus!realism!framework!debate.!!Interpreting!the!resolution!as!a!
question!of!whether!just!government!ought!to!ensure!food!security!for!their!citizens!
or!for!the!globe!could!certainly!be!an!interesting!way!of!spinning!the!clash!for!this!
topic.!!
!
Affirmative&positions:&
&
Right!to!Food!AC:!The!first!and!most!common!affirmative!position!will!be!one!
that!argues!food!security!is!a!basic!human!right,!and!as!such!is!one!that!should!be!
upheld!by!just!states.!!Affirmative!debaters!will!cite!international!law,!constitutional!
law,!and!many!human!rights!referendums!which!mandate!humans!be!given!
fundamental!components!as!basic!rights!to!life—food!included.!!The!affirmative!will!
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be!able!to!trace!laws!that!establish!individuals!ought!to!be!afforded!with!food!to!then!
argue!that!just!governments!have!an!obligation!to!provide!food!security!to!their!
citizens.!!!The!UN!will!be!widely!carded!and!sourced!for!this!type!of!argument.!!But!
international!law!affirmatives!will!need!to!be!careful!when!dealing!with!empirical!
questions!about!food!security.!!There!are!many!countries!in!both!the!UN,!and!not!in!
the!UN,!which!lack!the!ability!to!provide!food!guarantees!to!their!citizens!out!of!a!
sheer!lack!of!resources.!!Does!the!lack!of!one!country!to!provide!food!for!its!own!
citizens!mean!that!another!country!should!step!in—is!that!what!is!demanded!by!the!
resolutional!question!if!the!affirmative!is!stating!that!international!law!demands!all!
humans!be!given!the!right!to!food?!!Affirmatives!can!strategically!escape!this!question!
by!just!proposing!the!resolution!as!a!philosophical!question!over!whether!individuals!
ought!to!have!the!right!to!food!in!the!first!place.!!Tons!of!legal!literature!answers!
positively!on!this!question,!as!well!as!the!basis!of!many!moral!philosophers!who!are!
inclined!to!believe!citizens!ought!to!be!given!food.!A!“right!to!food”!affirmative!will!
thus!have!a!lot!of!topic!literature!backing,!and!will!most!certainly!be!a!persuasive!
advocacy!that!on!the!surface!level!not!too!many!would!disagree!with.!!!
!
Utilitarianism!AC:!!Another!extremely!popular!affirmative!will!argue!that!food!
security!is!necessary!because!it!will!prevent!mass!devastation!and!horrific!end!states.!!
If!governments!do!not!ensure!food!security,!there!is!no!infrastructural!way!that!
individuals!will!be!able!to!maintain!a!steady!supply!of!food!if!a!horrific!drought,!or!
mass!terrorist!attack!occurs.!!Governments!possess!the!allocative!resources,!and!
monetary!force!to!both!substantiate!and!provide!for!a!long!term!food!security!plan.!!
The!result!is!that!the!government!should!be!obligated!to!ensure!food!security!for!its!
citizens!to!guarantee!that!a!wide!spread!famine!or!massive!starvation!does!not!occur.!!
The!impacts!are!therefore!quite!huge!because!affirmatives!can!trace!the!copious!death!
toll!that!famines!wreck!across!the!world.!!Another!form!of!a!utilitarian!AC!is!one!that!
derives!offensive!impacts!from!land!degradation!and!a!bad!use!of!natural!resources!
that!results!without!government!regulation!of!food.!!Individuals!do!not!necessarily!
have!to!care!for!other!citizens!so!can!wastefully!use!resources,!and!a!harmful!
consequence!of!this!could!be!the!diminishment!of!resources!for!future!generations.!!
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Therefore,!governments!should!be!obligated!to!ensure!food!security!so!that!present!
generations!have!food,!and!so!that!future!citizens!of!the!state!are!given!access!to!food!
resources!as!well.!!When!considering!the!impact!to!both!present!and!future!
generations,!affirmatives!running!utility!may!be!able!to!claim!potential!infinite!
impacts.!!
!
Social!Contract!AC:!A!final!affirmative!position!that!is!philosophically!based!will!
be!an!account!of!the!social!contract!that!stems!a!reciprocal!relationship!between!the!
government!and!its!citizens!to!provide!for!one!another.!!Such!a!relationship!will!call!
upon!the!government!to!maintain!access!to!a!good!quality!of!life!for!its!citizens!
through!the!requirement!of!food!security.!!The!affirmative!will!argue!that!the!citizens!
in!the!resolution!give!up!rights!and!resources!for!the!just!government,!so!that!they!can!
benefit!from!the!just!governments!protection!in!return.!!The!just!government!has!a!
reciprocal!relationship!to!provide!for!its!citizens!by!thusly!ensuring!their!citizens!have!
the!ability!to!eat!and!sustain!themselves!in!the!long!run.!!Social!contract!theories!will!
well!establish!a!philosophical!basis!for!individuals!and!governments!to!come!to!an!
agreement,!and!so!will!provide!a!moral!answer!to!why!just!governments!ought!to!
ensure!food!security.!!
!
!
!
!
Negative&Positions:&
&
OverYresponsibility!NC:!A!popular!negative!response!to!the!resolutional!
question!will!be!that!food!security!is!not!the!government’s!obligation.!!Negatives!will!
want!to!argue!that!food!security!is!an!individual!problem.!!Individuals!control!the!
amount!that!they!eat,!not!governments,!so!making!food!security!an!obligation!of!the!
government!seems!to!side!step!the!individuals’!obligations!to!themselves.!!But,!the!
problem!is!not!merely!that!food!security!is!an!individual!concern,!but!rather!than!
transforming!food!security!into!a!nonYindividual!concern!forces!and!trains!individuals!
to!be!dependent!on!the!government!for!their!own!food.!!Food!security!teaches!families!
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to!be!over!reliant!on!the!government,!and!consequently!the!increasing!amounts!of!
population!growth,!with!over!9!billion!people!in!the!world,!puts!too!much!pressure!on!
imperfect!governments.!!Therefore,!negatives!will!want!to!argue!that!placing!the!
burden!of!food!on!the!government!undermines!the!government’s!efficacy,!and!
ultimately!reduces!an!individual’s!control!of!their!own!life.!!!
!
BioYDiversity!NC:!A!negative!disadvantage!to!affirming,!that!could!potentially!
be!a!negative!case!itself,!will!be!the!loss!of!bioYdiversity!that!results!from!stateYheavy!
mining!of!food!resources.!!The!massive!impact!of!land!degradation!that!results!from!
governments!striving!to!reap!the!most!food!they!can!diminishes!the!overall!resources!
for!people!in!the!future.!!States!that!take!on!the!burden!of!food!security!force!
themselves!to!over!allocate!and!over!use!land!resources!and!so!harm!the!environment.!!
Thus,!a!negative!case!couched!in!protecting!the!environment!for!a!sustainable!future!
will!want!to!argue!that!just!governments!ought!not!to!ensure!food!security—rather!
food!security!ought!to!be!an!individual!concern!for!citizens.!!Negative!debaters!will!be!
able!to!claim!huge!impacts!from!these!sort!of!negative!cases!because!loss!of!bioY
diversity,!and!land!degradation!can!mean…extinction!!
!
Deontological!NC:!A!philosophical!NC!that!negative!debaters!may!use!to!negate!
the!topic!will!argue!that!ensuring!food!security!forces!citizens!into!dietary!habits!that!
the!state!wants!and!so!does!not!let!them!freely!live!their!own!lives.!!Citizens!are!
unable!to!make!choices!as!to!what!types!of!foods!they!want!to!eat!if!their!community’s!
food!is!singularly!sustained!by!the!government.!!Food!security!thus!could!arguably!
lead!to!a!deprivation!of!individual!autonomy!because!individuals!lose!access!to!
choices!over!what!to!eat,!and!where!to!get!their!food.!!Deontology!would!demand!that!
individuals!be!given!the!choice!over!whether!the!state!provides!them!with!food,!and!as!
such,!the!affirmative,!in!arguing!that!the!state!is!obligated!to!ensure!food!security!
ignores!the!choice!of!individuals!and!so!disrespects!their!end!status.!!
&
Good!Luck!!
!
Michael!Fried!
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&
About&Michael&Fried&
!
Michael!Fried!attended!and!competed!for!University!School!of!Nova!
Southeastern!University!and!graduated!in!May,!2012.!He!competed!in!LD!Debate!
throughout!his!entire!four!years!of!high!school.!He!qualified!to!the!Tournament!of!
Champions!three!times,!reaching!Semifinals!as!a!Junior!and!Octos!as!a!Senior.!He!won!
Apple!Valley,!the!Crestian!Classic,!the!Florida!State!Championship!(twice),!the!Dowling!
Invitational,!and!The!Dowling!and!Harvard!Round!Robins.!In!addition,!he!was!a!finalist!
at!the!Greenhill!Invitational!and!reached!late!outrounds!at!the!Glenbrooks,!Emory,!
Blake,!Valley,!Harvard,!and!the!Bronx!Invitational.!In!total!he!amassed!14!TOC!bids.!
This!past!year,!he!coached!the!5th!ever!Freshman!to!qualify!to!the!Tournament!of!
Champions!and!a!student!to!the!Finals!of!the!Emory!Tournament.!Michael!is!currently!
a!junior!at!UC!Berkeley.!!
Champion)Briefs)
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Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt&
Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.&
!
MARCH/APRIL DEBATE PERSPECTIVE
The debates on March/April are small in quantity but high in quality and demand an
increased amount of work. Most tournaments are basically over by the time March/April
comes around, but most state tournaments fall within this timeframe.
Debaters who went to camps that taught on this topic should use their preexisting
preparation on the topic. Not all hope is lost for debaters who did not attend camp as well
—they should use friends that went to camp to find out what type of arguments were
popular. This is important because the popular arguments run at camp will probably be the
main arguments at your tournaments because some debaters are lazy and just use camp
prep. If you are prepared to answer those positions and write more unique and nuanced
cases, then you are already ahead of the game.
THE TOPIC
This topic means debating whether governments should ensure that people have the
sustenance in order to live their lives; it is a pretty important topic to talk about. It is also a
pretty interesting topic that has been debated constantly during different ages. Thomas
Malthus argued that the rate of population was increasing so much that the growth of
population would be exponential in nature whereas the growth of food production was
linear. This means that at some point the amount of people would far outnumber the
amount of food. The disparity in food to population ratio lead Malthus to predict a
catastrophe that would force a return to subsistence level conditions. While this idea was
proven wrong by at least the fact that we have largely increased the rate of production of
food, it shows the inherent debate that exists over whether or not food security is an issue.
Champion)Briefs)
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It is important to take a look at what the words in the resolution mean. The first
phrase in the resolution is “just government.” The immediate question that comes to my
mind is whether a society has to already be just in order to take the resolutional action or if
taking the resolutional action would be something a just society would do. This was a very
popular topicality debate at camps that used this topic and camps in the past that have used
similarly phrased topics. I lean towards the latter because the concept of just is subjective13
and no society probably fits the any concept of “just.” Maybe this is a hypothetical just
society, in which case there can be a debate about whether the affirmative should defend
only the principle or implementation of the topic. Honestly, regardless of which
interpretation seems better for debate, debaters will still read binary topicality shells where
they argue that either interpretation of the topic you defend is bad. Be prepared for this by
thinking for a while why each interpretation is good or might be better than the other.
Because of the plural nature of the phrase “just governments,” many debaters have
argued on past topics that affirmatives must have plans with more than one actor. Just be
wary of the more topic-specific plans bad arguments that now have legitimate textual
claims for support.
Just like the September/October and January/February topic this year, there are two
normative words in the resolution—“just” and “ought.” Ought is “used to express an
obligation” (Merriam-Webster) 14. This should not bring about many topicality debates, but
just in case it is good to be prepared for the potential T-ought shell that seems to have
rising popularity in the past few years.
Food security is the first tricky phrase in the resolution. For example, the World
Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as, “when all people at all times have access to
sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.” Definitions of food
security typically also include economic and physical access to food that meets citizen
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
13
There are obviously a near-innumerable conceptions of justice that purport to be objective and universally
applicable, including distributivist approaches, utilitarian approaches, deontological approaches, virtue ethicist
approaches, and the like. In fact, nearly the entire cannon of modern political philosophy literature is concerned with
establishing universal frameworks for evaluating justice.
14
"Ought." Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 21 Aug. 2014. <http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/ought>.
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needs and preferences. The WHO explains how there are three pillars to food security
which include food availability, food access, and food use.15 Food availability means
having “sufficient quantities of food available on a consistent basis.” Food access mean
“having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet.” Food use
means “appropriate use based on knowledge of basis nutrition and care, as well as adequate
water and sanitation.”
The active verb in the resolution is ensure. Ensure is defined by Merriam-Websters
as, “to make (something) sure, certain, or safe.”16 This makes it difficult for the
affirmative to have solvency, though. So, affirmatives might want to try to find a less
absolute definition that doesn’t enforce them to have 100% solvency.
For their citizens seems like a pretty straight up phrase. Each government will
ensure food security for their own citizens rather than others. If you do not defend some
parametricized version of the resolution, then all citizens technically would have food
security from their respective governments.
Long story short, the major topicality issues will probably arise out of just
governments and food security. You might even run into topicality on ensure. But
basically the resolution just posits the question of whether or not a government would make
sure that all their citizens have adequate access to food for themselves. That action would
be something that a just government does.
AFFIRMATIVE
Absent justifying a plan, the affirmative essentially defends making sure that
everyone has sufficient access to food.
There are a couple of basic arguments that come up when initially researching the
topic. The first one that comes to mind is that food is a fundamental human right. 1 in 9
people go hungry every day. There can be impacts from this to most deontological
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
15
WHO. "Food Security." WHO. N.p., 2015. Web. 3 Feb. 2015. <http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/>.
Merriam-Webster. "Ensure." Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, 2015. Web. 3 Feb. 2015.
<http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ensure>.
16
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frameworks. For example, there was a set of goals called the Millennium Development
Goals that aimed to halve the amount of people who were in hunger. However, this
protection still needs to be expanded to many states. Areas in Latin America and the
Caribbean have make leaps and bounds in food security, but in countries where there are
natural disasters like areas in Western Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa we still need food
security. These are huge violations to human rights.
Harms to health is also a big issue. Food insecurity leads to deficiencies in nutrients
that spur development in children. Children in their first few years are in developmental
growing stages of their life. Failure to secure the proper nutrients to survive negatively
affects their growth. These impacts could go as far as death. This is another reasonable,
stock argument for the affirmative.17 The economic costs of micronutrient deficiencies
reduce GDP by 0.7% to 2% in developing countries. This translates to global losses in
economic productivity by up to 2% to 3%. So you can draw ties to economic growth, as
well.18
One way that many advocate for increasing food security would be to increase
agricultural research and development.19 There are some pretty good benefits from
agriculture based plans. Many have argued that GDP growth can be almost 4 times as
effective to reduce the total amount of poverty.20 Collin Thirtle et al argues that a 1%
increase in yields causes a 0.6% to 1.2% decrease in how many people are living under $1
per day.
21
There is also an argument for a feminist case as the Australian International Food
Security Research Centre argues, “If women had the same access to productive resources as
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
17
Australian International Food Security and Research Centre. "Food Security and Why It Matters." Australian
International Food Security and Research Centre. N.p., 2015. Web. 3 Feb. 2015.
<http%3A%2F%2Faciar.gov.au%2Faifsc%2Ffood-security-and-why-it-matters>.
18
International Food Policy Research Institute. "Our Work." Global Hunger Index. N.p., 2015. Web. 03 Feb. 2015.
<http://www.ifpri.org/book-8018/ourwork/researcharea/global-hunger-index>.
19
Ibid
20
IFAD. "The Future of World Food and Nutrition Security." IFAD. N.p., 2015. Web. 08 Feb. 2015.
<http://www.ifad.org/hfs/index.htm>.
21
Thirtle, Collin, Lin Lin, and Jenifer Piese. "Download PDFs." The Impact of Research-Led Agricultural
Productivity Growth on Poverty Reduction in Africa, Asia and Latin America. N.p., Dec. 2013. Web. 08 Feb. 2015.
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X03001682>.
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men, they could increase yields in their fields by 20-30%. This alone would raise total
agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5-4%, which could reduce the number of
hungry people in the world by 12-17% or 100-150 million people.” 22
NEGATIVE
The negative can advocate for lots of different positions on this topic, however
first, many people at camp argued for an “ought implies can” argument. The argument was
made either as an independent case or as a quick overview to affirmative cases. Theodor
Gracyk argues that in order to say that we ought to do something, we have to be able to
take the action. He gives the example that, “if a kitten is stuck in a tree, then you would be
wrong to insist that Pat has a moral obligation to levitate into the air and rescue the kitten.
Being human, Pat cannot levitate, so Pat has no such obligation.”23 The real world puts
constraints on our actions. Food security has been an issue for a very long time and it is
difficult to implement solutions. There also is a cost issue, it costs a large amount of
money to build up the infrastructure, disposal programs, and the like to ensure food
security. Those are not easy or cheap and there are valid arguments to be made about why
it is either difficult or impossible to implement food security and have the solvency for it.
Alongside general topicality arguments mentioned above in the topic portion, there
are some people that critique the word food security because it has assumptions of
vulnerability of individuals. The way that many talk about how at risk these individuals
are is problematic.24
Another major issue is that food security policies oftentimes mask the problem of
food insecurity by putting a Band-Aid on a broken leg. They throw policies that give free
food to people and hope that everything will be okay. This stops individuals from finding a
solution themselves to their food insecurity in the home, which leads to free-riding issues.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
22
Australian International Food Security and Research Centre. "Food Security and Why It Matters." Australian
International Food Security Centre. N.p., 04 Oct. 2012. Web. 3 Feb. 2015. <http://aciar.gov.au/aifsc/food-securityand-why-it-matters>.
23
Theodore Gracyk Philosophy Department Minnesota State University
Moorhead. http://web.mnstate.edu/gracyk/courses/phil%20318/ought-can_Outline.htm
24
Maxx Dilley and Tanya E Boudreau “Coming to terms with vulnerability: a critique of the food security
definition” Volume 26, Issue 3, June 2001, Pages 229
247http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919200000464
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Another major issue that stems from this is dependency. Ethiopia had large food insecurity
issues stemming from poverty, recurrent drought, and soil and land degradation. 25 These
things have led to large scale famine and food insecurity for a long time period. Food
security programs from the government failed, and food aid made the individuals
dependent. Barbara Harrell-Bond coined the term “dependency syndrome” and defined it
as, “the real and apparent lack of support for each other, the refusal to co-operate under
conditions where co-operation appears advantageous, and the prevalence of destructive and
anti-social behavior.”26 This went so far as to make farmers alter their food production
patterns in anticipation of food aid, so people were completely reliant on food aid.
These are just a few of the arguments that the negative make. They also are more
on the reasonable, stock side, so take them as a starting point for your research, rather than
the extent to your research.
Good Luck!
Shania Hunt
About&Shania&Hunt!
Shania!Hunt!debated!for!four!years!at!Northland!Christian!School!and!was!a!
team!captain!for!her!junior!and!senior!year.!She!reached!elimination!rounds!of!
Grapevine,!Greenhill,!Lexington,!and!the!VBI!tournament.!She!was!a!semifinalist!at!
2012!St!Marks!Tournament,!national!runner!up!in!Extemporaneous!Debate!at!the!
2013!NSDA!nationals,!champion!of!the!2013!Greenhill!Classic!and!Cal!Berkeley!Round!
Robin,!a!finalist!at!Cal!Berkeley!Invitations,!and!a!Quarterfinalist!at!2014!TOC.!She!was!
honored!with!a!place!on!the!USA’s!debate!team!and!will!be!debating!in!the!fall!at!the!
WSDC!world!championships.!She!is!excited!to!be!attending!UCLA!in!the!fall.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
25
ASCHALE DAGNACHEW SIYOUM, DOROTHEA HILHORST, and GERRIT-JAN VAN UFFELEN. "Food
Aid and Dependency Syndrome in Ethiopia: Local Perceptions." The Journal of Humanitarian Assistance. N.p., 27
Nov. 2012. Web. 3 Feb. 2015. <http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1754>.
26
Ibid
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Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge&
Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.&
&
Introduction&
&
!
The!March/April!2015!LD!topic!echoes!its!predecessor!in!several!ways.!First,!
much!of!the!language!in!the!resolution!is!very!similar!to!the!language!in!the!
January/February!topic.!The!evaluative!phrase!is!identical,!and!as!a!result!debaters!
can!expect!framework!debates!to!remain!relatively!consistent.!The!second!
resemblance!is!that!this!topic!explores!an!interesting!and!important!topic!area!in!a!
perhaps!lessYthanYideal!way.!Like!the!January/February!topic,!the!affirmative!seems!
intuitively!true.!However,!that!abstract!truth!does!is!disconnected!from!questions!of!
implementation!and!practicality.!In!this!topic!analysis,!I!will!explore!the!topic!in!a!way!
that!attempts!to!remedy!some!of!these!concerns.!This!requires!work!by!the!negative!
part!on!the!theoretical!front!of!these!questions.!Regardless,!I!think!what!I!propose!is!a!
valuable!way!of!looking!at!the!resolution.!Happy!reading!!
&
Interpretational&Issues&
&
!
This!topic!follows!a!model!that!should!be!familiar!to!nearly!all!debaters!–!in!a!
lot!of!respects,!in!functions!in!exactly!the!same!way!as!the!January/February!topic!did.!
Framework!arguments!will!be!very!similar!to!the!ones!you!saw!on!the!
January/February!topic,!since!the!evaluative!phrase!is!identical.!As!such,!I!am!going!to!
try!to!spend!most!of!my!analysis!talking!about!the!meat!of!the!topic,!rather!than!the!
framing.!!
There!is!one!interpretational!issue!I!find!worth!discussing,!and!it!relates!to!the!
word!“ensure”.!!
This!word!has!very!serious!and!direct!implications!for!any!policy!option!
implemented!by!the!affirmative.!As!long!as!negative!debaters!win!that!the!affirmative!
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must!defend!a!policy!option!then!the!definition!of!ensure!seems!to!imply!that!they!also!
need!to!defend!the!efficacy!of!their!chosen!mechanism.!Thus,!winning!defense!on!the!
affirmative's!implementation!mechanism!means!that!the!affirmative!is!not!topical.!
This!argument!has!strong!strategic!value!in!rounds!by!making!advantage!defense!a!
gameYover!issue.!
&
Affirmative&Positions&
!
&
I!think!most!frameworks!will!be!relatively!straightforward,!and!affirmative!
frameworks!especially!will!probably!provide!opportunities!for!comparative!offense.!
This!is!especially!true!given!the!nature!of!the!topic.!Food!insecurity!and!scarcity!are!
overwhelmingly!identified!as!problematic,!but!noting!the!existence!of!a!problem!does!
little!to!demonstrate!what!we!should!do!about!that!problem.!Thus,!the!abundance!of!
good!clash!on!this!topic!comes!from!discussions!of!what!we!should!do!about!food!
security.!!
!
Food!security!has!at!least!two!dimensions!to!it.!The!first!has!to!do!with!scarcity!
and!sustainability!–!people!who!live!in!places!where,!for!environmental,!
developmental,!or!other!reasons,!the!regional!food!supply!is!deficient.!The!second!is!
distributional!–!lack!of!adequate!food!supply!as!a!result!of!certain!segments!of!a!
society!simply!being!unable!to!afford!consistent!access!to!food.!These!two!elements!
are!not!unrelated!–!in!fact,!the!very!existence!of!sizable!areas!around!the!world!that!
lack!food!security!is!in!some!senses!a!global!distributional!problem.!Still,!the!
distinction!is!valuable!because!it!gives!a!general!shape!to!the!kinds!of!solutions!for!
food!security!that!exist.!On!one!hand!are!policies!that!encourage!longYterm!
sustainability,!investment!in!agricultural!research!and!development,!and!global!
warming!initiatives!that!attempt!to!curb!the!harmful!effect!of!greenhouse!gases!on!
agriculture.!On!the!other!hand!are!social!initiatives,!government!subsidies,!and!
welfare!programs.!This!distinction!is!not!an!absolute!one,!but!it!does!draw!a!
distinction!between!strategy!categories.!These!sorts!of!solutions!are!not!mutually!
exclusive!in!principle,!and!it!is!imaginable!that!either!debater!could!advocate!some!
combination!of!these!sorts!of!policies.!Limited!institutional!resources!complicate!
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combination!advocacies!though,!and!shift!the!focus!of!the!debate!from!which!policies!
would!be!good!to!do,!to!which!policies!are!most!important!to!get!done.!With!that!in!
mind,!I!will!use!this!section!of!my!analysis!to!talk!a!bit!about!what!strategies!in!both!of!
these!domains!look!like.!
!
There!are!a!diverse!set!of!longYterm!strategies!to!combat!food!insecurity.!Many!
longYterm!solutions!focus!on!improving!agricultural!productivity!by!investing!
technologies!like!genetically!modified!crops,!improved!irrigation!methods,!and!better!
fertilizers,!as!well!allocating!larger!amounts!of!dedicated!farmland.!There!are!also!
policies!aimed!at!the!global!distribution!aspect!of!food!insecurity.!For!instance,!many!
agricultural!producers!in!developing!countries!struggle!with!access!to!worldwide!
markets!as!a!result!of!import!tariffs.!It!is!possible!to!object!that!the!topic!is!specific!to!
the!relation!between!particular!citizens!and!their!respective!governments,!and!thus!
international!concerns!are!not!topical.!I!would!respond!that!the!nature!of!global!food!
production!means!that!the!domestic!policy!of!any!given!country!is!necessarily!
intertwined!with!its!foreign!policy!and!relations!with!other!countries.!In!other!words,!
a!necessary!part!of!any!'just!government'!acting!justly!is!negotiating!equitable!policies!
with!other!countries.!Additional!longYterm,!sustainable!policies!include!seed!banks!in!
the!case!of!natural!disasters,!grain!and!fertilizer!subsidies,!subsidized!irrigation!
equipment,!and!guaranteeing!certain!farmers!employment.!
!
ShortYterm!strategies!focus!less!on!increasing!agricultural!production!and!more!
on!ensuring!a!relatively!equitable!societal!distribution!of!food.!These!can!include!
social!welfare!programs!like!food!stamps,!but!can!also!include!things!like!conditional!
subsidies!to!farmers!that!guarantee!a!certain!market!price!for!food.!Unlimited!
agricultural!development!in!the!world!will!not!fix!basic!issues!of!poverty!and!food!
shortages!in!societies!with!severe!distributional!inequalities.!If!a!certain!portion!of!
society!is!continually!cut!off!from!financial!access!to!the!otherwise!abundant!food!
supply,!then!they!will!remain!without!access!regardless!of!how!much!food!there!is.!In!
other!words,!this!argument!says!that!your!policy!controls!the!internal!link!to!solving!
localized!food!security!problems.!
!
!!
Negative&Positions&
!
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I!think!counterplans!occupy!the!vast!majority!of!strategic!negative!ground!on!
this!topic,!though!I!will!discuss!two!potential!strategies!for!negating.!The!first!and!best!
strategy!is!a!nontopical!counterplan.!The!second!is!a!straightforward!negation!of!the!
resolution.!The!negative!may!also!advocate!topical!counterplans,!and!should!reference!
the!proposed!implementation!mechanisms!in!the!Affirmative!Positions!section.!
!
There!are!a!vast!variety!of!nontopical!counterplans!available!on!the!topic.!I!
think!the!best!counterplans!are!PICs!that!focus!on!opting!out!of!certain!parts!of!the!
resolution.!For!example,!the!negative!could!PIC!out!of!the!word!“citizens,”!and!argue!
that!just!governments!instead!ought!to!ensure!food!security!for!residents!of!their!
country.!This!type!of!advocacy!would!make!arguments!involving!the!contributions!and!
stigmatization!of!nonYcitizens.!It!could!also!talk!about!the!contributions!of!these!
individuals!via!various!forms!of!taxation,!and!discuss!how!these!populations!are!some!
of!those!that!are!most!at!risk!of!suffering!from!food!shortages.!!
!
Second,!the!negative!can!read!a!straightforward!negative!position!by!suggesting!
that!the!attempt!to!meet!moral!obligations!that!are!impossible!to!practically!satisfy!is!
harmful!by!imposing!necessary!failure!on!those!trying!to!satisfy!the!obligation.!The!
word!“ensure”!in!the!resolution!strengthens!this!argument!because!the!affirmative!is!
advocating!an!obligation!to!guarantee!food!security!to!all!citizens.!The!negative!must!
then!argue!that!the!obligation!is!in!fact!impossible!or!otherwise!undesirable.!!
!
Conclusion!
&
These!arguments!merit!further!exploration!and!development,!and!should!not!be!
treated!as!a!comprehensive!or!thorough!review!of!the!topical!literature.!Instead,!they!
should!kickstart!your!research!and!shape!your!perspective.!
!
Good!Luck!!
!
Brian!Hodge!
!
About&Brian&Hodge!
Brian!Hodge!attended!and!competed!for!Cypress!Falls!High!School!and!
graduated!in!June!2012.!He!competed!in!Lincoln!Douglas!debate!for!4!years,!achieving!
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success!on!both!the!regional!and!national!levels.!He!qualified!for!the!TFA!State!
Tournament!four!times,!and!reached!elimination!rounds!his!junior!and!senior!years.!
In!addition,!he!received!bids!to!the!Tournament!of!Champions!his!sophomore!and!
junior!years,!fully!qualifying!his!senior!year!with!a!total!of!five!career!bids.!He!was!the!
champion!of!the!Houston!Memorial!tournament,!a!finalist!at!the!St.!Marks!Invitational,!
and!a!quarterfinalist!at!the!Berkeley!Invitational.!He!is!currently!a!junior!at!the!
University!of!Texas!at!Austin,!where!he!is!studying!Mechanical!Engineering.!!
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Topic&Analysis&by&Jared&Woods&
Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.&
Introduction:
The topic we’ve been given for March/April is definitely one of the best topics
available because it allows for an incredible amount of different positions, be they
philosophical or policy based, and it also poses an incredibly important question that must
be addressed. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations27 (FOA)
estimates that “805 million people are estimated to be chronically undernourished in 201214,” and while that number is down over 100 million people in the last decade, global food
insecurity remains a prevalent issue. This topic analysis will approach the resolution from
a “policymaking” perspective in that I will analyze potential plans, counterplans,
disadvantages and kritiks.
Topicality:
One thing to consider on this topic is the role that effects (FX) topicality will play.
For those of you unaware of what that means, FX topicality argues that the affirmative plan
is not topical because the plan it proposes doesn’t directly mandate the, for example,
governments ensure food security for their citizens, but rather they only solve the harms
through casual links that the plan results in. Since topicality is about the mandate of the
plan, negatives will argue that if the aff is only topical because of the effects of their plan
then that is unfair because it could arguably make any kind of affirmative possible.
An example of that on this topic could be something like, “The United States Federal
Government should normalize food trade with Cuba.”
Fazzino, 10 - Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Alaska Fairbanks. M.S., Sustainable Systems, Slippery Rock
University, December 1999; J.D., University of Florida Levin College of Law, 2007; and Ph.D., Anthropology, University of Florida, 2008 (David V.,
“WHOSE FOOD SECURITY? CONFRONTING EXPANDING COMMODITY PRODUCTION AND THE OBESITY AND DIABETES EPIDEMICS,”
Drake Journal of Agricultural Law, 15 Drake J. Agric. L. 393, LexisNexis)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
27
State of Food Insecurity in the World in Brief, 2014, http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4037e.pdf
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It's important for our nation to build--to grow foodstuffs, to feed our people. Can you imagine a country that was unable to grow enough food to feed
the people? It would be a nation that would be subject to international pressure. It would be a nation at risk. And so
when we're talking
about American agriculture, we're really talking about a national security issue.
the relationship between food security and national security by the former President is obvious, considering that the
This concern over
United States has
utilized food as a weapon; perhaps the most notable example is the embargo
on Cuba. n24 The Cuban embargo has forced individual families and the Cuban government
to make due with fewer ties to global circuits of food production and distribution. n25 The
embargo led to an increase in the number of policies, programs, and measures to enhance
food security by relying on local and national food production programs. n26 Similarly, the United
States has been responsible for the imposition of Coalition Provisional Authority Order 81 in Iraq, which imposes World Trade Organization-friendly
intellectual property rights, including limitations on the rights of farmers to use seeds from the previous season's [*400] harvest. n27 Coalition
Provisional Authority Order 81 could undermine food security for farmers unable to afford required seed purchases if patented material is found
among seeds which have been saved from the previous season.
When the operational definitions of food security
are limited to measuring how much food is created and distributed, then the United States
emerges as a superior nation in terms of its overall food security and food surpluses. n29 At the
same time,
the relative inability of so-called less developed countries to meet the caloric needs
of their populace--due to chronic or acute instability in environmental, economic or
political sectors--is described as vulnerability and reflective of their inferiority. n30 Those in
international development circles would also point to the poor transportation infrastructure in these less developed countries, which limits the
distribution of food to areas that may be in the greatest need of food assistance. n31
In the United States, the temporal
unfolding of science and technology is perceived as leading directly to the continual
emergence of progress. n32 Notions of this superiority are reflected in the literature
concerning food production and security where the locus of food insecurity is consistently
placed in the so-called less developed world, while the United States occupies the role of
provider and breadbasket of the world. n33 The stated superiority of the U.S. international
agro-industrial complex is intimately connected with economics and politics; it is a
historically produced discourse. n34
In this case, the way that food security is ensured to citizens is via the effects of the
affirmative plan, as opposed to directly mandating that food security be ensured. On
another note, this affirmative would probably not be topical because the resolution
specifies that the government must provide food security for their citizens, not for other
countries citizens, so the US doing something for Cuba would probably fall outside the
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purview of this resolution. Thinking about FX topicality will be especially important when
crafting your plan text/advocacy because if you take a plan-focus approach to the
resolution, topicality is based on your plan text.
Affirmative:
One obvious approach to the topic is to specify a country that should ensure food
security for their citizens. Cuba, for example, is particularly vulnerable to food insecurity
because it imports about 60% of its domestic food requirements28, which makes it
susceptible to food price increases and changes in supply based on factors out of its
control. One potential plan is to defend that the Cuban government should make some
change in its agricultural policies. In the status quo, the Cuban government maintains far
too much control and it’s led to massive inefficiencies.
Cuba’s Free-Market Farm Experiment Yields a Meager Crop, By DAMIEN CAVE
Published: December 8, 2012,
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/world/americas/changes-to-agriculture-highlightcubas-problems.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
The 1980s Soviet model tractor he bought from another farmer was as about good as it gets in Cuba .
The Cuban
government maintains a monopoly on selling anything new, and there simply is not enough
of anything —
fertilizer, or sometimes even machetes —
Government economists are aware of the problem .
to go around.
“If you give people land and no resources, it doesn’t
matter what happens on the land,” said Joaquin Infante of the Havana-based Cuban National Association of
Economists .
But Mr.
Castro has refused to allow what many farmers and experts see as an obvious
solution to the shortages of transportation and equipment: Let people import supplies on their own.
“It’s about control,” said Philip Peters, a Cuba analyst with the Lexington Institute, a Virginia-based research
group.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
28
Alexa Von Sickle: Cuba and food security, March 12th, 2014,
http://www.iiss.org/en/iiss%20voices/blogsections/iiss-voices-2014-b4d9/march-2014-cd5b/cuba-food-security624b
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Other analysts agree, noting that
changes —
though the agricultural reforms have gone farther than other
like those that allow for self-employment —
they remain constrained by politics.
“The government is not ready to let go,” said Ted Henken, a Latin American studies professor at Baruch
College. “They are sending the message that they want to let go, or are trying to let go, but what they have is still a
mechanism of control.”
For many farmers, that explains why land leases last for 10 years with a chance to renew,
not indefinitely or the 99 years offered to foreign developers.
It is also why many farmers say they
will not build homes on the land they lease, despite a concession this year to allow doing so.
Mistrust is widespread. To get the growth Mr. Castro wants in agriculture and the
economy, people need to trust the government,
analysts say.
But after half a century of strict
control, many Cubans doubt proclamations from officials, who insist that this time, despite previous
crackdowns, private enterprise will be supported.
Some farmers still wonder when the government is going to swoop in and take what they
have built.
Although Castro has started to allow Cuban farmers to have a bit more autonomy,
problems still remain. This seems like an area of the topic that the affirmative could delve
into and find a significant amount of solvency evidence. If government inefficiency is the
problem, then researching different policies that the government could change in Cuba
offer a wide array of options for affirmative plans. Another option is to research Cuba’s
pilot program implemented by Cuba’s Soil Institute that aims to improve the farming land
in Cuba by conserving soil, water and forestry. This kind of land is critical if Cuba is going
to be able to become self-sufficient in regards to food security, as it is the kind of land that
is used for crowing crops, etc.
Another country that should be of interest is India. According to the Brookings
Institute,29 “India ranks 65 out of 79 in the Global Hunger Index,” making food security a
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
29!Improving!Indian!Food!Security:!Why!Prime!Minister!Modi!Should!Embrace!the!WTO,!
Joshua!Meltzer,!May!16,!2014,!
http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2014/05/16YworldYtradeYorganizationY
indiaYfoodYsecurityYmeltzer!
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huge priority for this country. In 2013, India adopted the National Food Security Act that
orders a stockpiling of food that can be released into the market as a way of minimizing
spikes in food prices. However, the government’s ideological views toward food security in
India prevent them from engaging in international trade as a means of reducing their
people’s food insecurity. India believes that food security is equivalent to food sovereignty,
and that international trade, or agricultural imports, are competition with their markets.
Improving Indian Food Security: Why Prime Minister Modi Should Embrace the WTO,
Joshua Meltzer, May 16, 2014, http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2014/05/16world-trade-organization-india-food-security-meltzer
India’s National Food Security Act has two goals: increasing access to food and supporting its farmers. As India’s
Commerce and Industry Minister Anand Sharma stated following the WTO Meeting last year ,
India "will under
no circumstances compromise the fundamental issues pertaining to food security, livelihood
security and the welfare of its subsistence farmers and poor." [6]
This reflects an Indian government view
of food security as food sovereignty —the notion expressed by U.N. Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food
Olivier de Schutter that
states should seek food security through self-sufficiency in food
production. [7] The limits and costs of this understanding of food security is made clear by following it
to its logical conclusion, where it would
lead to countries insulating food production completely from
international trade , irrespective of climatic conditions, arable land and population growth— an outcome that
would undoubtedly create significantly greater food insecurit y. This point was highlighted by a recent
World Bank report on achieving food security, which concluded that “ fixating
on national self-sufficiency
has been costly and counter-productive.” [8] Such a view of food security is part of the reason
why India fails to take advantage of the potential for international trade in agricultural
products and foodstuffs to improve the food security of India’s poor. Agricultural imports are
instead
seen as in competition with the rural sector and therefore restricted using tariffs,
subsidies and other non-tariff barriers. In contrast, more trade would increase choice and
diversify supply, strengthening the key dimensions of food security, namely, “access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious foods.”
Pursuing food security and supporting farmers also comes at significant financial cost. The government keeps prices
low for consumers and high for farmers by paying for the difference. Already,
India spends more on food
subsidies, price support and price stabilization programs than it does on other pressing needs
such as health, education and child development. The food stockpiling program will add to
India’s already extensive food subsidy programs. [9] And despite these significant outlays, there has been
little improvement in the food security of poor households in India. [10]
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Policies that seek to suppress the actual cost of food also ignore the benefits of higher food prices on wages.
According to a recent World Bank report, higher food prices translate into higher wages for
the poorest in India and this is a much more effective means for reducing rural poverty. [11]
This can support greater consumption, most of which the poor spend on food, and support
rural farmers in the process .
This link between prices and wages also has implications for international trade. In fact,
improving India’s terms
of trade for agriculture products by reducing agriculture trade barriers in developed
countries is likely the most effective and least costly way of improving both food security and
welfare
in India . [12] This underlines the broader point that there is no inherent conflict between food
security and international trade. Indeed, a well-functioning international market in food can
strengthen India’s food security at significantly less cost than its food stockpiling program
while providing new economic opportunities that can address India’s legitimate economic
development needs.
Another cost to
India from its approach to food security is the lost opportunities in the WTO Doha Round. It
has led India to taking positions in these negotiations that are focused on defending these
programs, often at the expense of other gains from the round for other sectors of its
economy. For example and as noted above, India’s demand that it be allowed to purchase certain food to maintain
prices and to stockpile for release into the market in the event of price spikes almost doomed the most recent WTO
Ministerial Meeting in Bali in December last year.
This put at risk a trade facilitation agreement—the
first new multilateral agreement since the establishment of the WTO in 1995—that will
produce significant benefits for developing countries such as India.
An interesting affirmative on this topic could argue that India should change its
approach in WTO negotiations in order to better promote food security within their nation.
Given recent elections in India, the time is ripe for change.
Improving Indian Food Security: Why Prime Minister Modi Should Embrace the WTO,
Joshua Meltzer, May 16, 2014, http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2014/05/16world-trade-organization-india-food-security-meltzer
Addressing food security issues within the WTO—a setting the seeks to create new
market access opportunities—points to a growing consensus that international trade can
enhance food security by increasing access to sources of food. The recent election of Prime
Minister Modi and the Bharatiya Janata Party provides an opportunity for India to reform
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its domestic agriculture subsidy scheme. And by focusing on the goal of food security,
India could take a leadership role in designing new trade disciplines in the WTO that takes
advantage of imports and new market access opportunities for its agriculture sector in the
developed world to increase its food security and the welfare of its farmers. Removing the
need to defend its agriculture subsidies from WTO disciplines could also create space for
India to take advantage of 21st century economic opportunities arising from international
trade in areas such as services and information technology, where the future of India’s
economy lies.
Finally, let’s not forget our beloved USA. In many ways, research from the living
wages topic will have relevance to this topic. Per the United States Department of
Agriculture30, “an estimated 14.3 percent of American households were food insecure at
least some time during…2013,” and that number remained relatively unchanged from the
prior year. One of the largest federal programs in the domestic hunger safety net is the
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), which provides low-income families
food-purchasing assistance. Participation in SNAP has been shown to have a positive
impact on reducing food insecurity, according to a 2014 report by the US Department of
Agriculture’s Food and Nutrition Service,
Measuring the Effect of SNAP Participation on Food Security, Monday, March 24, 2014,
US Department of Agriculture’s Food and Nutrition Service,
http://www.fns.usda.gov/measuring-effect-snap-participation-food-security-0
Participating in SNAP for 6 months was associated with a decrease in food
insecurity by about 5 to 10 percentage points, including households with food insecurity
among children.
The percentage of households that were food insecure decreased by 4.6 percentage points
in the cross-sectional sample (from 65.4 to 60.8 percent) and by 10.6 percentage points in
the longitudinal sample (from 65.1 to 54.5 percent).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
30!Household!Food!Security!in!the!United!States!in!2013¶!by!Alisha!ColemanYJensen,!
Christian!Gregory,!and!Anita!Singh¶!Economic!Research!Report!No.!(ERRY173)!41!pp,!United!
States!Department!of!Agriculture,!September!2014!
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The percentage of households that experienced very low food security decreased by 5.0
percentage points in the cross-sectional sample (from 36.4 to 31.4 percent) and by 6.3
percentage points in the longitudinal sample (from 35.9 to 29.6 percent).
The percentage of households in which children were food insecure decreased by 8.6
percentage points in the cross-sectional sample (from 33.3 to 24.8 percent) and by 10.1
percentage points in the longitudinal sample (from 32.3 to 22.2 percent).
Potential affirmatives could look into some of the weaknesses in SNAP and
advocate plans to address those inefficiencies, such as the SNAP benefits cliff,
[same citation as the evidence immediately above this]
A final recommendation is to fix the current benefits cliff that SNAP recipients will
face due to a proposed cut back on benefit levels as passed in H.R. 1586 - which is paid for
in part by cutting short a boost in SNAP benefits provided in ARRA. SNAP benefits would
be reduced beginning in April of 2014. This cliff could take place earlier as current child
nutrition legislation proposes a cut that would begin in November 2013 instead of April
2014 to partially offset the Healthy, Hunger Free Kids Act. ARRA had been written to
avoid a dramatic drop in SNAP benefits from one month to the next. The increased benefits
were intended to continue until the automatic annual inflation adjustments in regular SNAP
benefits increased their value to match the ARRA levels. The ARRA SNAP boosts were
critical and continue to be vitally important for vulnerable families as we bounce back from
the recent recession. Although the SNAP cut is not ideal it is imperative to pass child
nutrition legislation before the end of the year despite the SNAP offset. Regardless of when
the SNAP cut takes effect, advocates, Congress and the Administration will need to work
together to fix the future benefits cliff.
Moreover, while SNAP does most of the heavy lifting, there is a vast body of
literature that discusses the needs of children and the importance of school-based
nutritional programs. These programs offer a multitude of policy options, including
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advocacies like mandating that children in foster care be automatically eligible for free
school meals.
Needless to say, the options for plans on this topic seem plentiful. While you may have the
urge to write numerous plans that are all different, I strongly encourage that you find a
specific area of the topic that you think is most defensible and research that area in depth.
If you have a much better understanding of your advocacy, you will be far more prepared
to answer whatever strategies the negative throws at you. We will now discuss those
strategies.
Negative:
Obviously the negative’s strategy will be dependent on how the affirmative chooses
to approach the topic, and you should not only have specific strategies prepared for
different countries but also strategies that will answer any affirmative in the case that you
don’t have a case specific strategy prepared.
An example of a potential counterplan against a Cuba specific aff would be
something like the US lifting its embargo on Cuba and/or normalizing food trade with
them. This would be an example of an advantage counterplan that does something not
necessarily mutually exclusive with the affirmative, but solves the affirmative’s impacts
while competing through net benefits. In this case, the net benefit could be a disadvantage
to Cuba becoming a self-sufficient source of food. If we did not implement some plan to
promote Cuba’s self-sufficiency, and instead lifted trade embargoes then it could have
significant implications for biodiversity.
Opening the Cuban rice market causes an increase in rice acreage in Texas
Peveto 08-- Staff writer at The Advocate (Kyle, 12/22, “Rice growers want Obama administration to open
trade with Cuba”, http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/article/Rice-growers-want-Obamaadministration-to-open-701533.php)
President-elect Barack Obama represents the future to most of the nation, but some Southeast Texas rice farmers see in the presidentelect a chance to return to the past. Under the new administration, farmers expect to see some change in the United States' agriculture
trade relations with Cuba, which has been under an embargo since the 1960s.
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Southeast Texas rice , and for several years, area growers have lobbied for a loosening of relations to
allow local farmers to compete with the rest of the world. " We're sitting 80 or 90 miles from
this country, and we're really limited on what we can ship
Rice Co. " They
to 'em," said Mike Doguet, president of Doguet
buy everything from foreign sources from Vietnam and Thailand. All it does
with the embargoes is help our competitors."
Before the 1960s, Beaumont Rice Mills sold about 90 percent of its
rice to Cuba under the brand Sunset. A series of trade restrictions began after Fidel Castro seized power in a 1959 revolution, and the
United States imposed a full embargo against the communist island nation in 1962. " It
would get more people growing
rice and other commodities if we would just do away with that stuff," Doguet said of the embargo. "It
doesn't work. All the leaders they're trying to hurt, I don't think they've missed a meal. But it does hurt the poor people and the
American farmer."
The United States must work harder to open trade to more countries , said Louis
Broussard, president of Beaumont Rice Mills, whose family has worked in the rice industry for more than a century. " I
would
like to see more restrictions on foreign rice coming in here and see the government really
trying to open trade up for U.S. rice," he said. " It seems like it's the exact opposite. We've got all
these foreign rices coming in and all these countries putting restrictions on U.S. rice. We need
a little help from the administration on that end."
Broussard said he expects the new administration will
support advancing trade with the communist nation, and analysts expect Obama will loosen some restrictions on Cuban trade, but not
end the embargo, according to a fellow of the Lexington Institute quoted in the Christian Science Monitor.
Farmers can trade
with Cuba, but buyers must supply cash in advance, according to the Center for International Policy, a rule that
farmers say makes Americans less competitive. During President Bill Clinton's administration, the United States loosened trade
relations with the island nation, and after Congress passed a sanctions reform act that allowed agriculture trade in 2000, the nation
shipped 165,000 tons of rice to Cuba in 2004, according to The Enterprise archives. However, in the later years of the Bush
administration, progress has slowed again. "This has come to the forefront since Bush has kept us out of there," said Bill Dishman,
who is on the Texas Rice Council board. In addition to Cuba, farmers want the government to encourage European nations to buy
American rice. Since genetically modified rice turned up in rice exports in 2006, Europeans have not imported from American
farmers. "Europeans still have restraints on U.S. rice because of the genetically modified issue," Broussard said. "That strain of rice
has been well out of supply now for over a year. We need to pressure the European nations to drop the ban on U.S. rice." Broussard
said
opening trade with Cuba could be a boon to local agriculture, possibly attracting more
farmers, but keeping the local industry healthy. "If we see these markets open, you would see
an increase in acres, and in essence we are going to keep the acres we have now," he said.
"The way I see it, that's the key."
Rice farming is net better for biodiversity than alternate uses of the Texan land
Rister 97— Professor and Associate Department Head of the Department of Agricultural
Economics at Texas A&M University (“THE TEXAS RICE INDUSTRY COALITION
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FOR THE ENVIRONMENT (R.I.C.E.): MAIN POINTS FROM SIX FOCUS GROUPS”,
Edward, http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/handle/23971)
The group discussed the implications of wetland policy on rice production and on continuing urban development.
The group
discussed how protecting larger tracts of wetlands (including created wetlands, like rice
fields) will have more positive effects than establishing several smaller tracts. They were concerned
about the change in government policy. For example, farmers used to be told that they could fill in wetlands, but now they are not
allowed to farm wetlands. There are both positive and negative aspects of such changes in government policy which need to be
considered before new policy is implemented. This group was very concerned about the hedgerows being destroyed in the Katy
Prairie. The reason that hedgerows are being removed (with USDA sponsorship) is to control blackbird predation. They were
concerned about the loss of positive benefits of hedgerows as habitat for other birds. Laser leveling was discussed in detail. The
participant most familiar with rice farming explained how water is a nuisance in the winter and discussed the importance of the
timing of filling and draining fields .
Management is challenging and complex, but there is an increase in
wildlife habitat with good management. 18
The viewpoint was articulated that
if we lose rice farming,
what will replace it is a big brushy forest, and therefore fewer waterfowl. One participant had very
specific information about
likely successional plants if rice production were to decline . She talked about
tallow forests (a non-native plant) being likely to fill in the rice fields . She mentioned that it would
take many years for native wildlife to start using a tallow forest as habitat. Moreover , tallow
trees are big water-users. However, one participant “wouldn’t automatically buy into there being more wildlife (birds) in
current rice fields than without farming.” When asked about the effect of rice farming on wildlife, the focus group participants talked
about
waterfowl as well as other kinds of birds (e.g., hawks and eagles which benefit from rodents). Regarding
wildlife habitat, the group talked about there being some negative effects of rice production. When rice fields are flooded, some
animals lose their habitat. On the other hand, they appreciated that
rice farms serve as a buffer to development on
the western edge of Houston. The focus group discussed encroaching development, sprawling
out of Houston . They are paving more arable land and spreading out the tax base for
Houston. That jeopardizes environmental quality. “If it’s homes, it’s not bird sanctuaries!”
Moreover,
rice farms will have more wildlife than other kinds of farming.
When asked about who should
pay to help promote positive benefits from rice production, the focus group participants expressed the viewpoint that everyone
should help pay, particularly users. Birders are realizing more and more that they are “consumers,” and that they should help with the
costs.
This is just one example of a disadvantage the negative could have prepared, but it’s
obviously specific to Cuba so it’s critical that this is not the only option in the toolbox.
On a more general level, if the affirmative advocates a means-tested program for US
citizens, such as SNAP, there is a litany of disadvantages and alternatives to these kinds of
programs. One option is a counterplan that defends universal service programs, which are
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distinct from means-tested programs because they provide benefits and services for the
entire population whereas means-tested programs are deliberately aimed at the poor. Why
is it bad that means-tested programs specifically target the poor? Isn’t that the group that
we want to help in the first place? Good question, but research into means-tested programs
shows that often they harm the very people they claim to support and perpetuate a cycle of
poverty that is hard to get out of according to Marilyn Moon, Entitlements and the Elderly:
Protecting Promises, Recognizing Reality, Marilyn Moon, The Urban Institute, 1996,
http://books.google.com/books/about/Entitlements_and_the_Elderly.html?id=a_HNoMbIto
EC
Means Testing
Most proposals to restructure the poverty prevention portion of Social Security focus on
means testing (i.e., making eligibility dependent on income ). Advocates of means
testing, whose premise is that high-income people do not need Social Security benefits, argue that the original goal of
Social Security
was to provide a floor of protection, which can be done without subsidizing the income of people who
have more than adequate incomes without Social Security. A
disadvantages,
however.
means-tested program poses a number of
From a political perspective, means testing connotes "welfare
programs," which at present are extremely unpopular and often come with stringent
caps or other mechanisms to limit costs. Means testing thus could undermine the
political consensus supporting Social Security. Further, participation rates are often low in welfare
programs because of the stigma of being on welfare and the inadequacy of benefits in
many of
these programs. Consequently, many of those in need would also fail to be helped by such a program.
Most important,
savings
from means testing Social Security depend heavily on the income level on which eligibility is
phased out. Social Security benefits are vital to middle-income as well as poor elderly and
disabled persons, which thus argues for a moderate income eligibility cutoff. Moreover,
to move from a universal program to a severely means-tested one seems unnecessarily
restrictive. If Social Security were set so as to protect both the poor and near-poor elderly with incomes up to 150 percent of the poverty
threshold, the costs would be quite high—over $100 billion, or nearly half of current OASI expenditures. And setting the cutoffs at a level to
protect those with higher incomes, say to 200 percent of poverty, would add another million elderly people and thus require even more
resources.
As in most means-tested programs, there would be perverse incentives at the
margin unless benefits were slowly phased out. That is, if each dollar of other income
reduces benefits by a dollar, individuals would be discouraged from attempting to raise
their incomes because of
and income disregards
high implicit taxes or
penalties from earning more. Slower phase-outs
further increase the costs of the program, however. For instance, a means-
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tested program could simply expand upon the existing Supplemental Security Income
program which now serves very low-income elderly and disabled persons.
Under SSI, wages are effectively
subjected to a 50 percent tax, and other income is disregarded up to a certain level before benefits are reduced. These
adjustments improve the behavioral incentives of programs but raise costs and
implicitly expand eligibility.
This kind of counterplan/disadvantage combination could be devastating against any
affirmative that advocates some kind of plan that exclusively targets the poor. One thing
that will be important should you choose to implement this strategy is that you have a solid
understanding of what means-tested programs are out there, so that you can take advantage
of affirmatives who have not done as much research as you have.
Another topic area to look into for disadvantage ideas is overfishing. Vast majorities
of people, globally, rely on fish as a primary source of protein and if the aff does
something to ensure food security that might increase the amount of fishing then you have
a solid link to this disadvantage. One benefit of this kind of disadvantage is that you can
also make “turns case” arguments based on internal links to destruction of biodiversity. If
the affs plan to provide food security has irreversible impacts on Earth’s biodiversity or
climate, then it could have worldwide negative impacts on food production as the climate
plays an irreplaceable role in farming and agriculture.
As far as critical approaches to this topic go, you have a few options. One of them is
the infamous capitalism kritik. This kind of kritik would apply to any affirmative that takes
a policy-based approach to the resolution, or advocates a solution to food security that
ignores or leaves in place the alleged cause behind the broken food system…capitalism!
The Greatest Threat to Global Food Security: Capitalism ¶ Tuesday, 06 August 2013
13:21By Katie Anderson, SpeakOut | News Analysis, http://www.truthout.org/speakout/item/18011-the-greatest-threat-to-global-food-security-capitalism#
The current Industrial mass production of food for profit is a political, economic and
social crisis that has devastating effects on human health and threatens the survival of the
planet. Certainly one of our most fundamental of human needs is our ability to grow and
procure adequate nutrition. Yet over the past 50 years, Western societies, and particularly
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the United States, have radically shifted methods of growing and producing food for human
consumption. Using the twin vehicles of destructive food policy implements and growing
reliance upon industrialization and oil, this unsustainable model of food production
continues to spread and grow unabated in an era of declining oil production and clean
water availability.
This structure not only threatens the security of the entire global food system, but
also threatens human health and destroys our environment. Then again, this information is
not groundbreaking or novel. Scientists and independent research agencies have been
sounding the alarms for years, with writers like Michael Pollan and the creators of food
documentaries such as Forks over Knives and King Corn popularizing the food crisis in the
mainstream. But beyond the political, social and almost celebrity status of eating well (that
is eating locally grown, organic whole foods), what most food policy advocates and
researchers have failed to do is identify and hold accountable the true cause of our broken
food system: "free market" Capitalism.
While it feels like capitalism has been everyone’s favorite argument this topic, I
think there are very interesting and unique ways to approach the cap K on this topic, and if
you win a link then the impacts of the K can have serious advantages in debate rounds.
Most of the impacts you can generate from this kritik also serve as “turns case” arguments
because, as discussed earlier, climate change (a very common impact to cap) has
ramifications on global food security. Capitalism isn’t just a problem in the United States,
it’s also very relevant in Cuba and other international countries so if you examine the
underlying assumptions of the affirmatives advocacy and can explain why it’s dependent
on neoliberalism then you have a link.
If the affirmative is specific to developing countries, one option you have is a
criticism of their rhetoric or representation of developing countries. A large body of critical
literature analyzes and indicts certain academic and political approaches to developing
countries, arguing that solutions to “developing countries problems” often serve as a mask
to propagate colonialism, or function to perpetuate poverty under the guise of “solvency.”
Kothari/Harcourt, 4 (Smitu, founding member of the International Accountability Project/Wendy, Rural
Development, International Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, 2004, “Introduction:
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The violence of development”, Development, <http://www.palgravejournals.com/development/journal/v47/n1/full/1100024a.html>)
Fourthly, the destabilization of natural systems and the threat to cultures and traditions and ensuing insecurities and
violence is a
problem not of poverty but rather the reverse. It is a problem of wealth creation. The privileging
of materialism and the dominant patterns of achieving economic growth as the only road
to development creates poverty, threatens and destroys livelihoods, creates mass
insecurities, breaking down homes and communities, forcing men and women, often
displaced from their familiar environment, into criminality. It is this criminalization of poverty that has
led to some of the worst forms of gender violence as insecurities compound violence within the family as men are compelled to
redefine their identities, both culturally and individually and endure life-threatening economic insecurities. The underbelly of the
violence inherent in development is reflected in the heightened levels of domestic violence, the discrimination against the girl child,
the increase of women entering the workforce in debilitating and unhealthy conditions, the trafficking of women and children, the
increase in suicides and the spread of HIV/AIDS.
All this while those doing development claim to be
‘alleviating’ poverty and ‘listening’ to the voices of those they label poor. Moving from the community
level to the geopolitical level,
it is also important to look at the macro-context of violence that allows
policymakers to pay little attention to the voices from the marginalized and the growing mass
resistance to economic globalization. The process of national and global policymaking and today's geopolitics in the
wake of September 11, the invasion of Iraq and
the growing US hegemony is the enabling environment for so
much violence to go unheeded in the name of freedom, democracy and development.
Additionally, it’s very likely that some affirmatives will choose to argue that food
security is key to national security and then generates large impacts based off this link
chain. In that case, a security/securitization kritik appears to be an exceptional strategy.
The reason why food security is important has very little to do with national security and
much more to do with the massive amount of people who die from starvation every single
day. To argue that the only reason these people need food is so that we can encourage
further militarism is a huge link into the security kritik, and there is good reason to believe
that increasing our military strength directly trades off with food security.
Richard Smoke BA Harvard magna cum laude, PhD MIT, Prof. @ Brown, Winner Bancroft Prize
in History, AND Willis Harman M.S. in Physics and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from
Stanford University , Paths To Peace 1987 p. 34
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Social injustices in the more conventional sense of severe economic disparities have received much
more attention in recent decades from peace specialists , although not nearly enough from Western society as
a whole. Robert
Heilbroner's book An Inquiry Into the Human Prospect was one of the first influential
works to draw attention to the link between mass poverty in what we now call the Third World and
the likelihood of future wars . Others have made this link often in the decade since, and the link has served to
justify economic assistance from the developing world to underdeveloped nations. The connection runs both ways
between war and preparations for war on the one hand and the drastic economic difficulties of much of the Third World
on the other. The
resources sunk into armaments by many nations could yield immense benefits if
applied to Third World development. Religious leaders, United Nations officials, and many specialists have
tried repeatedly to draw attention to how much could be done to ease the world's sufferings if so much were not thrown
into the maw of war. Vivid comparisons are offered, such as these from the Brandt Commission Report, North-South: •
The world military expenditure of only half a day would be enough to finance the entire
malaria eradication program of the World Health Organization; • For the price of just one jet
fighter, 40,000 village pharmacies could be set up; • For one-half of one percent of one year's
world military expenditure, enough farm equipment could be purchased for all of the lowincome nations that presently have insufficient food to approach food self-sufficiency in only
ten years .
These are just a few examples of kritiks that you can have in the toolbox, and the
more research you do, the more likely you are to find incredibly topic specific links for any
given affirmative. I would suggest that you create a kritik file, like security or capitalism,
that has a basic 1nc shell at the top, but below that you have a link section so that whenever
you find out what the aff is you can substitute in link cards that are hyper-specific to that
advocacy.
Conclusion:
This topic analysis has only begun to scratch the surface of what is out there. Given
the incredibly generic wording of the topic and the expansive literature that accompanies it,
you are likely to come across a number of different potential advocacies for both the
affirmative and negative. I am a firm believer of depth over breadth when researching,
especially for affs, because debaters who have a better understanding of their arguments
are much more likely to be successful since they will be better equipped to answer cx
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questions, counterplans, disads, kritiks, etc. If you can explain the nuances of your
advocacy better than the negative can explain their answers to your argument, then you are
in a position to succeed. I am excited to see what people come up with on this topic, and
wish you the best of luck.
!
!
Good!Luck!!
!
Jared!Woods!
!
About&Jared&Woods&
!
Jared!Woods!is!a!graduate!from!the!Northland!Christian!School!in!the!Houston!
area,!where!he!debated!LincolnYDouglas!for!four!years.!Jared!was!highly!successful!on!
both!the!national!and!Texas!circuits.!He!qualified!to!the!TFA!State!tournament!for!
three!consecutive!years,!reaching!elimination!rounds!each!time!with!a!quarterfinals!
finish!as!a!senior.!!In!addition,!Jared!qualified!to!the!national!Tournament!of!
Champions!for!two!consecutive!years,!earning!seven!career!bids.!During!the!2011Y
2014!seasons,!Jared!coached!the!Cypress!Woods!and!Woodlands!College!Park!debate!
teams!in!Houston.!His!students!have!cleared!to!late!elimination!rounds!at!nearly!every!
major!tournament!in!Texas!including!TFA!State.!He!has!also!coached!numerous!TOC!
and!NSDA!Nationals!qualifiers.!
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Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.&
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Right&to&Food&Framework&
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!
The!first!popular!framework!that!debaters!will!want!to!run!is!a!right!to!food!AC!
that!justifies!the!importance!of!rights!to!morality.!!This!case!will!argue!that!rights!are!
the!basis!for!morality!to!impose!obligations,!and!that!there!exists!a!pertinent!right!to!
food.!!The!contention!level!for!this!affirmative!will!trace!many!empirical!legal!statutes,!
as!well!as!moral!philosophies!related!to!the!necessity!of!food.!
!
Prior!to!justifying!a!normative!framework,!a!right!to!food!AC!will!want!to!make!
a!few!preYframework!interpretational!moves.!!First,!this!ac!will!want!to!contextualize!
the!just!government!as!an!abstract!actor!in!the!resolution.!!The!lack!of!specification!
into!the!type!of!government,!the!particular!location!of!the!government,!and!the!
economic!stature!of!the!government!means!both!debaters!are!left!guessing!the!
governments’!specific!characteristics.!!All!we!know!about!the!government!is!that!it!is!
just.!!The!affirmative!will!want!to!argue!that!a!government!premised!on!justice!will!be!
one!that!respects!and!upholds!the!rights!of!its!citizens!and!is!necessarily!fair.!!These!
will!be!important!impacts!to!draw!because!they!will!allow!the!framework!for!the!case!
to!flow!naturally!from!the!words!within!the!resolution,!so!it!will!have!an!extremely!
strong!link!to!the!topic.!!A!second!interpretational!move!that!the!affirmative!will!want!
to!make!is!in!defining!food!security!as!a!large!encompassing!arena!for!rights!
securement.!!The!affirmative!will!want!to!establish!that!food!security!entails!the!basic!
necessities!for!life!within!a!state.!!Aff’s!should!do!this!so!that!their!advocacy!has!a!
strongly!persuasive!contention!level,!for!most!people!would!intuitively!agree!that!food!
should!be!a!basic!right.!!A!third!and!final!interp!move!that!the!affirmative!will!want!to!
make!in!order!to!get!the!most!out!of!a!right!to!food!AC!will!be!in!using!the!word!
“citizens”!to!justify!why!the!object!of!the!resolution!is!one!that!already!has!rights.!!
Individuals!can!only!become!citizens!when!they!have!a!particular!relationship!to!a!
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state.!!The!way!in!which!citizens!are!defined!by!a!state!is!by!the!sacrifices!they!make!
to!it,!and!the!rights!they!are!rewarded!from!it.!!As!such,!the!word!citizens!in!the!
resolution!will!allow!the!affirmative!to!emphasize!the!importance!of!rights!in!the!
normative!framework.!
!
The!value!criterion!for!a!right!to!food!ac!will!be!one!that!justifies!the!
importance!of!rights!in!and!of!themselves.!!This!means!this!affirmative!case!need!not!
take!a!stance!on!whether!it!is!utilitarian/ends!based,!or!deontological/means!based!as!
this!affirmative!case!merely!wants!to!argue!that!rights!are!important!in!and!of!
themselves.!!The!affirmative!debater!will!want!to!argue!that!rights!are!the!basis!for!
morality!and!are!the!locus!of!moral!obligations.!!Actors!have!obligations!to!fulfill!
another’s!rights,!and!just!governments!are!internally!prohibited!from!violating!rights.!!
In!such!a!way,!a!right!to!food!AC!can!use!deontological!warrants!to!sustain!the!
framework,!for!instance,!all!people!are!equal!so!everyone!ought!be!afforded!the!same!
rights.!!But,!individual!rights!do!not!need!to!be!the!central!focus!of!this!affirmative!
case,!because!the!framework!merely!wants!to!prove!that!if!something!is!a!right,!then!it!
should!be!followed.!!Affirmatives!will!want!to!justify!their!value!criterion!by!arguing!
that!natural!rights!are!what!creates!a!citizen/government!distinction,!and!that!the!
only!way!to!recognize!the!justness!of!a!just!government!is!by!forcing!that!government!
to!follow!a!framework!centered!around!protecting!rights.!!There!are!a!plethora!of!
justifications!for!why!rights!are!important,!and!as!such!the!affirmative!debater!should!
find!little!difficulty!in!supplying!warrants!to!a!rights!based!AC!framework.!
!
The!contention!level!for!a!right!to!food!AC!will!come!from!two!sources,!one!
philosophical,!and!one!empirical.!!The!philosophical!contention!level!for!this!AC!will!
argue!that!food!is!a!right!because!morally!food!is!necessary!to!live.!!Without!food,!a!
person!could!not!fulfill!their!life!projects,!and!so!could!not!be!a!moral!agent.!!Food!
thus!forms!a!basis!for!morality!within!citizenship,!so!ought!be!considered!a!right!that!
governments!are!obligated!to!uphold.!!An!easier!way!of!making!contention!level!
arguments!for!a!Right!to!food!AC,!will!be!by!citing!empirical!literature!in!the!real!
world!that!justifies!why!there!is!a!right!to!food.!!International!Law,!multiple!state!
constitutions,!as!well!as!the!UN!argue!that!there!exists!a!fundamental!right!to!food!
within!humanity.!!Any!legal!statute!would!suffice!as!offense!under!this!contention!
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level!and!would!prove!that!there!is!a!right!to!food,!and!so!consequently!establish!that!
just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security.!!!
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Realism&FW&
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!
A!creative!affirmative!framework!and!interpretation!of!the!resolution!will!be!
one!that!casts!the!resolution!as!a!question!between!a!states!obligation!to!its!own!
citizens,!or!to!humanity!abroad.!!This!dilemma!is!resolved!through!the!political!
framework!debate!of!realism!versus!cosmopolitanism.!!In!this!affirmative!case,!the!
affirmative!will!argue!that!political!realism!is!true,!states!only!care!about!their!own!
citizens,!and!as!such!states!ought!to!ensure!food!for!their!own!citizens.!!This!case!will!
require!a!lot!of!preYframework!interpretational!analysis!to!set!up!a!burden!structure!
in!which!realism!is!relevant,!but!once!this!framework!is!set!up,!the!contention!level!
and!normative!framework!debate!are!strategically!easy!to!win.!
!
The!preYvalue!framework!moves!that!this!affirmative!case!must!make!are!
dependent!upon!an!interpretation!of!the!word!citizens.!!First,!the!affirmative!will!need!
to!argue!that!the!phrase!“for!their!citizens”!was!purposefully!included!in!the!
resolution!so!as!to!set!off!a!distinction!between!citizens!and!normal!humans.!!The!
affirmative!debater!must!explain!that!the!framers!of!the!resolution!included!this!
phrase!not!just!to!be!superfluous,!but!rather!to!set!off!an!important!distinction.!!The!
resolution!could!have!easily!been!written,!just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!
security,!but!the!inclusion!of!“for!their!citizens”!means!the!object!of!the!food!security!
is!the!central!focus!of!the!clash.!The!affirmative!will!need!to!argue!that!the!particular!
use!of!the!word!“citizens”!was!to!set!a!contrast!off!between!citizens!and!nonYcitizens.!!
Citizens!are!those!indexed!to!a!state,!and!nonYcitizens!are!those!that!the!state!has!no!
particular!allegiance!to.!!The!final!move!that!the!affirmative!will!need!to!make!is!argue!
that!the!impact!of!the!inclusion!of!citizens,!and!consequent!distinction!with!nonY
citizens,!is!to!create!an!alternate,!and!somewhat!less!intuitive!truth!burdens!structure!
for!both!debaters.!!Instead!of!deciphering!the!resolution!as!a!question!between!food!
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security!or!no!food!security,!this!affirmative!posits!that!the!resolution!is!a!question!of!
whether!just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security!for!their!own!citizens!or!for!
all!of!humanity.!!This!affirmative!will!argue!that!the!affirmative!burden!is!to!prove!just!
governments!are!only!responsible!to!their!citizens,!and!the!negative!burden!is!to!
prove!that!just!governments!have!responsibilities!to!all!humans,!not!merely!their!own!
citizens.!
!
The!framework!that!this!affirmative!case!will!use!to!justify!why!just!
governments!solely!have!obligations!to!their!own!citizens!is!political!realism.!!Realism!
argues!that!states!are!selfYinterested!actors!in!a!selfYhelp!world!in!which!there!is!no!
global!overarching!body,!and!no!one!is!looking!out!for!them.!!A!state!has!to!rely!on!its!
own!citizens!for!resources,!and!protects!its!citizens!by!defending!its!natural!
boundaries.!!There!are!many!political!theorists!that!justify!realism,!and!there!are!
many!moral!arguments!debaters!can!cite!to!justify!this!framework—mainly!variations!
of!the!arguments!above.!!In!justifying!realism,!debaters!will!want!to!argue!that!it!is!not!
rational!for!states!to!rely!on!other!states!because!there!is!no!assurance!that!the!other!
states!will!work!benevolently!with!them.!!In!contextualizing!other!states!as!inherent!
threats,!realism!will!also!contextualize!the!citizens!of!other!states!as!antagonistic!to!
their!own!citizens.!!In!this!way,!realism!justifies!and!legitimizes!a!separation!between!
governments!and!different!people!based!upon!where!those!people!reside!and!what!
government!they!call!themselves!citizens!to.!
!
As!such,!upon!justifying!a!realist!framework,!the!contention!level!debate!for!
this!case!is!very!easy!to!win.!!A!realist!framework!argues!the!government!has!
obligations!to!its!own!citizens.!!This!affirmative!will!thus!contend!that!the!statement,!
“just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security!to!their!own!citizens”!is!true!because!
just!governments!ought!to!only!act!for!and!help!their!own!citizens.!!As!such,!this!AC!
strategically!employs!a!framework!and!contention!level!that!are!largely!incontestable,!
and!instead!relies!on!a!majority!of!framework!interpretational!moves.!!!
!
Rational&Contractarianism&AC&
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A!final!FW!on!the!topic!that!debaters!may!want!to!run!will!start!from!the!
perspective!of!individuals!as!selfYinterested!actors!who!come!together!to!form!
contracts!of!mutual!agreement!for!their!own!self!interest.!!A!framework!of!Rational!
Contractarianism!will!justify!that!it!is!in!the!self!interest!of!individuals!to!have!their!
government!ensure!food!security.!
!
The!preYvalue!framework!moves!that!this!affirmative!case!will!need!to!make!
are!not!very!numerous.!!Affirmatives!could!potentially!argue!that!the!lack!of!
specification!of!an!actor!beyond!a!just!government!means!that!debaters!must!use!
hypothetical!frameworks.!!This!allows!the!ac!to!get!out!of!specific!policy!arguments,!as!
well!as!emphasize!the!textual!link!between!rational!contractarianism!and!just!
governments.!!Rational!contractarianism!is!an!ethical!theory!for!individuals!within!
governments!so!could!be!said!to!be!the!ethical!principle!that!a!just!government!does!
act!off!of.!!The!fact!that!governments!are!typically!seen!as!selfYinterested!actors!in!
favor!of!the!best!for!their!populous!seems!to!strengthen!a!link!between!the!actor!of!
the!topic!and!this!framework.!!A!second!interpretational!move!that!debaters!reading!
this!affirmative!case!will!want!to!make!is!to!preempt!negative!debaters!that!argue!
forming!a!contract!will!be!impossible.!!Affirmative!debaters!will!first,!want!to!make!
theoretical!arguments!in!the!framework!that!undermine!the!negatives!ability!to!draw!
out!necessary!but!insufficient!conditions!to!affirming,!and!will!second!want!to!argue!
that!the!only!entity!relevant!to!the!contracts!in!the!resolution!are!the!“citizens”.!!The!
“citizens”!of!the!resolution!form!the!objective!party!whom!the!policies!of!food!security!
are!forced!on,!so!rational!contractarianism!would!evaluate!if!the!citizens!would!
themselves!come!to!agree!to!contracts!demanding!food!security!by!the!state.!!
!
The!moral!framework!begins!from!the!starting!point!that!we!need!a!noncircular!
origin!for!morality.!!The!moral!rules!that!individuals!use!must!be!those!that!
individuals!choose!to!use!themselves.!!Individuals!cannot!be!obligated!by!rules!that!
they!do!not!choose!to!follow.!!Therefore,!moral!principles!come!from!an!individual’s!
fundamental!agreement!to!and!usage!of!moral!rules.!!Rational!contractarianism!holds!
that!all!individuals!are!equally!selfYinterested!and!so!would!come!together!to!form!
moral!rules,!or!contracts!that!benefit!their!selfYinterest.!!SelfYinterest!normatively!
guides!the!moral!rules!that!individuals!make!because!the!selfYinterest!of!the!individual!
Champion)Briefs)
81&
Frameworks&
&
March/April&2015&
guarantees!that!they!will!choose!the!best!rules!for!themselves,!and!for!others.!!
Rational!contractarianism!thus!starts!from!the!empirical!presumption!that!individuals!
are!selfYinterested,!and!concludes!we!ought!to!form!moral!rules!securing!our!selfY
interest.!
!
The!contention!level!for!a!rational!contractarianism!AC!will!!simply!argue!that!
ensuring!the!right!to!food!benefits!the!selfYinterest!of!individuals.!!The!right!to!food!
guarantees!that!individuals!have!the!ability!to!pursue!their!selfYinterest!because!they!
are!given!sustenance.!!The!government!supplies!individuals!with!such!sustenance,!and!
as!such!individuals!do!not!have!to!expend!other!resources!or!efforts!on!it.!!Just!
governments!are!thus!obligated!to!ensure!food!security!to!their!citizens!under!
rational!contractarianism!because!individuals!would!agree!to!contracts!in!which!the!
government!gives!them!food.!!There!are!no!outstanding!reasons!why!food!would!not!
be!in!the!self!interest!of!citizens,!and!so!no!prohibition!exists!on!creating!a!contract!to!
obligate!the!government!to!ensure!food.!!
!
Champion)Briefs)
82&
Champion Briefs
March/April 2015
Lincoln-Douglas Brief
Evidence for the
Affirmative
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Disability&is&a&significant&risk&factor&for&food&security.&
Nord,!Mark.!"Disability!Is!An!Important!Risk!Factor!For!Food!Insecurity."!United!
States!Department!of!Agriculture!Economic!Research!Service.!June!05,!2013.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberYwaves/2013Y
may/disabilityYisYanYimportantYriskYfactorYforYfoodYinsecurity.aspx>.!
In!2011,!close!to!15!percent!of!U.S.!households!were!food!insecure.!At!some!time!
during!the!year,!these!households!lacked!adequate!food!for!one!or!more!household!
members!due!to!insufficient!money!or!other!resources!for!food.!Disability&has&
emerged&as&one&of&the&strongest&known&factors&that&affect&a&household’s&food&
security.!Recent!ERS!research!found!that!in!2009Y10,!oneYthird!of!households!with!a!
workingYage!adult!who!was!unable!to!work!due!to!disability!were!food!insecure!and!
oneYquarter!of!households!that!included!a!workingYage!adult!with!a!disability!that!did!
not!necessarily!prevent!employment!were!food!insecure.!In!comparison,!12!percent!of!
households!that!had!no!workingYage!adults!with!disabilities!were!food!insecure!in!
2009Y10.There&is&substantial&overlap&between&households&that&include&adults&
with&disabilities&and&food`insecure&households.!Among!factors!known!to!correlate!
with!food!insecurity,!only!low!income!and!participation!in!food!and!nutrition!
assistance!programs!identify!such!a!large!portion!of!the!foodYinsecure!population.!
It!appears&that&current&food&and&nutrition&assistance&programs&and&disability&
assistance&programs&designed&to&help&people&with&disabilities&meet&their&basic&
needs,&including&food&security,&are&not&fully&compensating&for&the&reduced&
earnings&and&higher&costs&associated&with&disability!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
84&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Establishing&access&to&food&as&a&right&is&key&to&including&
people&with&disabilities&is&key&to&including&them&within&
the&global&development&agenda.&
Rachele,!Tardi.!"Hungry!For!Change:!The!Right!To!Food!And!Persons!With!
Disabilities."!LIGHT!FOR!THE!WORLD!United!Nations!Special!Rapporteur!on!the!
Right!to!Food.!March!12,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.lightYforY
theYworld.org/uploads/media/20141203_IDPD_food_disabilities.pdf>.!
A!call!on!governments!to!give!persons!with!disabilities!access!to!adequate!and!
nutritious!food!and!on!the!United!Nations!to!include!them!in!the!new!Sustainable!
Development!Goals.!We&are&at&a&critical&juncture&for&reflecting&on&the&human&
rights&of&persons&with&disabilities.&Human&rights&are&indivisible&and&the&right&to&
food&cannot&be&realized&unless&the&other&human&rights&of&persons&with&
disabilities&are&realized&too.&They&must&be&included&in&the&broader&sustainable&
development&agenda.!The!new!UN!Sustainable!Development!Goals!(SDGs),!which!will!
replace!the!UN!Millennium!Development!Goals,!will!be!finalized!in!the!coming!months!
and!will!be!officially!adopted!by!the!UN!in!September!2015.!This&unique&opportunity&
for&persons&with&disabilities&to&become&not&just&more&visible&but&active&
participants&in&the&global&agenda&must&not&be&missed.&Their&inclusion&in&the&
SDGs&is&fundamental&if&we&are&to&achieve&a&sustainable&development&that&is&
genuinely&rights`based&and&leaves&“no&one&behind”.&Across!the!globe,!an!estimated!
one!billion!persons!live!with!a!disability.!Eighty!percent!of!them!live!in!the!global!
South.!Currently!805!million!people!in!the!world!have!been!estimated!to!be!
chronically!undernourished.!Since!many!persons!with!disabilities!live!in!absolute!
poverty,!these!two!large!populations!overlap!to!a!considerable!extent.!These!striking!
facts!need!to!be!remembered!especially!today,!December!3,!International!Day!of!
Persons!with!Disabilities.!A!recent!article!by!professor!Nora!Groce!and!her!colleagues!
published!in!Paediatrics!and!International!Child!Health!states!that!“Nutrition&and&
disability&are&intimately&linked:&malnutrition&can&directly&cause&or&contribute&to&
Champion)Briefs)
85&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
disability,&and&disability&can&lead&to&malnutrition”.&Persons&with&disabilities&face&
many&challenges&in&the&full&realization&of&their&human&rights,&including&the&right&
to&food.!This!is!recognized!as!a!fundamental!human!right!in!several!international!
instruments,!including!the!Universal!Declaration!of!Human!Rights,!the!International!
Covenant!on!Economic!Social!and!Cultural!Rights!and,!most!recently,!the!UN!
Convention!on!the!Rights!of!Persons!with!Disabilities.!Although&the&need&for&good&
nutrition&is&often&discussed&in&relation&to&disability&prevention,&it&is&vital&to&
emphasize&the&human&rights&approach&to&food&security&also&for&those&who&
already&live&with&a&disability.&States&are&particularly&responsible&to&make&sure&
that&vulnerable&and&marginalized&people&can&access&adequate&and&nutritious&
food&in&a&non`discriminatory&and&equal&manner.!The!article!shows!that!children!
with!disabilities!often!lack!equal!access!to!adequate!food!and!more!likely!to!be!subject!
to!malnutrition!than!other!children.!They!may!receive!less!food!because!the!others!are!
seen!as!having!a!greater!chance!of!surviving!and!contributing!to!the!household.!
Mothers!of!newborns!with!a!disability!are!often!discouraged!from!breastfeeding!their!
babies!for!similar!reasons.!Children!with!disabilities!are!often!believed!to!be!incapable!
of!learning!to!feed!themselves!and!they!therefore!become!reliant!on!others!who!may!
give!them!less!food!because!it!takes!time!to!feed!them.!The!UKYbased!international!
NGO!Lumos!reported!in!2013!that!in!Bulgarian!institutions!for!children!with!
disabilities!caretakers!were!spending!less!than!2!minutes!on!each!child!at!mealtimes,!
even!though!those!children!needed!help!with!eating!and!drinking.!Among!children!
with!disabilities,!girls!are!often!discriminated!against!and!given!less!and!lowerYquality!
food!than!boys.!Both&children&and&adults&with&disabilities&are&discriminated&
against,&due&to&social&stigma&and&negative&cultural&norms,&and&many&societies&fail&
to&include&them&in&a&constructive&manner,&ignoring&their&right&to&food&among&
other&rights.&Governments&have&a&particular&obligation&to&take&targeted&actions&
to&fulfill&the&realization&of&the&right&to&food.&They&must&ensure&that&the&disability&
perspective&is&taken&fully&into&account&in&nutrition&policy!and!programming,!
maternal!and!child!health!and!broader!public!health!initiatives,!including!the!training!
of!professionals.&And,&since&there&is&no&social&justice&without&economic&justice,&
sufficient&resources&must&be&allocated&for&the&“twin`track”&approach:&alongside&
Champion)Briefs)
86&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
“mainstream”&nutrition&services,&initiatives&and&campaigns,&inclusive&of&and&
accessible&for&persons&with&disabilities,&there&need&to&be&disability`specific&
services&that&aim&at&the&full&inclusion&of&persons&with&disabilities&in&society.&Food&
must&be&both&physically&and&economically&accessible.!Many!persons!with!
disabilities!around!the!world!face!great!difficulties!in!accessing!a!sustainable!job!and!
income.!Governments!should!implement!affirmative!policies!to!maintain!the!physical!
and!economic!access!of!persons!with!disabilities!to!available,!culturally!acceptable!
food.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
87&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Establishing&access&to&food&as&a&right&is&key&to&including&
people&with&disabilities&is&key&to&including&them&within&
the&global&development&agenda.&
Rachele,!Tardi.!"Hungry!For!Change:!The!Right!To!Food!And!Persons!With!
Disabilities."!LIGHT!FOR!THE!WORLD!United!Nations!Special!Rapporteur!on!the!
Right!to!Food.!March!12,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.lightYforY
theYworld.org/uploads/media/20141203_IDPD_food_disabilities.pdf>.!
A!call!on!governments!to!give!persons!with!disabilities!access!to!adequate!and!
nutritious!food!and!on!the!United!Nations!to!include!them!in!the!new!Sustainable!
Development!Goals.!We&are&at&a&critical&juncture&for&reflecting&on&the&human&
rights&of&persons&with&disabilities.&Human&rights&are&indivisible&and&the&right&to&
food&cannot&be&realized&unless&the&other&human&rights&of&persons&with&
disabilities&are&realized&too.&They&must&be&included&in&the&broader&sustainable&
development&agenda.!The!new!UN!Sustainable!Development!Goals!(SDGs),!which!will!
replace!the!UN!Millennium!Development!Goals,!will!be!finalized!in!the!coming!months!
and!will!be!officially!adopted!by!the!UN!in!September!2015.!This&unique&opportunity&
for&persons&with&disabilities&to&become&not&just&more&visible&but&active&
participants&in&the&global&agenda&must&not&be&missed.&Their&inclusion&in&the&
SDGs&is&fundamental&if&we&are&to&achieve&a&sustainable&development&that&is&
genuinely&rights`based&and&leaves&“no&one&behind”.&Across!the!globe,!an!estimated!
one!billion!persons!live!with!a!disability.!Eighty!percent!of!them!live!in!the!global!
South.!Currently!805!million!people!in!the!world!have!been!estimated!to!be!
chronically!undernourished.!Since!many!persons!with!disabilities!live!in!absolute!
poverty,!these!two!large!populations!overlap!to!a!considerable!extent.!These!striking!
facts!need!to!be!remembered!especially!today,!December!3,!International!Day!of!
Persons!with!Disabilities.!A!recent!article!by!professor!Nora!Groce!and!her!colleagues!
published!in!Paediatrics!and!International!Child!Health!states!that!“Nutrition&and&
disability&are&intimately&linked:&malnutrition&can&directly&cause&or&contribute&to&
Champion)Briefs)
88&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
disability,&and&disability&can&lead&to&malnutrition”.&Persons&with&disabilities&face&
many&challenges&in&the&full&realization&of&their&human&rights,&including&the&right&
to&food.!This!is!recognized!as!a!fundamental!human!right!in!several!international!
instruments,!including!the!Universal!Declaration!of!Human!Rights,!the!International!
Covenant!on!Economic!Social!and!Cultural!Rights!and,!most!recently,!the!UN!
Convention!on!the!Rights!of!Persons!with!Disabilities.!Although&the&need&for&good&
nutrition&is&often&discussed&in&relation&to&disability&prevention,&it&is&vital&to&
emphasize&the&human&rights&approach&to&food&security&also&for&those&who&
already&live&with&a&disability.&States&are&particularly&responsible&to&make&sure&
that&vulnerable&and&marginalized&people&can&access&adequate&and&nutritious&
food&in&a&non`discriminatory&and&equal&manner.!The!article!shows!that!children!
with!disabilities!often!lack!equal!access!to!adequate!food!and!more!likely!to!be!subject!
to!malnutrition!than!other!children.!They!may!receive!less!food!because!the!others!are!
seen!as!having!a!greater!chance!of!surviving!and!contributing!to!the!household.!
Mothers!of!newborns!with!a!disability!are!often!discouraged!from!breastfeeding!their!
babies!for!similar!reasons.!Children!with!disabilities!are!often!believed!to!be!incapable!
of!learning!to!feed!themselves!and!they!therefore!become!reliant!on!others!who!may!
give!them!less!food!because!it!takes!time!to!feed!them.!The!UKYbased!international!
NGO!Lumos!reported!in!2013!that!in!Bulgarian!institutions!for!children!with!
disabilities!caretakers!were!spending!less!than!2!minutes!on!each!child!at!mealtimes,!
even!though!those!children!needed!help!with!eating!and!drinking.!Among!children!
with!disabilities,!girls!are!often!discriminated!against!and!given!less!and!lowerYquality!
food!than!boys.!Both&children&and&adults&with&disabilities&are&discriminated&
against,&due&to&social&stigma&and&negative&cultural&norms,&and&many&societies&fail&
to&include&them&in&a&constructive&manner,&ignoring&their&right&to&food&among&
other&rights.&Governments&have&a&particular&obligation&to&take&targeted&actions&
to&fulfill&the&realization&of&the&right&to&food.&They&must&ensure&that&the&disability&
perspective&is&taken&fully&into&account&in&nutrition&policy!and!programming,!
maternal!and!child!health!and!broader!public!health!initiatives,!including!the!training!
of!professionals.&And,&since&there&is&no&social&justice&without&economic&justice,&
sufficient&resources&must&be&allocated&for&the&“twin`track”&approach:&alongside&
Champion)Briefs)
89&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
“mainstream”&nutrition&services,&initiatives&and&campaigns,&inclusive&of&and&
accessible&for&persons&with&disabilities,&there&need&to&be&disability`specific&
services&that&aim&at&the&full&inclusion&of&persons&with&disabilities&in&society.&Food&
must&be&both&physically&and&economically&accessible.!Many!persons!with!
disabilities!around!the!world!face!great!difficulties!in!accessing!a!sustainable!job!and!
income.!Governments!should!implement!affirmative!policies!to!maintain!the!physical!
and!economic!access!of!persons!with!disabilities!to!available,!culturally!acceptable!
food.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
90&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
The&interests&of&people&with&disabilities&are&largely&ignored&
within&food&security&policy&but&now&is&the&key&time&to&
include&them&within&mainstream&discussions&of&
development.&
Edge,!James.!"Put!Disability!On!The!Food!Security!Agenda."!The!Guardian.!March!12,!
2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!<Put!disability!on!the!food!security!agenda,!
http://www.theguardian.com/globalYdevelopmentYprofessionalsY
network/2013/mar/27/mdgsYfoodYsecurityYdisabilityYdevelopmentYagenda>.!
Over!a!billion!people,!about!15%!of!the!world's!population,!live!with!a!
disability,according!to!the!World!Health!Organisation.&The&links&between&poverty&
and&disability&are&complex&and&go&in&both&directions!–!poverty!can!lead!to!
disability!through!poor!living!conditions,!malnutrition!and!lack!of!access!to!health!
services.!At!the!same!time,!disability!can!lead!to!poverty!through!lack!of!employment!
and!education!opportunities,!limited!access!to!health!and!social!services.Despite&this,&
disability&remains&an&under`represented&issue&in&food&security&policy&and&
practice!(there!is!no!mention!of!disability!at!all!in!the!new!2012!millenium!
development!goals!report).!To&a&great&extent,&disability&in&development&remains&
stuck&in&the&'special&needs'&section&of&targeted&projects&on&health,&education&and&
welfare.!The&UN&Convention&on&the&Rights&of&Persons&with&Disabilities&(UNCRPD),&
the&2011WHO/World&Bank&world&report&on&disability&and&post`2015&agenda&
now&provide&an&opportunity&for&disability&issues&to&be&brought&into&the&
mainstream&of&development.!How!can!we!achieve!this!while!tackling!food!insecurity!
in!practice?!Be!inclusive!Disability!should!be!addressed!in!all!activities!rather!than!as!
a!separate!issue.!We&need&to&acknowledge&the&roles&that&people&with&disabilities&
can&and&do&play&in&achieving&food&security&for&themselves&and&their&families.!The!
diversity!of!knowledge,!skills!and!abilities!of!disabled!people!should!not!be!forgotten.!
We!should!be!careful!that!our!own!practices!are!not!disempowering.!Get!in!touch!
There!are!many!disabled!peoples'!organisations!working!in!development.!Who!better!
to!know!about!disability!than!people!with!disabilities!themselves?!Someinternational&
Champion)Briefs)
91&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
disability&NGOs&are&already&taking&part&in&food&security&consultations&but&many&
may&not&have&the&funds&and&capacity&to&make&their&voices&heard.!Food!
security!groups!should!make!contact!with!these!organisations!early!in!consultative!
processes,!not!at!the!end,!when!it!is!often!too!late!to!make!changes.!There!are!
numerous!online!networks!and!communities!which!can!guide!you!towards!local!and!
regional!organisations.!Be!accessible!Make!all!your!information!more!accessible.!
Writing!in!a!clear!style!and!avoiding!jargon!benefits!everyone.!Having!a!well!written!
consultation!or!policy!document!is!only!one!step.!Making!sure!people!can!physically!
access!it!is!another.!Place!your!documents!online,!but!don't!assume!that!your!website!
is!fully!accessible.!Use!alternative!methods!to!get!your!message!across.!Social!media,!
mailing!lists!and!blogs!have!a!wide!reach,!and!can!help!engage!disabled!groups!that!
are!hardYtoYreach.!Think!about!the!formats!you!are!providing.!For!example,!making!
your!documents!available!in!Microsoft!Word!helps!people!who!use!text!readers!or!
need!to!change!the!font!size!to!access!the!information.!Ask!disabled!groups!how!they!
would!like!information!to!be!presented.!Sharing!stories!of!best!practice!and!
innovation!Promoting!and!disseminating!success!stories!from!the!field!is!a!great!way!
to!ensure!a!more!efficient!allocation!of!limited!resources!to!projects!that!are!more!
likely!to!succeed.!Examples!of!best!practice!help!avoid!repeating!problems!
encountered!in!previous!interventions,!and!provide!opportunities!to!scale!up!
innovative!programmes!and!apply!solutions!in!new!areas.!Find!sources!of!examples!
and!lessons!learnt!from!making!gender!equality!part!of!mainstream!development!–!for!
which!there!is!extensive!critical!literature!and!practice!–!and!see!how!this!knowledge!
can!be!extended!to!disability.!Food!security!for!all!The!food!security!agenda!postY2015!
should!be!about!equity,!human!rights,!sustainable!and!inclusive!development!and!
sustainable!and!inclusive!growth.!Beneficiaries!should!be!included!in!the!design,!
implementation!and!monitoring!of!programmes,!which!make!programmes!more!likely!
to!succeed.!Ask!yourself,!are!disabled!people!involved!in!all!stages!of!the!project!cycle!
in!your!organisation!–!project!identification,!project!design,!implementation!and!
monitoring,!and!project!evaluation?!Influencing!the!postY2015!agenda!Now&that&we&
are&rapidly&approaching&the&deadline&for&halving&the&number&of&hungry&by&2015,&
there&is&an&opportunity&for&disabled&people&to&be&fully&included&and&to&influence&
the&post`2015&agenda.&All&of&us&have&a&role&to&play&in&deciding&who&has&a&place&at&
the&table&in&targeting&food&security.!
Champion)Briefs)
92&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
!!
!!
!!
Disability&studies&is&a&useful&lens&through&which&to&view&food&
security&issues.&
Wolbring,!Gregor.!"Guest!Editorial:!Science!And!Technology,!Social!Cohesion,!Human!
Security,!And!Disabled!People."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!
Journal!Volume!5,!Issue!3.!2009!.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.biasfree.org/operation.pdf#page=15!>.!
Human&security&and&social&cohesion&Y!the!topic!of!this!RDS!issue!Y!are&central&
requisites&especially&for&the&medical&and&social&well&being&of&disabled&people.&
Furthermore,&a&disability&studies&lens&can&crucially&clarify&and&test&the&
discourses&of&human&security&and&social&cohesion&for&their&usefulness&for&
disabled&people&and&provide&information&about&implications&for&the&general&
population&as&well.!Human!security!according!to!the!Commission!on!Human!Security!
(2003)!is!concerned!with!safeguarding!and!expanding!people’s!vital!freedoms.!It!
requires!both!shielding!people!from!acute!threats!and!empowering!people!to!take!
charge!of!their!own!lives.!The!Commission!identified!economic!security,!food!security,!
health!security,!environmental!security,!personal!security,!community!security,!
political!security,!freedom!from!fear,!and!freedom!from!want!as!primary!concerns.!!!
Champion)Briefs)
93&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
The&disabled&do&not&have&security&in&many&parts&of&the&world.&
Ghai,!Anita.!"Guest!Editorial:!Human!Security,!Social!Cohesion,!And!Disability."!Review!
of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal!Volume!5,!Issue!3.!2009!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!<http://www.biasfree.org/operation.pdf#page=15!>.!
As!the!Commission!on!Human!Security!(2003)!indicates,!“The&protection&of&the&vital&
core&of&all&human&lives&in&ways&that&enhance&human&freedoms&and&fulfillment.”!In!
other!words,!human&security&is&understood&as&security&of&
survival!(mortality/injury,!health),!security!of!livelihood!(food,!water,!energy,!
environmental!needs,!shelter,!and!economic!security),!and&dignity!(basic!human!
rights,!capacity,!participation).!In&accepting&these&definitions,&the&question&arises,&
Are&people&with&disabilities&secure?&The&answer&does&not&seem&to&be&positive,&as&
disabled&people&are&not&fully&integrated&into&our&society.&For&many&of&us,&a&
fundamental&part&of&our&daily&life&involves&support&that&can&maintain&our&bodily&
integrity.!People&with&disabilities&feel&that&the&right&of&being&secure&and&
autonomous&is&not&evident.!Issues&about&disabled&people’s&security&correlates&
with&the&abject&poverty&in&the&developing&countries!and!perhaps!to!a!lesser!degree,!
the!developed!countries.!While&disabled&activists&in&industrialized&countries&
debate&about&issues&such&as&independent&living,&assistance&with&care&needs,&and&
facilitated&sex,&disabled&people&in&the&majority&of&the&world&are&still&struggling&
for&survival.!My!desire!is!not!to!create!a!dichotomy,!but!to!point!out!the!enormity!of!
pressures!that!characterize!the!lives!of!those!for!whom!disability!is!closely!linked!with!
poverty.!!!
Champion)Briefs)
!
94&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Disabled&people&are&excluded&from&discussions&of&food&
security.&
Wolbring,!Gregor.!"Guest!Editorial:!Science!And!Technology,!Social!Cohesion,!Human!
Security,!And!Disabled!People."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!
Journal!Volume!5,!Issue!3.!2009!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.biasfree.org/operation.pdf#page=15!>.!
Vanmala!Hiranandani!in!this!special!issue!makes!the!case!that!the!human&security&
discourse&in&general,&and&the&food&security&discourse&in&particular,&is&too&limited&
in&its&scope&and&interpretation&and&too&limited&in&the&variety&of&people&covered.!
She!especially!makes!the!case!that!disabled,&people&particularly&under&the&social&
model&interpretation,&are&not&present&in&the&food&security&discourse.&This&lack&of&
presence&is&not&just&confined&to&the&governmental,&industrial,&and&academic&
discourse&around&human&security&in&general&and&food&security&in&particular,!but&
also&includes&the&NGO/CSO!movementinvolved!in!these!issues.!The&role&of&disabled&
people&too&often&seem&to&be&confined&to&the&medical&health&angle!and!access!to!
buildings,!health!services,!transportation,!employment!and!education.!Even!within!
this!confined!scope!of!topics,!it!is!a!struggle!to!involve!disabled!people.!Charles!Dube!
talks!in!his!piece!about!the!lack!of!access!of!South!African!disabled!people!to!primary,!
secondary,!and!higher!education.!This!leads!to!education!insecurity!with!consequent!
employment!insecurity!and!economic!insecurity,!with!their!attendant!insecurities!
such!as!food!insecurity,!health!insecurity,!and!political!insecurity.!Dube&makes&the&
point&that,&a)&education&and&knowledge&enable&disabled&people&to&identify&
common&problems&and&act&in&solidarity&with&others,&b)&education&and&
information&can&play&a&significant&protective&role&and&can&thus&further&human&
security,&and&c)&this&cannot&be&achieved&without&the&existence&of&a&clearly&
defined&legislative&framework&and&implementation&structures&that&guide&
disabled&people’s&access&to&and&use&of&support&services&that&enhances&their&
social,&political,&and&economic&position&within&mainstream&society.!!!
Champion)Briefs)
95&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
96&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
A&disability&perspective&is&necessary&in&the&study&of&food&
security.&
Hiranandani,!Vanmala.!"Disability,!Poverty!And!Food!Sovereignty:Advancing!The!
Human!Security!Agenda."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal!
Volume!5,!Issue!3.!2009.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.biasfree.org/operation.pdf#page=15!>.!
Furthermore,!most&literature&on&food&security&has&lacked&a&disability&perspective.&
Extant&studies&on&disability&and&food&security&have&been&limited&to&the&fields&of&
medicine&and&nutrition&that&largely&view&“disability”&from&a&medical&model&as&a&
deficit!or!a!problem!inherent!in!the!individual.!While&this&health&science&
perspective&is&significant&to&understand&the&interrelations&between&chronic&
illness,&impairment&and&malnutrition,&it&is&inadequate&to&address&the&wider&
socio`economic&disparities&that&affect&the&livelihoods,!opportunities!and!selfY
determination!of&disabled&persons.!!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
97&
AFF:&Ableism&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Modeling&the&Gaibandha&Food&Security&Program&by&
establishing&income&generating&activities&can&solve.&
Williams,!Fiona.!"Mainstreaming!Disability!In!Bangladesh."!New!Agriculturist.!January!
08,!2013.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!<http://www.newY
ag.info/en/focus/focusItem.php?a=3072>.!
Molida&Afsar&and&her&sister&Hena&are&two&young&women&with&a&hearing&
impairment.&They&were&fully&dependent&on&their&brother&when&they&were&
selected&to&be&part&of&the&EU`funded&Gaibandha&Food&Security&Programme&for&
Ultra&Poor&Women&in&Bangladesh.!Together!with!other!women!in!their!village,!they&
formed&a&Women&Village&Group&(WVG)&and&received&training&on&healthy&food,&
how&to&start&their&own&vegetable&garden&and&other&ways&to&generate&their&own&
income.!With!the!help!of!a!community!member,!who!is!able!to!speak!the!local!sign!
language,!they!were!able!to!fully!contribute!to!the!group.!The!project!was!
implemented!by!seven!local!organisations*!and!supported!by!three!European!NGOs!Y!
ICCO,!The!Leprosy!Mission!(Netherlands!and!England!&!Wales)!and!Light!for!the!
World.!The&aim&was&to&improve&the&food&security&of&40,000&women`headed&
households&in&Bangladesh.&From&the&outset,&the&initiative&worked&to&raise&
awareness&about&the&rights&and&needs&of&disabled&people.!"The!reason!why!people!
with!disabilities!often!do!not!participate!in!development!projects!is!not!their!
impairment!or!functional!limitation,"!explains!Paulien!Bruijn,!Inclusive!Development!
Coordinator!for!Light!for!the!World.!"Inadequate&policies,&negative&attitudes&and&
lack&of&accessibility&often&prohibit&their&participation.&So&to&ensure&the&equal&
participation&of&people&with&disabilities&in&the&project,&we&aimed&to&make&sure&
that&at&least&20&per&cent&of&households&included&a&member&with&a&disability."!
!!
!
Champion)Briefs)
98&
AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
The&Brazilian&Constitution&defends&food&security&as&a&
national&right.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
Brazil!is!the!largest!country!in!South!America!with!a!population!of!approximately!192!
million!people.65!Brazil!is!one!of!the!twentyYtwo!countries!in!the!world!that!
addresses!a!right!to!food!in!their!constitutions.66!Article&227&of&the&Brazil&
Constitution&states:&It&is&the&duty&of&the&family,&of&society,&and&of&the&State&to&
ensure&children&and&adolescents,&with&absolute&priority,&the&right&to&life,&health,&
food,!education,!leisure,!professional!training,!culture,!dignity,!respect,!freedom,!and!
family!and!community!life,!in!addition!to!safeguarding!them!against!all!forms!of!
negligence,!discrimination,!exploitation,!violence,!cruelty,!and!oppression.!Although&
not&every&country&that&designates&a&constitutional&right&to&food&is&successful,&
Brazil&has&been&able&to&maintain&one&of&the&lowest&rates&of&undernourishment&
among&the&developing&countries—about!6%!as!of!2005.68!What!sets!Brazil!apart!
from!many!other!countries!that!address!a!right!to!food!in!their!constitutions!is!the!
action!that!Brazil!has!taken!to!ensure!food!security!in!their!country.!In!2006,!the!
Brazilian!Parliament!approved!“Brazil’s!National!Food!and!Nutritional!Security!
Framework!Law”!(LOSAN)!that!gives!the!government!a!tactical!way!of!approaching!
food!security!in!their!country.69LOSAN&acknowledges&that&adequate&food&is&a&basic&
human&right&and&is&indispensable&in&realizing&the&other&rights&that&are&set&forth&
in&their&federal&constitution.70&Since&passing&LOSAN&into&law,&Brazilian&hunger&
has&continued&to&decrease.71!Although!Brazil!still!has!a!long!trek!ahead!in!
increasing!health!and!nutrition!to!more!acceptable!levels,!it!is!improving!at!a!rapid!
rate.72!
Champion)Briefs)
99&
AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
The&World&Declaration&and&Plan&of&Action&for&Nutrition&
represents&an&overwhelming&international&consensus&that&
food&security&is&a&right.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&1992&World&Declaration&and&Plan&of&Action&for&Nutrition&represented&
consensus&among&159&countries&that&the&levels&of&hunger&and&malnutrition&are&
unacceptable&in&a&world&that&has&both&the&knowledge&and&resources&to&end&this&
human&catastrophe.&The&1992&Declaration&reiterated&that&the&right&to&adequate&
food&is&a&right&of&each&individual,&and&that&access&to&food&is&the&main&problem.&
The&159&countries&signing&the&Declaration&pledged&to&work&together&to&find&a&
solution.&Their&main&objectives&were:&1)&ensuring&sufficient&supplies&of&food&for&
everyone&to&have&a&nutritionally&adequate&diet;&2)&working&to&achieve&and&
maintain&optimal&health&and&nutrition&for&all;&3)&achieving&an&environmentally&
sound&and&sustainable&way&to&develop&food&and&contribute&to&health&and&
nutrition;&and&4)&eliminating&the&existence&of&famines&and&famine&related&deaths.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
100&
AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
All&major&international&human&rights&covenants&address&and&
recognize&the&right&to&food&and&the&government’s&
obligation&to&ensure&that&right&for&their&citizens.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
In!addition!to!the!human!rights!documents!outlined!above,!which!are!specifically!
focused!on!the!right!to!adequate!food,!three&other&major&human&rights&documents&
that&together&constitute&the&International&Bill&of&Rights&specifically&address&the&
right&to&adequate&food&among&other&rights:&(1)&The&Universal&Declaration&of&
Human&Rights&(UDHR),&(2)&The&International&Covenant&on&Economic,&Social&and&
Cultural&Rights&(ICESCR),&(3)&The&International&Covenant&on&Civil&and&Political&
Rights&(ICCPR).91&In&these&documents&individuals&are&the&right&holders&rather&
than&the&countries&who&are&parties;&however,&the&countries&bear&the&obligations&
that&come&with&being&parties&to&these&agreements.92&As&discussed&below,&the&
UDHR&and&the&ICESCR&specifically&address&the&right&to&food;&the&ICCPR&discusses&
the&right&to&life&and&the&right&to&use&one’s&own&means&of&subsistence.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
101&
AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&recognizes&the&
right&to&food&on&a&national&and&international&level.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
In&1948&the&“contemporary&international&human&rights&system”&was&created&
when&the&United&National&General&Assembly&adopted&the&Universal&Declaration&
of&Human&Rights&(UDHR).&The&purpose&of&the&UDHR&was&to&achieve&promotion&
and&respect&for&fundamental&human&rights&and&freedoms.!This!is!to!occur!through!
progressive!measures,!both!at!the!national!and!international!level,!in!hopes!of!
securing!a!universal!and!effective!recognition!and!observance!of!these!rights.93&The&
UDHR&specifically&addresses&the&right&to&food.&Article&25&of&The&UDHR&states:&
Everyone&has&the&right&to&a&standard&of&living&adequate&for&the&health&and&well`
being&of&himself&and&of&his&family,&including&food,!clothing,!housing!and!medical!
care!and!necessary!social!services,and&the&right&to&security&in&the&event&of&
unemployment,&sickness,&disability,&widowhood,&old&age&or&other&lack&of&
livelihood&in&circumstances&beyond&his&control.94&This&provision&of&the&UDHR&is&
an&important&foundation&for&the&right&to&food.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
102&
AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&recognizes&the&
right&to&food&on&a&national&and&international&level&and&is&
legally&binding.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&right&to&food&was&again&recognized&in&the&International&Covenant&on&
Economic,&Social,&and&Cultural&Rights&(ICESCR)&in&1966&and&came&into&force&in&
1976.&The&ICESCR&also&further&clarified&the&right&to&food.!There!are!currently!160!
parties!to!the!ICESCR.95!Article!11!states:!1.&The&States&Parties&to&the&present&
Covenant&recognize&the&right&of&everyone&to&an&adequate&standard&of&living&for&
himself&and&his&family,&including&adequate&food,!clothing!and!housing,!and!to!the!
continuous!improvement!of!living!conditions.!The!States!Parties!will!take!appropriate!
steps!to!ensure!the!realization!of!this!right,!recognizing!to!this!effect!the!essential!
importance!of!international!coYoperation!based!on!free!consent.!2.!The!States!Parties!
to!the!present!Covenant,!recognizing!the!fundamental!right!of!everyone!to!be!free!
from!hunger,!shall!take,!individually!and!through!international!coYoperation,!the!
measures,!including!specific!programmes,!which!are!needed:!(a)!To!improve!methods!
of!production,!conservation!and!distribution!of!food!by!making!full!use!of!technical!
and!scientific!knowledge,!by!disseminating!knowledge!of!the!principles!of!nutrition!
and!by!developing!or!reforming!agrarian!systems!in!such!a!way!as!to!achieve!the!most!
efficient!development!and!utilization!of!natural!resources;!(b)!Taking!into!account!the!
problems!of!both!foodYimporting!and!foodY!exporting!countries,!to!ensure!an!
equitable!distribution!of!world!food!supplies!in!relation!to!need.96!As&seen&in&Section&
2&of&Article&11,&parties&have&a&legally&binding&obligation!to!work!towards!the!
Champion)Briefs)
103&
AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
realization!of!the!rights!presented!in!the!ICESCR,!including!the!right!to!adequate!
food.9!
!
!
ICCPR&has&one&of&the&largest&memberships&in&the&world&and&
recognizes&a&governments&obligation&to&provide&food&
security&for&its&citizens.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&International&Covenant&on&Civil&and&Political&Rights&(ICCPR)&also&came&into&
force&in&1976.&There&are&169&parties&to&the&ICCPR.103!Although!this!covenant!does!
not!mention!the!right!to!food!specifically,!Article!8!declares,!"Every!human!being!has!
the!inherent!right!to!life."!104!While&the&language&"an&inherent&right&to&life"&does&
not&expressly&mention&food,&it&can&be&inferred&that&the&right&to&food&is&included&
because&it&is&such&a&necessary&part&of&life.&The&ICCPR&further&states&in&Article&2,&
“[I]n&no&case&may&a&people&be&deprived&of&its&own&means&of&subsistence.105!
!
Champion)Briefs)
104&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Food&insecurity&kills&military&readiness.&
Leitsinger,!Miranda.!"Hungry!Heroes:!25!Percent!Of!Military!Families!Seek!Food!Aid."!
NBC!News.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.nbcnews.com/feature/inYplainYsight/hungryYheroesY25YpercentY
militaryYfamiliesYseekYfoodYaidYn180236>.!
.!Yetter’s!family!is!among!the!620,000!households!that!include!at!least!one!soldier,!
reservist!or!guardsman!–!or!25&percent&of&the&nation’s&total&active&duty&and&
reserve&personnel&–&that&are&seeking&aid&from&food&pantries&and&other&charitable&
programs&across&the&country,&according&to&a&rare&inquiry&about&the&food&
insecurity&of&troops&and&veterans&conducted&by&Feeding&America,&a&hunger&relief&
charity,!that!will!be!released!Monday.!Another&2.37&million&households&including&
veterans&receive&assistance&from&food&pantries!that!are!part!of!Feeding!America's!
network!(this!figure!doesn't!include!households!where!both!a!former!and!current!
service!member!reside).!The!help!is!sought!for!various!reasons,!experts!say:!For&
active&duty,&pressures&include&low&pay,&poor&financial&planning&by&junior&
soldiers,&the&difficulty&for&spouses&to&hold&steady&jobs&amid&base&transfers&and&
deployments,&and&the&higher&costs&of&living&in&some&states.&For&veterans,&the&
triggers&are&the&transition&to&the&civilian&world,&and,&for&some,&living&off&low&
disability&pay&or&retirement&funds.!Both!groups!were!hit!by!the!Great!Recession,!
too.!“We’ve!heard!for!the!last!several!years!from!our!food!banks!that!there’s!a!growing!
need!among!military!families!for!food!assistance,”!said!Maura!Daly,!a!Feeding!America!
spokeswoman.!Though!the!organization!“found!the!results!to!be!incredibly!
disheartening”!it!also!will!give!Feeding!America!the!opportunity!“to!partner!with!
military!organizations!on!the!ground!to!help!ensure!that!we!are!better!meeting!their!
needs,”!she!added.!Defense&Department&spokesman&Lt.&Cmdr.&Nate&Christensen&
said&in&a&statement&on&Friday&that&the&Pentagon&was&reviewing&the&survey&and&
was&“concerned&with&anything&that&impacts&the&wellness&and&readiness&of&service&
members&and&families.!The!work!of!Feeding!America!and!other!organizations!will!
help!the!department!amplify!the!DOD!resources!available!to!service!members!and!
Champion)Briefs)
105&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
families,!particularly!in!highYcost!locations.”&He&added&that&the&Pentagon&
“recognizes&that&personal&financial&readiness&of&service&members&and&their&
families&must&be&maintained&to&sustain&mission&readiness”&and!offers!personal!
financial!management!counselors,!as!well!as!other!tools!and!services,!to!help!
personnel!get!a!clear!understanding!of!their!finances.!Military!stores!–!like!exchanges!
and!commissaries!–!provide!savings!to!troops,!he!said.!(On!Monday,!the!Pentagon!
issued!a!new!statement!on!the!survey,!saying:!"The!Department!of!Defense!disagrees!
with!the!methodology!that!Feeding!America!used!to!calculate!the!estimated!
percentage!of!military!households!served!by!its!food!assistance!programs.")!Spikes!in!
food!aid!sought!by!active!duty!service!members,!reservists,!guardsmen!and!veterans!
emerged!in!states!with!large!military!bases,!like!in!Delaware,!California,!Texas,!
Colorado,!Georgia,!Washington!and!Virginia,!according!to!Feeding!America!data!from!
its!"Hunger!in!America!2014"!report,!a!national!study!it!runs!every!four!years.!Other!
surges!came!in!states!where!a!lot!of!people!join!the!military,!like!Iowa,!and!then!
return!home!after!being!discharged.!More!than!60,000!clients!of!the!organization’s!
network!and!32,000!of!its!partner!agencies!participated!in!the!survey.!Operation!
Homefront,!a!nonprofit!focusing!on!the!lowestYpaid!enlisted!service!members,!
wounded!warriors!and!their!families,!said!requests!for!food!assistance!from!people!
they!serve!tripled!starting!in!2009!and!have!only!slightly!receded!since!then.!Adding!
to!the!financial!strain!for!military!families,!the!Defense!Department!this!year!issued!its!
lowest!pay!raise!–!1!percent!Y!in!50!years,!according!to!the!Military!Officers!
Association!of!America,!a!nonpartisan!nonprofit!focused!on!military!personnel!
matters,!and!it!will!seek!the!same!level!from!Congress!through!2017.!Limiting!the!pay!
increase!came!after!Congress!in!2000!passed!a!law!to!redress!the!salary!gap!between!
civilians!and!the!military,!which!was!then!at!13.5!percent,!the!association!said.!The&
new&pay&cap&hurts&retention&and&readiness,&particularly&impacting&young&
military&families&already&living&on&tight&budgets,&said&Army&Col.&Mike&Barron&
(Ret.),&the&association’s&deputy&director&of&government&relations.&“It’s&going&to&
cause&them&(soldiers)&to&not&be&as&focused&on&their&job&at&hand&and&a&lot&of&the&
jobs&that&we&have,&lives&depend&on&them&being&focused,”!he!said.!The&financial&
Champion)Briefs)
106&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
hardships&translate&into&“more&stress&on&the&force,&more&stress&on&the&service&
member,&more&stress&on&their&family,”&he!added.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
107&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Changing&unequal&gender&dynamics&is&a&key&tenet&of&food&
security&and&proper&child&development.&
Sachs,!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!
Crafting!A!New!Vision."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!January!08,!2010.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.
pdf>.!
The&third&pillar&of&food&security,&food&utilization&refers&to&the&ability&of&
individuals&to&meet&their&specific&nutritional&and&dietary&needs.&Calorie&intake&
alone&is&not&enough&to&ensure&adequate&diets&and&nutrition.!This!dimension!of!
food!security!incorporates!food!quality,!safety,!nutrition,!as!well!as!adequate!water!
and!sanitary!issues.!UNICEF!has!highlighted!the!importance!of!child!care!and!feeding!
practices!such!as!breast!feeding,!adequate!food!storage!and!preparation,!and!hygiene!
practices!to!ensure!positive!health!and!nutrition!outcomes!for!infants!and!
children.!FAO&has&recently&emphasized&that&ending&hunger&and&providing&food&
security&must&refocus&on&nutritional&security&and&gender&concerns&rather&than&
only&agricultural&interventions!(FAO,!2013).&This&will&entail&working&across&
sectors&such&as&education,&health,&water,&sanitation,&and&agriculture.&In&most&
societies,&women&play&the&primary&role&in&translating&available&food&into&
nutritional&security&for&children&and&other&family&members.!Obviously,!women!
breastYfeed,!which!when!done!exclusively!for!the!first!six!months!and!continued!for!
two!years!with!food!supplements!provides!the!best!health!outcomes!for!infants!
(UNICEF/WHO).!In&addition,&women&also&typically&assume&major&responsibility&
for&food&preparation,&cooking,&and&provision&of&water&and&sanitation&within&the&
household.&Health&care&and&water&and&sanitation&services&must&consider&
gendered&needs.&Unequal&gender&relations&in&the&household&and&in&communities&
can&seriously&impinge&on&women’s&ability&to&meet&the&nutritional&needs&of&their&
families.&A&number&of&studies&have&shown&that&education&and&nutritional&
Champion)Briefs)
108&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
knowledge&of&parents,&especially&mothers,&as&well&as&gender&equality&in&
household&decision&making&positively&impacts&nutritional&status&of&young&
children!(Ecker!and!Breisinger!2012;!Behrman!and!Wolfe!1984;!Glewwe!1999;!Semba!
et!al.!2008;!Behrman!and!Deolalikar!1990;!Kennedy!and!Peters!1992;!Thomas!1994).!
The!physiological!needs!of!pregnant!and!lactating!women!make!them!particularly!
vulnerable!to!malnutrition!and!micronutrient!deficiencies.!In!addition,!maternal!
health!is!crucial!to!child!survival!and!infant!and!child!nutrition.!Micronutrient&
deficiencies&disproportionately&impact&women&and&children.&For&example,&
between&4&and&5&billion&people&suffer&from&iron&deficiency&with&estimates&of&half&
of&pregnant&women&and&children&under&5&in&developing&countries&suffering&from&
iron&deficiency.&Iron&deficiency&delays&normal&motor&and&mental&functioning&in&
infants,&causes&fatigue&and&impairs&ability&to&do&physical&work&in&adults,&impairs&
mental&functioning&in&teens,&and&increases&the&risk&of&small&or&preterm&babies&in&
pregnant&women&(Center&for&Disease&Control,&2013).!Changing&power&dynamics&
within&households&can&enable&women&to&make&the&choices&and&decisions&
necessary&for&caring&for&infants&and&children.&As&these&power&dynamics&shift,&
men&may&assume&some&responsibility&for&care&but&also&value&and&support&these&
activities.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
109&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
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&March/April&2015&
The&right&to&adequate&food&is&firmly&established&under&
international&law.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
In&1996,&the&World&Food&Summit,&at&the&United&Nation’s&Food&and&Agriculture&
Organization&meeting&in&Rome,&convened&and&declared&that&it&was&intolerable&
that&more&than&823&million&people&throughout&the&world&did&not&have&enough&
food&to&meet&their&most&basic&nutritional&needs.5&Over&eighty&countries&joined&at&
this&Summit&and&participated&in&creating&the&Rome&Declaration&on&World&Food&
Security&to&protect&what&they&deemed&a&fundamental&human&right&of&adequate&
food.&The&World&Food&Summit&concluded&that&the&right&to&adequate&food&is&
“firmly&established&in&international&law,&but&its&operational&content&and&means&
of&application&are&generally&little&understood.”6!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
110&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Ending&world&hunger&is&the&highest&priority&of&the&
international&community.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
After&the&World&Food&Summit&released&its&goals&in&1996,&the&United&Nations&had&
a&meeting&of&world&leaders&in&September&2000&to&develop&and&adopt&the&U.N.&
Millennium&Development&Goals.&The&purpose&of&the&Millennium&Development&
Goals&was&to&bring&together&all&of&the&world’s&countries&to&agree&to&a&plan&of&
action&sponsored&by&the&United&Nations.&The&goals&range&from&halving&extreme&
poverty&to&ending&the&spread&of&HIV/AIDS,&from&providing&universal&education&to&
ending&hunger.10&Not&only&is&ending&hunger&one&of&the&Millennium&Development&
Goals,&it&is&the&first&on&the&list.&The&Millennium&Project&recognized&that&poverty&
and&hunger&go&hand`in`hand&and&thus&stated&its&first&goal!as:!Eradicate!extreme!
poverty!and!hunger.!The&Goals&mirror&the&goals&of&the&World&Food&Summit&of&1996&
in&hopes&of&decreasing&hunger&by&one`half&by&the&year&2015.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
111&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Increasing&interdependence&makes&it&more&difficult&for&
countries&to&stabilize&the&cost&of&food&domestically.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
There&once&was&a&time&that&developing&countries&could&be&resistant&to&economic&
fluctuations&in&the&global&marketplace.33&However,&as&these&countries&have&
become&more&integrated&in&the&world&market&through&trade&and&investments,&
these&fluctuations&have&had&much&stronger&effects&on&them.34&In&fact,&countries&
with&the&highest&levels&of&hunger&have&been&the&most&vulnerable&to&the&recent&
global&food&crisis.35&Since&hunger&levels&rise&with&poverty,&those&most&affected&
by&the&financial&crunch&beginning&in&the&late&2000s&in&terms&of&hunger&have&been&
poor&farm&workers&who&have&seen&their&already&low&wages&reduced&even&further&
and&who&are&losing&their&jobs&altogether.36&The&integration&of&these&developing&
countries&into&the&world&market&can&be&largely&attributed&to&private&
corporations&and&international&financial&institutions&(IFI’s),&and&therefore,&food&
insecurity&can&also&be&attributed&to&them.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
112&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
The&Universal&Declaration&on&the&Eradication&of&Hunger&and&
Malnutrition&affirms.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&1974&Universal&Declaration&on&the&Eradication&of&Hunger&and&Malnutrition&
declared&that&every&human&being&has&the&fundamental&right&to&be&free&from&
hunger&and&malnutrition&so&that&they&can&fully&develop.&It&declared&that&every&
country&in&the&position&to&help&has&the&responsibility&to&do&so&in&ensuring&that&
the&right&to&food&is&realized.!The!Declaration!recognized!that!there!was!a!food!crisis!
greatly!affecting!people!in!developing!countries.!It&also&explained&that&the&welfare&
of&many&of&the&world’s&people&depends&on&the&ability&to&adequately&produce&and&
distribute&food,&establish&a&system&where&all&people&have&access&to&food,&and&to&
have&reasonably&priced&food&so&that&food&is&available&to&all.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
113&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
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&March/April&2015&
Food&is&important&beyond&a&physical&need&for&hunger.&
Eide,!Asbjorn.!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And!
Development."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.!November!30,!1990.!
Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent
=1&collection=journals>.!
Finally,!the&adequacy&of&the&daily&food&basket&is&a&crucial&element&in&the&concept&
of&household&food&security:!the!household!food!basket!must!be!adequate!to!cover!
the!nutritional!needs!of!its!members!both!quantitatively!and!qualitatively.!But&
"adequacy"&must&go&beyond!this!in&recognition&of&the&many&roles&and&meanings&
food&has&for&people&as&part&of&their&wider&cultural&identity.!Concern&with!the!
local!food&culture&not&only&is&a&sign&of&respect&for&the&dignity&of&the&poor&and&
their&right&to&eat&what&they&prefer&to&eat,&but&also&links&up&logically&with&the&
optimal&utilization&of&the&natural&resource&base&and&the&amount&of&food&that&can&
be&sustained&by&a&given&ecosystem.!Clearly,!in!such!cases!preservation!of!the!
environment!would!also!contribute!to!the!preservation!of!traditional!dietary!
diversity.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
114&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
The&issue&of&food&security&is&a&question&of&whether&it&is&
justified&by&a&principle&of&charity&or&justice.&
Peffer,!Rodney.!"WORLD!HUNGER,!MORAL!THEORY,!AND!RADICAL!RAWLSIANISM."!
International!Journal!of!Politics!and!Ethics.!January!03,!2003.!Web.!February!
06,!2015.!
<http://home.sandiego.edu/~peffer/Essays/World%20Hunger,%20Moral%20
Theory,%20&%20Radical%20Rawlsianism.doc>.!
The&third&issue&is&whether&saving&people&from&starvation&(and!other!forms!of!
severe!deprivation)&is&a&matter&of&charity&(or&beneficence)&or&a&matter&of&justice.&
This&question,&which&cuts&across&the&traditional&division&between&
consequentialist&and&non`consequentialist!(or!deontological)!moral&theory,&is&of&
the&utmost&importance&since,&by&definition,&if&it&is&a&matter&of&charity&then&no&one&
can&be&compelled&to&give&some&of&the&resources&they&would&otherwise&have&
available&to&them&to&aid&the&severely&deprived,&whereas&if&it&is&a&matter&of&justice&
then&people&could&be&compelled&–&through&compulsory&taxation,&for&example&–&
to&aid&them.!This!issue!also!cuts!across!the!division!between!the!individual!and!social!
approaches!to!this!problem,!although!it!seems!plausible!to!suggest!that!most!of!those!
who!view!this!as!a!matter!of!justice!adopt!the!social!approach!to!it,!whereas!most!
of!those!who!view!it!as!a!matter!of!charity!favor!the!individual!approach!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
115&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Providing&citizens&with&food&security&is&a&perfect&duty&for&the&
state.&
Peffer,!Rodney.!"WORLD!HUNGER,!MORAL!THEORY,!AND!RADICAL!RAWLSIANISM."!
International!Journal!of!Politics!and!Ethics.!January!03,!2003.!Web.!February!
06,!2015.!
<http://home.sandiego.edu/~peffer/Essays/World%20Hunger,%20Moral%20
Theory,%20&%20Radical%20Rawlsianism.doc>.!
By&now&we&should&already&be&able&to&feel&the&force&of&the&claim&that&aiding&those&
in&severe&necessity!(in!either!an!individual!or!social!context)!is&not&a&matter&of&
charity&or&beneficence&but&a&matter&of&justice.&This&is&extremely&important&
because&duties&of&justice&are&enforceable&while&duties&of&charity&or&beneficence&
are&not.!(In&Kant's&terms,&the&former&is&a&perfect&duty&and&the&latter&
an&imperfect&one.)!Even!strict&libertarians&often&claim!that!we!have!a!duty!to!be!
charitable!so!long!as!this&duty&is&not&defined!as&a&perfect&
(i.e.&enforceable)&one.!This!not!only!allows!one!off!the!moral!hook!as!soon!as!one!
ponies!up!one's!minimal!contribution.!It&also&allows&one&to&argue&that&we&need&not&
have&social&arrangements&that&ensure&people&don't&starve&and,&in&fact,&that&it&
would&not&be&morally&allowable&to&have&any&kind&of&taxation&to&fund&social&
programs&aimed&at&solving&these&problems&because&solving&them&is&a&matter&of&
beneficence,!and!taxation!–!according!to!the!strict!libertarian!–!is!a!violation!of!one's!
property!rights!(which!is!a!matter!of!justice).!Since&the&moral&requirements&of&
justice&always&trump&the&moral&requirements&of&beneficence&(or&other&parts&of&
morality&that&are&not&part&of&justice),&it&follows&–&according&to&the&strict&
libertarian&–&that&taxation&or&any&other&such&interference&in&an&individual's&life&
aimed&at&satisfying&a&duty&of&charity&or&beneficence&is&morally&impermissible!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
116&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Any&moral&theory&that&values&human&dignity&must&recognize&
the&right&to&food&regardless&of&the&distinction&between&
positive&and&negative&rights.&
Peffer,!Rodney.!"WORLD!HUNGER,!MORAL!THEORY,!AND!RADICAL!RAWLSIANISM."!
International!Journal!of!Politics!and!Ethics.!January!03,!2003.!Web.!February!
06,!2015.!
<http://home.sandiego.edu/~peffer/Essays/World%20Hunger,%20Moral%20
Theory,%20&%20Radical%20Rawlsianism.doc>.!
Since&the&interests&of&not&having&one's&physical&security&violated!(by!being!
murdered,!raped,!brutally!assaulted,!etc.)!and&of&not&having&one's&basic&physical&
needs&go&unmet&(by&lacking&sufficient&nutrition,!potable!water,!housing,!clothing,!
etc.)!are,&arguably,&the&two&most&fundamental&interests&one&has,&it&seems&
reasonable&to&claim&that&these&rights&must&be&recognized&as&the&strongest&rights&
we&have.&These&rights&are&simply&the&"negative"&and&"positive"&parts&of&the&
generally&recognized&right&to&life.!The!former!(security)!rights!are!primarily,!though!
not!exclusively,!negative!in!that!they!primarily,!though!not!exclusively,!require!us!to!
refrain!from!interfering!with!people's!bodily!integrity,!whereas!the!latter!
(subsistence)!rights!are!primarily!though!not!exclusively!positive!in!that!they!
primarily,!though!not!exclusively,!require!us!to!undertake!positive!actions!to!provide!
opportunities,!goods,!or!services!to!those!who!lack!them.!And!these&rights&would&
seem&to&be&intimately&connected&to&human&dignity&and&respect&for&the&person.&As!
Radika!Balakrishnan!and!Uma!Narayan!write:&Both&negative&and&positive&rights&can&
…&be&seen&as&guaranteeing&basic&dignity,&respect&and&worth&to&human&beings,&and&
as&existing&to&protect&them&from&being&rendered&vulnerable&in&ways&that&
adversely&affect&their&dignity.&If&we&understand&rights&in&this&way,&we&can&see&an&
underlying&unity&between&the&roles&of&'negative'&and&'positive'&rights.&Meaningful&
exercise&of&one's&choices&as&well&as&the&adequate&satisfaction&of&one’s&needs&are&
both&vital&components&of&human&dignity&and&worth.&Failures&to&guarantee&either&
Champion)Briefs)
117&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
basic&negative&or&positive&rights&to&individuals&is&tantamount&to&declaring&that&
their&fate&and&future&do&not&matter,&and&to&be&treated&as&creatures&whose&vital&
interests&do&not&matter!is!to!be!reduced!to!the!moral!status!of!a!creature!who&is&
accorded&no&dignity,!respect!or!worth.!Thus&any&moral&framework&that&is&
committed&to&seeing&all&humans&as&bearers&of&dignity&and&worth&needs&to&
guarantee&all&individuals&not&merely&important&negative&rights&to&
noninterference,&but&positive&welfare&rights&to&the&basic&means&of&subsistence.[i]!
!
[i]!Radhika! Balakrishnan! and! Uma! Narayan,! "Combining! Justice! with! Development,"! op.! cit.,! pp.! 240Y
241.!
[ii]!Xiaorong! Li,! "Making! Sense! of! the! Right! to! Food,"! in! William! Aiken! and! Hugh! LaFollette!
(eds.),!World'Hunger'and'Morality,!op.!cit.,!p.!161.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
118&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Consumers&act&deontically.&
Vermier,!Iris.!"Sustainable!Food!Consumption:!Exploring!The!Consumer!"AttitudeY
Behavioral!Intention"!Gap."!Springer.!January!03,!2003.!Web.!February!06,!
2015.!<&&
http://ezproxy.snhu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.snhu.e
du/docview/196572432?accountid=3783!
!
Human!values!are!referred!to!as!relatively!stable!beliefs!about!the!personal!or!social!
desirability!of!certain!behaviors!and!modes!of!existence.!Values&express&the&
goals/needs&that&motivate&people&and&appropriate&ways&to&attain&
these!goals/needs.&Values&can&play&an&important&role&in&the&consumer&decision&
process,&like&product&choice&and&brand&choice!(Burgess,!1992;!Engel!et!al.,!1995).!
For!example,!people!who!adhere!to!the!value!‘‘universalism’’!(see!Appendix!1)!may!be!
motivated!to!protect!the!environment!and!therefore!buy!environmentally!safe!
products.!Values!motivate!action,!giving!it!direction!and!emotional!intensity!
(Schwartz,!1994).!For!instance,!Vitell&et&al.!(2001)!found&that&consumers&are&more&
guided&by&principles&or&values!(deontology)!than&by&
consequences(teleology)!when&making!ethical&decisions.&Consumers&rated&
unethical&behavior&as&unethical&regardless&of&whether&this&behavior&had&
positive!(e.g.,!using!an!expired!coupon)!or&negative!(e.g.,!switching!price!tags)&
consequences!for!the!consumer.!In!the!same!manner,!consequences!of!ethical!
behavior!(either!positive,!e.g.,!cashier!mistake,!or!negative,!e.g.,!copying!software)!
were!not!considered!in!ethical!decisions,!instead,!consumers!based!their!decision!on!
the!ethical!value!of!the!behavior!itself!(either!ethical!or!unethical).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
119&
AFF:&Deontology&AC&
&
&March/April&2015&
Those&without&food&security&face&social&stigma.&
Bastian,!Amber.!"The!Responsibilisation!Of!Food!Security:!What!Is!The!Problem!
Represented!To!Be?."!Health!Sociology!Review.!January!06,!2013.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!<http://ojs.eY
contentmanagement.com/index.php/hsr/article/view/2075>.!
Unintended&consequences&of&the&individual&responsibility&representation&may&
be&associated&stigma&for&individuals&experiencing&food&insecurity.&Placing&
responsibility&onto&individuals&to&overcome&their&life&circumstances&in&order&to&
improve&their&food&security&induces&a&level&of&blame&for&individuals&currently&
experiencing&food&insecurity&and&frames&them&as&having&failed&to&modify&their&
behaviours&to&ensure&food&security.!In!addition,&by&highlighting&that&some&
individuals&choose&to&spend&money&on&competing&priorities&such&as&drug,&alcohol&
and&gambling&addictions&rather&than&purchasing&healthy&foods,&infers&these&
individuals&are&being&socially&‘deviant’.&Deviance&can&be&defi&ned&as&not&
conforming&to&a&set&of&social&norms&and&is&behaviour&that&is&subjected&to&
correction&or&treatment!(Scambler,!2003).!In!their!discourse!analysis!Madden!and!
Chamberlain!(2004)!highlight!the&‘moral’&individual&is&one&who&consumes&healthy&
foods&and&looks&after&their&weight&while&the&‘immoral’&individual&eats&‘bad’&
foods.!By&representing&the&issue&as&a&problem&of&individual&behaviour&and&lack&of&
knowledge&on&how&to&appropriately&budget&fi&nances&or&eat&healthily&on&a&low&
income,&responsibility&and&therefore&blame&for&food&insecurity&is&placed&onto&
individuals.!This&may&generate&a&certain&stigma&associated&with&food&insecurity,&
as&individuals&experiencing&food&insecurity&are&seen&as&being&socially&deviant,!
which!subjects!them!to!moral!judgement!from!society!(Scambler,!2003).!The!
consequence!of!taking!an!individual!approach!is!victim!blaming.!The&resulting&
discrimination&and&stigmatisation&can&lead&to&poor&self`esteem&and&further&
exacerbate&poor&health&outcomes&and&low&socioeconomic&situation!(Whitehead,!
Diderichsen,!&!Burstrom,!2001).!
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The&fetal&origins&hypothesis&states&that&those&born&to&
malnourished&parents&are&more&likely&to&get&disease&
later&in&life.&
Roseboom,!TessaJ.!"Effects!Of!Prenatal!Exposure!To!The!Dutch!Famine!On!Adult!
Disease!In!Later!Life:!An!Overview."!Molecular!and!Cellular!Endocrinology,!Vol.!
185.!November!30,!2000.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.nufs.sjsu.edu/clariebh/Dutch%20Study.pdf>.!
The!associations&between&small&size&at&birth&and&CHD&later&in&life&have&
extensively&been&replicated&in&studies&in&several!European!countries,!but!also!in!
the!US!and!in!India!(Osmond!et!al.,!1993;!Lithell!et!al.,!1996;!Stein!et!al.,!1996;!RichY
Edwards!et!al.,!1997;!Leon!et!al.,!1998;!Eriksson!et!al.,!1999;!Forsen!et!al.,!1999;!
Huxley!et!al.,!2000).!They&extend&across&the&normal&range!of!size!at!birth!and!
depend!on!small!size!for!gestational!age!rather!than!on!prematurity!(Osmond!et!al.,!
1993;!Leon!et!al.,!1998;!Eriksson!et!al.,!1999).!A!study!in!Finland!showed!that!the!path!
of!growth!in!childhood!modifies!the!risk!of!CHD!associated!with!small!size!at!
birth.!Death&rates&from&CHD&were&highest&among&men&who&were&thin&at&birth&but&
had&accelerated&weight&gain&in&childhood(Eriksson!et!al.,!1999).!The!effect!size,!a&
more&than&5`fold&increase&in&mortality!among!men!who!were!thin!at!birth!and!
overweight!at!age!11!compared!with!men!with!a!high!ponderal!index!at!birth!and!lean!
in!childhood,!is!among!the!largest!found!in!cardiovascular!epidemiology.!These&
findings&have&led&to&the&foetal&origins&hypothesis&that&proposes&that&the&foetus&
adapts&to&a&limited&supply&of&nutrients,&and&in&doing&so&it&permanently&alters&its&
physiology&and&metabolism,&which&could&increase&its&risk&of&disease&in&later&
life!(Barker,!1998).!The!Dutch!famine—though!a!historical!disaster—provides!a!
unique!opportunity!to!study!effects!of!undernutrition!during!gestation!in!humans.!
Famine!has!seldom,!if!ever,!struck!where!extensive,!reliable!and!valid!data!allow!the!
longYterm!effects!to!be!studied.!Moreover,!the!famine!occurred!in!a!previously!wellY
nourished!population,!it!was!sharply!circumscribed!in!both!time!and!place,!and,!the!
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type!and!degree!of!nutritional!deprivation!during!the!famine!were!known!with!a!
precision!unequalled!in!any!large!human!population!before!or!since.!All!these!
characteristics!enable!that!the!Dutch!famine!can!be!considered!as!a!unique!
‘experiment!of!history’!to!test!the!foetal!origins!hypothesis.!The!foetus!becomes!
undernourished!when!its!demand!for!nutrients,!which!largely!depends!on!its!rate!of!
growth,!exceeds!its!supply.&Nutrient&supply&to&the&foetus&depends&on&maternal&
nutritional&state&and&the&foetal&supply&line.!The!famine!affected!maternal!nutrition,!
but!possible!not!the!foetal!supply!line.!So!the!famine!enables!us!to!assess!the!
contribution!of!maternal!dietary!intake!and!to!a!lesser!extent,!maternal!body!
composition!to!foetal!programming!of!adult!disease.!
!
!
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The&Dutch&famine&shows&a&relation&between&malnutrition&
and&cardiovascular&disease&in&later&life.&
Roseboom,!TessaJ.!"Effects!Of!Prenatal!Exposure!To!The!Dutch!Famine!On!Adult!
Disease!In!Later!Life:!An!Overview."!Molecular!and!Cellular!Endocrinology,!Vol.!
185.!November!30,!2000.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.nufs.sjsu.edu/clariebh/Dutch%20Study.pdf>.!
People!who!had!been!exposed&to&famine&in&late&or&mid&gestation&had&reduced&
glucose&tolerance,!shown!by!increased!2!h!plasma!glucose!concentrations!(Ravelli!et!
al.,!1998).!We!also!found!that!those!who!were!light!at!birth!had!increased!2!h!plasma!
glucose!concentrations,!but!the!effects!of!exposure!to!famine!on!glucose!tolerance!
were!larger!than!could!be!explained!by!the!small!famineYrelated!reduction!in!birth!
weight.!We!found!that!people&exposed&to&famine&in&early&gestation&had&a&more&
atherogenic&lipid&profile!(Roseboom!et!al.,!2001a),!somewhat!higher&fibrinogen&
concentrations&and&reduced&plasma&concentrationsof!factor!VII!(Ravelli!et!al.,!
1998),!a!higher!BMI!(Roseboom!et!al.,!2000a,b)!and&they&appeared&to&have&a&higher&
risk&of&CHD!(Ravelli!et!al.,!1999;!Roseboom!et!al.,!2000c).!Though!the!latter!was!based!
on!small!numbers,!as!could!be!expected!from!the!relatively!young!age!of!the!cohort.!
Nevertheless,!this&is!the!firstevidence!in!humans!that&maternal&undernutrition&
during&gestation&is&linked&with&the&risk&of&CHD&in&later&life.!In!
addition,!people!who!had!been!exposed!to!famine!in!early!gestation!more&often&
rated&their&health&as&poor.!This&indicates!that!they!are!not!only!less!healthy!in!
terms!of!objective!measures!of!health,!but!that!they&also&feel&less&healthy.!Since!the!
famine!ended!abruptly,!the!women!who!conceived!during!the!famine!(and!whose!
foetuses!were!thus!undernourished!in!early!gestation)!were!well!nourished!in!later!
pregnancy,!which!may!have!contributed!to!the!above!average!birth!weight!of!their!
babies.!The!transition!from!nutritional!deprivation!in!early!gestation!to!nutritional!
adequacy!later!on!may!have!led!to!metabolic!conflicts!resulting!in!disease!in!later!life!
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Famine&during&gestation&is&linked&to&increased&risk&of&
pulmonary&disease.&
Roseboom,!TessaJ.!"Effects!Of!Prenatal!Exposure!To!The!Dutch!Famine!On!Adult!
Disease!In!Later!Life:!An!Overview."!Molecular!and!Cellular!Endocrinology,!Vol.!
185.!November!30,!2000.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.nufs.sjsu.edu/clariebh/Dutch%20Study.pdf>.!
We!found!that!people&who!had!been!exposed&to&famine&in&mid&gestation&had&an&
increased&prevalence&of&obstructive&airways&disease!(Lopuhaa!et!al.,!
2000).These!observations!were!not!paralleled!by!reduced!lung!function!or!increased!
serum!concentrations!of!IgE.!This!suggests!that!the!increased&prevalence&of&
symptoms&and&disease&may&be&attributable&to&increased&bronchial&
reactivity!rather!than!to!irreversible!airflow!obstruction!or!atopic!disease.!Since!the!
bronchial!tree!grows!most!rapidly!in!mid!gestation,!our&findings&support&the&
hypothesis&that&foetal&undernutrition&permanently&affects&the&structure&and&
physiology&of&the&airways&during&‘critical&periods’&of&development&that&coincide&
with&periods&of&rapid&growth.!
!
!
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HIV&hinders&food&security.&
Rosegrant,!MarkW.!"Global!Food!Security:!Challenges!And!Policies."!American!
Association!for!the!Advancement!of!Science.!December!12,!2003.!Web.!February!
09,!2015.!<http://www.sciencemag.org/content/302/5652/1917>.!
Nevertheless,&crop&yield&growth&has&slowed&in&much&of&the&world&because&of&
declining&investments&in&agricultural!research,!irrigation,!and!rural!
infrastructure!and!increasing!water!scarcity.!New&challenges&to&food&security&are&
posed&by&climate&change&and&the&morbidity&and&mortality&of!human!
immunodeficiency!virus/acquired!immunodeficiency!syndrome!(HIV/AIDS).!Many&
studies&predict&that&world&food&supply&will&not&be&adversely&affected&by&
moderate&climate&change,&by&assuming&farmers&will&take&adequate&steps&to&
adjust&to&climate&change&and&that&additional&CO2&will&increase&yields!(9).!
However,!many&developing&countries&are&likely&to&fare&badly.&In&warmer&or&
tropical&environments,&climate&change&may&result&in&more&intense&rainfall&
events&between&prolonged&dry&periods,&as&well&as&reduced&or&more&variable&
water&resources&for&irrigation.&Such&conditions&may&promote&pests&and&disease&
on&crops&and&livestock,&as&well&as&soil&erosion&and&desertification.!Increasing!
development!into!marginal!lands!may!in!turn!put!these!areas!at!greater!risk!of!
environmental!degradation!(10,!11).&The&HIV/AIDS&epidemic&is&another&global&
concern,&with&an&estimated&42&million&cases&worldwide&at&the&end&of&
2002!(12);!95%&of&those&are&in&developing&countries.&In&addition&to&its&direct&
health,&economic,&and&social&impacts,&the&disease&also&affects&food&security&and&
nutrition.&Adult&labor&is&often&removed&from&affected&households,&and&these&
households&will&have&less&capacity&to&produce&or&buy&food,&as&assets&are&often&
depleted&for&medical&or&funeral&costs!(13).!The&agricultural&knowledge&base&will&
deteriorate&as&individuals&with&farming&and&science&experience&succumb&to&the&
disease!(14).!Can!food!security!goals!be!met!in!the!face!of!these!old!and!new!
challenges?!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
Empowering&women&is&key&to&providing&food&security&and&
fighting&child&malnutrition.&
Sachs,!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!
Crafting!A!New!Vision."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!December!12,!2003.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.
pdf>!
Women&in&many&countries&contribute&the&bulk&of&the&labor&in&food&crops&and&
livestock&production&for&home&consumption,&while&men&more&typically&produce&
commodities&for&the&market.&Gender&inequities&in&access&to&land,&water,&labor,&
and&knowledge&limit&women’s&ability&to&produce&food&for&their&households.&
Women&and&men&have&different&uses,&knowledge,&and&practices&of&
biodiversity.&For!example,!women!predominate!as!gardeners,!wild!food!gathers,!and!
seed!savers.!Women&provide&approximately&80%&of&wild&vegetable&food&collected&
in&135&subsistence&societies!(Aguilar,!Mata,!and!QuesadaYAguilar,!IUCN).!Women!
also!often!produce!food!crops!and!tend!smallYscale!livestock!such!as!chickens,!goats,!
and!sheep!for!household!consumption.!The!value!of!women’s!activities!in!meeting!
food!needs!in!difficult!times!and!providing!diverse!diets!has!been!under!
recognized.!Women&perform&the&bulk&of&food&processing&activities&in&the&
household,&the&informal&economy,&and&the&formal&economy.!Typical!gender!
divisions!of!labor!in!households!in!most!regions!of!the!world!assign!cooking,!
processing,!and!meal!preparation!to!women.!Despite!their!overwhelming!
responsibility!for!labor!in!household!food!provision,!women!are!less!likely!than!men!
to!have!equal!access!to!food!in!their!households.!A&key&gender&issue&at&the&
household&level&is&intra`household&inequities&in&food&access.!In!some!situations,!
some!household!members!may!have!adequate!food!while!others!do!not.!In&such&
situations,&it&is&usually&women&and&girls&who&have&inadequate&nutritional&
status.!Women’s&own&nutritional&status&is&directly&related&to&their&children’s&
nutritional&status.&Overwhelming&evidence&also&suggests&that&empowering&
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women&leads&to&improved&children’s&nutritional&status.&A&study&using&data&from&
36&developing&countries,&found&that&women’s&status&has&a&positive&impact&on&
children’s&nutritional&status&in!South!Asia,!SubYSaharan!Africa!and!Latin!America.!
The!study!measures!women’s!status!as!decision!making!power!relative!to!their!male!
partners!and!societal!gender!equality.!Women’s&status&had&the&strongest&positive&
effect&on&children’s&nutrition&in&South&Asia,&where&malnutrition&is&the&worst.&The&
reasons&why&women’s&status&improves!malnutrition!are!that!they!have!more!
education!and!knowledge,!better!nutritional!status!themselves,!decisionYmaking!
authority!in!the!household,!and!are!able!to!provide!better!care!for!their!children.!
Clearly!increasing!women’s!status!in!households!will!improve!nutritional!security!of!
household!members.!!
!
!
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Food&security&that&is&attentive&to&gender&relations&are&key&to&
preventing&gender&related&violence.&
Sachs,!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!
Crafting!A!New!Vision."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!December!12,!2003.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.
pdf>.!
Poor&people&and&women&were&particularly&affected&by&these&price&increases&and&
were&unable&to&purchase&sufficient&food.&But&such&recurring&fluctuations&can&
continue&to&be&expected&in&the&global&corporate&food&system&where&people&in&the&
global&south&are&dependent&on&food&for&which&prices&are&determined&
elsewhere&with&limited&attention&to&the&impact&of&commodity&and&food&price&
increases&on&poor&people.&Conflict&and&civil&unrest&increase&gender`based&
violence,&disempowerment&and&food&and&nutrition&outcomes.&Women&and&girls&
tend&to&be&affected&differently&than&men&and&boys&in&emergencies&due&to!conflict,!
natural!disasters,!or!food&emergencies.&Women&often&lose&their&capacity&to&
provide&seeds,&livestock,&and&food&for&their&families&unless&emergency&relief&
operations&adopt&gender&sensitive&approaches.&In&conflict&situations,&women&and&
girls&are&more&vulnerable&to&gender`related&violence&and&may&not&be&able&to&
access&their&fields&for&growing&crops&or&grazing&livestock.!Climate!change!with!
increased!droughts,!seasonal!shifts,!and!weatherYrelated!disasters!has!different!
implications!for!women!and!men!in!relation!to!food!security.&Programs&that&are&
attentive&to&gender&related&concerns&during&periods&of&instability&and&
emergencies&will&be&more&likely&to&provide&food&stability&from&year&to&year&and&
throughout&the&growing&season.!
!
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There&are&gender&specific&implications&to&food&insecurity.&
United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.!"The!Right!To!Adequate!
Food."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!34.!December!12,!2003.!Web.!February!05,!
2015.!<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.pdf>.!
Women&have&specific&dietary&needs,!in!particular!in&relation&to&their&reproductive&
health.!Infringement&of&the&right&to&adequate&food&of&women&of&childbearing&age,!
including!adolescent!girls,!could&lead&to&life&threatening&complications&during&
pregnancy&or&delivery.!Malnutrition&of&pregnant!and!breastfeeding!women&
can!also!result&in!the!malnutrition,!as!well!as!physical!and!mental!impairment,&of&
their&children.!Article!12!of!the!Convention!on!the!Elimination!of!All!Forms!of!
Discrimination!against!Women!provides!that!women!should!be!ensured!adequate!
nutrition!during!pregnancy!and!lactation.!However,!it!should!be!noted!that!the!right!to!
food!is!relevant!to!all!women,!not!only!in!relation!to!their!role!as!mothers!or!their!
reproductive!function.!The!special!nutritional!needs!offer!specific!implications!to!food!
insecurity.!women!throughout!their!life!cycle!should!be!taken!into!consideration!in!
realizing!the!right!to!food.Women!and!girls!may!face!discrimination!at!home.!In&many&
countries,!they!receive!less&food&than&the&male&members&of&the&family,&because&of&
their&lower&status.!Violence&against&women!or!other!practices!that!violate!women’s!
rights!may&also&contribute&to&women’s&food&insecurity.!For!example,!abuse!of!
migrant!domestic!workers,!the!majority!of!whom!are!women,!can!include!deprivation!
of!food.33!In!extreme!cases,!a&preference&for&male&children&may&lead&to&female&
infanticide,&including&by&means&of&deprivation&of&food&and&water.34!To!ensure!
women’s!enjoyment!of!the!right!to!food,!efforts!need!to!be!made!to!rectify!gender!
inequality!both!in!the!public!and!in!the!private!sphere.!In!this!regard,!the!Convention!
on!the!Elimination!of!All!Forms!of!Discrimination!against!Women’s!article!5!obliges!its!
State!parties!to!take!measures!“to!modify!the!social!and!cultural!patterns!of!conduct!of!
men!and!women,!with!a!view!to!achieving!the!elimination!of!prejudices!and!customary!
and!all!other!practices!which!are!based!on!the!idea!of!the!inferiority!or!the!superiority!
of!either!of!the!sexes!or!on!stereotyped!roles!for!men!and!women”,!which!also!applies!
to!the!private!and!family!sphere.!!
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We&must&examine&the&sexist,&racist,&and&classist&history&of&the&
food&movement.&
Walter,!Pierre.!"Educational!Alternatives!In!Food!Production,!Knowledge!And!
Consumption:!The!Public!Pedagogies!Of!Growing!Power!And!Tsyunhehkw."!
Australian!Journal!of!Adult!Learning!Volume!52,!Number!3.!January!11,!2012.!
Web.!February!08,!2015.!<http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1000194>.!
The&environmental&movement,&and&more&recently,&the&food&movement,&have&
been&criticised&in&feminist&scholarship&as&repositories&of&male,&middle&class&
norms,&practices&and&oppressive&gender&relations.!In!the!food!movement,!calls&to&
return&to&more&holistic,&organic&and&local&food&production,!for!example,!may!
simply!mean!additional!labour!for!women,&and&family&meals&may&be&sites&of&
violence&against&women,&both&symbolically&and&materially!(DeVault!1991;!Lupton!
1996).!More!recently,!scholars&in&the&food&movement&have&also&begun&to&critique&
the&structures&and&relations&of&social&class,&whiteness&and&power&expressed&in&
alternative&food&practices,&pedagogies,&spaces&and&community&institutions&in&the&
food&movement!(Guthman!2008;!Slocum!2006,!2007).!Among!others,!
Rachel!Slocum!(2006:!337)!argues!for&the&importance&of&understanding&and&
acknowledging&the&history&of&racism,&colonialism,&and&class&and&gender&
oppression&underlying&the&food&system&in&attempts&to&enact&local&alternatives&to&
it:!It!may!be!useful!for!community!food!advocates!to!actively!consider!that&the&US&
food&system&was&built&on&a&foundation&of&genocide,&slavery&and&layers&of&racist&
institutions&that&have&dispossessed&racialized&groups&of&cultural&pride,!land!and!
wealth,!in!genderY!and!classYspecific!ways.!It&survives,!for!instance,!through&the&
work&of&people&of&color&who&serve,&disproportionately,&in&the&hazardous&work&of&
farm&labor&and&food&processing.&Institutionalized&racism&intersecting&with&
processes&of&colonialism,&welfare&ideology&and&gender&and&class&oppression&is&
also&visible&in&the&areas&of&food&insecurity,&disease&and&excess&death.!In!the!
politics!and!activism!of!Indigenous!scholars!in!North!America!and!beyond,!strong!
themes!of!decolonisation,!land!sovereignty,!selfdetermination,!cultural!revival!and!
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indigenous!pedagogies!in!relation!to!food!are!also!strongly!voiced!(Grande!2004;!
LaDuke!2005).!Recently,!Indigenous!scholars!have!begun!to!take!up!the!thorny!
political!question!of!feminisms!and!Indigenous!thought,!activism!and!culture!as!well!
(Green!2007;!Suzak!et.!al.!2010),!with!strong!implications!for!the!study!of!colonialism,!
gender!oppression,!class!and!race!in!the!food!movement.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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AFF:&Feminism&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Women&are&disproportionately&harmed&by&food&insecurity.&
Choudhary,!Neetu.!"Gender,!Work!And!Household!Food!Security."!Economic!and!
Political!Weekly.!October!02,!2007.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4419237?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.!
The!fact!that!the&household&is&not&a&homogeneous&entity,&and&that&the&"right&to&
equality"&is&frequently&denied&to&women,&with&intra&household&
factorsinfluencing&the&distribution&of&resources&and&work&within&the&household,&
is&by&now&fairly&well&recognised&even&if&not&adequately&reflected&in&mainstream&
social&science&literature.!In!general,!women&are&losers&in&the&household&level&
distributive&process&and&enjoy&lesser&rights&for&disproportionately&higher&work&
responsibilities.!Correspondingly,!women's&own&status&in&terms&of&food&and!
nutrition!security&is&not&commensurate&with&the&huge&contribution&they&make&to&
household&economy&and&food&security.!There!is!an!urgent!need!for!a!focused!
understanding!of!women's!status!and!work!participation!with!respect!to!food!security!
for!women!themselves!as!well!as!for!the!family!as!a!whole.!Despite&the&literal&
recognition&of&women's&role&[IFPRI!2000]!there&is&a&relative&dearth&of&empirical&
work&on&how&much&women&actually&contribute&to&food&security&and&through&
what&ways.&This&leaves&us&with&hardly&any&data&to&draw&policy&inferences!visYaY
vis!operationalization!of!food!security!as!well!as!women's!empowerment.!The!
methodology!required!to!estimate!female!contribution!to!household!food!security!is!
itself!a!problematic!issue.!Given!this,!the!paper!based!on!the!timeYuse!analytical!
method!attempts!to!quantify!the!contribution!of!rural!women!to!household!food!
security!in!a!rural!area!of!Nanded!district!in!the!state!of!Maharashtra!and!in!the!
process!develops!the!methodology!itself.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Entitlements&to&food&are&a&societal&norm.&
March/April&2015&
Eide,!Asbjorn.!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And!
Development."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.!November!30,!1990.!
Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent
=1&collection=journals>.!
All&societies&have&developed&rules&to&determine&who&is&entitled&access&to&the&
food&produced&within&or&imported&into&that&society.!These&rules&depend&on&and&
reflect&the&nature&of&that&society's&economic&system.&One!major!contribution!to!our!
understanding!of!the!real!problems!has!been!the!introduction!of!the!concept!of!
entitlementsYthe!means!by!which!different!households!or!groups!have!access!to!food.!
Amartya!Sen,!in!his!elaboration!of!"entitlements"!in!relation!to!access!to!food!and!
starvation,!emphasizes!that!to!say!something!about!food!supplies!is!to!say!something!
about!a!commodity!only,!not!about!the!relationship!between!persons!and!that!
commodity.!9!In&order&to&understand&hunger&and&starvation,&it&is&necessary&to&
analyze&the&structure&of&ownership&of&food&as&a&commodity.!Sen!lists!four!major!
types!of!entitlement!relations:!(1)!tradeYbased!entitlement:!one&is&entitled&to&own&
what&one&obtains&by&trading&something!one!owns!with!a!willing!party!(or,!
multilaterally,!with!a!willing!set!of!parties);!(2)!productionYbased!entitlement:!one&is&
entitled&to&own&what&one&gets&by&arranging&production&using&one's&owned&
resources,!or!resources!hired!from!willing!parties!meeting!the!agreed!conditions!of!
trade;!(3)!ownYlabor!entitlement:!one&is&entitled&to&one's&own&labor&power,!and!
thus!to!the!tradeYbased!and!productionYbased!entitlements!related!to!one's!own!labor!
power;!(4)!inheritance!and!transfer!entitlement:!one&is&entitled&to&own&what&is&
willingly&given&to&one&by&another&who&legitimately&owns&it,!possibly!to!take!affect!
[sic]!after!the!latter's!death!(if!so!specified!by!him)."!Sen!argues!that!an&entitlement&
approach&to&the&study&of&access&to&food&and&hunger&is&unavoidable,!unless!one!
wishes!to!perpetuate!"[t]he!…simplicity!of!focusing!on!the!ratio!of!food!to!population!
[that]!has!persistently!played!an!obscuring!role!over!centuries,!and!continues!to!
plague!policy!discussions!today!much!as!it!has!deranged!antiYfamine!policies!in!the!
past.!!
*Ellipsis!from!source!!
Champion)Briefs)
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Corporations&have&taken&over&the&world’s&food&supply.&
Parker,!Chris.!"The!Monsanto!Menace."!The!Village!Voice.!November!30,!1990.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!<http://www.villagevoice.com/2013Y07Y
24/restaurants/theYmonsantoYmenace/>.!
Monsanto!knew!that!it!needed!more!than!genetically!modified!crops!to!squeeze!out!
competitors,!so!it!also!began&buying!the!biggest!seed!businesses,!spending!$12!billion!
by!the!time!its!splurge!concluded.!The!company!was!cornering&agriculture&by&
buying&up&the&best&shelf&space&and&distribution&channels.!All!its!boasting!about!
global!benevolence!began!to!look!much!more!like!a!naked!power!grab.!Seed&prices&
soared.&Between&1995&and&2011,!the!cost!of!soybeans!increased!325!percent.!The!
price!of!corn!rose!259!percent.!And!the!cost!of!genetically!modified!cotton!jumped!a!
stunning!516!percent.!Instead!of!feeding!the!world,!Monsanto!simply!drove!prices!
through!the!roof,!taking!the!biggest!share!for!itself.!A!study!by!Charles!Benbrook,!a!
research!professor!at!Washington!State!University,!found!that&rapidly&increasing&
seed&and&pesticide&costs&were&tamping&farmers'&incomes.&To&further&corner&the&
field,&Monsanto&offered&steep&discounts&to&independent&dealers&willing&to&
restrict&themselves&to&mostly&selling&Monsanto&products.&And!the!arrangements!
brought!severe!punishment!if!independents!ever!sold!out!to!a!rival.!!
!
!
&
&
&
&
&
Champion)Briefs)
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AFF:&Naturalism&AC&
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March/April&2015&
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Government&must&stop&Monsanto&from&bullying&farmers.&
Parker,!Chris.!"The!Monsanto!Menace."!The!Village!Voice.!November!30,!1990.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!<http://www.villagevoice.com/2013Y07Y
24/restaurants/theYmonsantoYmenace/>.!
Armed&with&lawyers&and&private&investigators,&the&company&has&embarked&on&a&
campaign&of&spying&and&intimidation&to&stop&any&farmer&from&replanting&
seeds.!Farmers!call!them!the!"seed!police,"!using!words!such!as!"gestapo"!and!"mafia"!
to!describe!the!company's!tactics.!Monsanto's!agents&fan&out&into&small&towns,!
where!they!secretly!videotape!and!photograph!farmers,!store!owners,!and!coYops;!
infiltrate!community!meetings;!and&gather&information&from!informants.!Some!
Monsanto!agents!pretend!to!be!surveyors;!others&confront&farmers&on&their&land&
and&try&to&pressure&them&into&signing&papers&that&give&Monsanto&access&to&their&
private&records.!Leading!the!charge,!says!Carstensen,!is!the!private!police!force!that!
once!terrorized!union!organizers!from!another!generation.!"You!know!who!does!their!
policing?"!he!chuckles!ruefully.!"The!Pinkertons.!These!are!the!strikebreakers,!the!
railroad!goons.!It's!déjà!vu!all!over!again."!In!one!case,!Monsanto!accused!Indiana!
farmer!David!Runyon!of!illegally!using!its!soybean!seeds.!Runyon!claims!the!company!
threatened!to!sue!for!patent!infringement,!despite!documentation!proving!that!he'd!
bought!nonYpatented!seed!from!local!universities!for!years.!Monsanto's!lawyer!
claimed!the!company!had!an!agreement!with!the!Indiana!Department!of!Agriculture!to!
search!his!land.!One!problem:!Indiana!didn't!have!a!Department!of!Agriculture!at!the!
time.!But!most!cases!never!go!to!trial.!In&2006,&the&Center&for&Food&Safety&estimated&
that&Monsanto&had&pressured&as&many&as&4,500&farmers&into&paying&settlements&
worth&as&much&as&$160&million.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
GMO&crops&make&it&harder&to&farm&and&the&government&needs&
to&do&something.&
Parker,!Chris.!"The!Monsanto!Menace."!The!Village!Voice.!November!30,!1990.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!<http://www.villagevoice.com/2013Y07Y
24/restaurants/theYmonsantoYmenace/>.!
Use&of!those!pesticides&has&soared&as&weeds&and&insects&become&increasingly&
resistant!to!them.!Since&GM&crops&were&introduced&in&1996,!pesticide&usage&has&
increased&by&404&million&pounds.!Last!year,!Syngenta,!one!of!the!world's!largest!
pesticide!makers,!reported!that!sales!of!its!major!cornYsoil!insecticide!more!than!
doubled!in!2012,!a!response!to!increased!resistance!to!Monsanto's!pesticides.!Part&of&
the&blame&belongs&to&a&monoculture&that&developed&around&farming.!Farmers!
know!it's!better!to!rotate!crops!and!pesticides!and!leave!fields!fallow!for!a!season.!But!
when!corn!prices!are!high,!who!wants!to!grow!a!less!profitable!crop?!The&result&has&
been&soil&degradation,&more&static&yields,&and&an&epidemic&of&weed&and&insect&
resistance.&Weeds!and!insects!are!fighting!back!with!their!own!law:!that!of!natural!
selection.!Last!year,!49!percent!of!surveyed!farmers!reported!RoundupYresistant!
weeds!on!their!farms,!up!from!34!percent!the!year!before.!The&problem&costs&
farmers&more&than&$1&billion&annually.&Pests!like!RoundupYresistant!pigweed!can!
grow!as!thick!as!your!arm!and!more!than!six!feet!high,!requiring!removal!by!
hand.!Many&farmers&simply&abandon&weed`choked&fields.!In!order!to!kill!the!pests,!
chemical!giants!like!Monsanto!and!Dow!are!developing!crops!capable!of!withstanding!
even!harsher&pesticides,&resulting!in&an&endless&cycle&of&greater&pesticide&use&at&
commensurate&financial&and&environmental&cost.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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&
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March/April&2015&
Political&organization&to&acquire&food&is&natural.&
Cherryl,!K.!"DOES!ARISTOTLE’S!POLIS!EXIST!‘BY!NATURE’?."!HISTORY!OF!POLITICAL!
THOUGHT.!Vol.!XXVII.!No.!4.!Winter!2006.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!<!
http://www.scribd.com/doc/233962069/DoesYAristotleYsYPolisYExistYbyY
Nature#scribd>.!!
Although&humans&are&motivated&by&the&same&urges&that&lead&certain&animals!—!
the!‘social!animals’!Aristotle!refers!to!elsewhere!—!to&create&what&could&be&called&
families&in&a&loose&sense,&something&more&is&going&on&in&human&relationships.!
The!selection!of!a!particular!woman!by!a!particular!man!(and,!thankfully,!in!our!time,!
vice!versa)!is!one!characterized!by!deliberate!choice.!In!particular,!as!Aristotle!himself!
observes!(Pol.!1334b29!ff.),&human&reproduction&is&characterized&by&the&capacity&
to&choose&the&best&time&for&procreation;!and,!after!scientific!investigation,!he!
recommends!legislative!regulation!of!ages!for!marriage.!Moreover,!Aristotle&is&at&
pains&to&note&the&diversity&of&the&ways&human&households&structure&their&activity&
to&satisfy&the&biological&need&for&food.&Some&groups&of&people&structure&their&
household&activity&nomadically&around&herding&domesticated&animals,&some&
around&hunting!including!fishing!and!brigandage,!some&around&
agriculture,!and!then!various!mixtures!of!the!above.!These&variations&in&the&
organization&of&life&are&‘natural’,&according&to&Aristotle.&But!note!that!they!are!
natural!in!two!different!ways.!First,!they&are&natural&in&that&they&are&driven&by&the&
universal&biological&necessity&of&obtaining&food.!Second,!they&are&natural&in&that&
the&biological&necessity&is&satisfied&in&diverse&ways&devised&in&the&natural&human&
mode&of&logos`sociality:!different!groups!of!human!beings!have!employed!practical!
rationality!and!speech!to!devise!and!share!distinctly!different!ways!of!organizing!the!
activity!of!the!household!in!relation!to!their!environments!in!order!to!satisfy!a!
biological!necessity!common!to!all!animals.!!
!
!
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March/April&2015&
Because&political&organization&is&always&driven&by&biological&
imperative&even&larger&states&should&naturally&secure&
food&for&their&citizens.&
Cherryl,!K.!"DOES!ARISTOTLE’S!POLIS!EXIST!‘BY!NATURE’?."!HISTORY!OF!POLITICAL!
THOUGHT.!Vol.!XXVII.!No.!4.!February!09,!2015.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.scribd.com/doc/233962069/DoesYAristotleYsYPolisYExistYbyY
Nature#scribd>.!
Next!we!have!shown!that!the&developmental&process&of&human&sociality&is&driven&
by&a&set&of&two&nested&drives:&the&general&biological&drive&for&mere&life!in!the!
mode!of!social!animals!—!food,&shelter,&security&and&reproduction&—&and&the&
specifically&human&drive&to&live&through&speech&and&reason.!In!Aristotle’s!
view,!while&those&two&drives&may&be&analytically&distinguished,&they&are&not&
wholly&separable&but&interpenetrate&and&shape&one&another&in&varying&
degrees.!Even!in!the!simplest!social!group,!the!family,!the!peculiar!human!activities!of!
speech,!deliberation!and!choice!among!alternatives!are!involved.&Since&Aristotle’s&
critics&concede&that&the&family&exists&by&nature&and&since&its&existence&and&
organization&depend,&at&least&in&part,&on&choices&made&by&practical&reason,&the&
fact&that&every&polis&is&constituted&and&organized&by&choices&made&by&practical&
reason&does&not&make&the&existence&of&the&polis&artificial&rather&than&natural.&
Since&the&biological&drives&for&food,!security!and!reproduction!and!the!specifically!
human!drive!to!operate!through!speech!and!reason!interpenetrate,!there&is&no&
reason&to&think&that&the&first&development&of&the&polis&from&a&large&village&or&
group&of&villages&need&be&envisaged!—!as!by!some!of!the!critics!—!as&a&radical&and&
discontinuous&break.!The!growth!in!size!and!capacity!from!village!to!polis!may!be!
such!that!only!by!hindsight!can!one!see!that!a!new!species!of!social!life!has!been!
achieved.!!!!
!
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March/April&2015&
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Food&security&policy&does&not&have&contribute&to&violence&if&
done&correctly&it&can&create&a&more&peaceful&society.&
Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And!
Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and!
Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82>.!
While&food&assistance&programmes&have&not&always&had&their&intended&
consequences,&food&security&policies,&programmes&and&projects&can&nonetheless&
contribute&to&more&peaceful&societies&through&the&integration&of&a&peacebuilding&
approach.&Peacebuilding&is&a&multidimensional&approach&to&building&lasting&
peace&in&the&post`conflict&period.&Peacebuilding&aims&at&reducing&the&risk&of&
relapse&into&violence&by:&addressing&the&root&causes&of&conflicts;&improving&
social&cohesion&and&reconciliation&among&groups;&and,&creating&capacities&and&
institutions&that&can&manage&disputes,&so&that&they&do&not&evolve&into&war&or&
violence.&Peacebuilding&is&as&much&about&an&outcome&as&it&is&about&a&process.&If,&
for&example,&various&groups&are&involved&in&the&design,&implementation&and&
evaluation&of&a&food&security&programme,&the&interaction&and&dialogue&among&
these&groups&can&build&social&cohesion&and&reduce&the&risk&of&violence.!Yet,!just!
because!food!assistance!efforts!take!place!in!a!protracted!crisis!or!in!a!conflictY
affected!country,!it!does!not!mean!that!they!necessarily!contribute!to!peace.!They!can,!
for!example,!undermine!investment!in!local!food!production!and!the!development!of!
local!capacity.!If&done&right,&however,&food&assistance&can&help&to&transform&the&
vicious&cycle&of&food&insecurity&and&conflict&into&a&virtuous&cycle&of&food&security:&
the&risk&of&violence&can&be&reduced&(Brinkman&and&Hendrix&2011,&p.&15).&!
!
!
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March/April&2015&
Food&insecurity&causes&chronic&disease&and&nutritional&
deficiencies&among&children&and&adults.&
Seligman,!HK.!"Food!Insecurity!Is!Associated!With!Chronic!Disease!Among!LowY
income!NHANES!Participants."!US!National!Library!of!Medicine!National!
Institutes!of!Health.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20032485>.!
Food&insecurity&refers&to&the&inability&to&afford&nutritionally&adequate&and&safe&
foods&(1).&In&2008,&more&than&14%&of&all&U.S.&households,&49&million&people,&were&
food&insecure&(2).&Most&adults&living&in&food`insecure&households&report&being&
unable&to&afford&balanced&meals,&worrying&about&the&adequacy&of&their&food&
supply,&running&out&of&food,&and&cutting&the&size&of&meals&or&skipping&meals.&At&
the&most&severe&levels&of&food&insecurity,&many&adults&report&being&hungry&
because&there&was&not&enough&money&for&food&and&not&eating&for&an&entire&day&
(2).&Each&episode&of&food&insecurity&is&generally&short&in&duration.&However,&the&
dietary&changes&associated&with&food&insecurity&may&persist&over&extended&
periods,&because&food`insecure&households&often&experience&repeated&food&
budget&shortages.&On&average,&households&that&report&being&food&insecure&at&
some&time&during&the&year&are&food&insecure&for&7&mo&during&the&year&
(2).&Common&household&responses&to&inadequate&food&supplies&include&food&
budget&adjustments,&reduced&food&intake,&and&alterations&in&types&of&food&served&
(3–6).&Dietary&variety&decreases&and&consumption&of&energy`dense&foods&
increases.&These&energy`dense&foods,&including&refined&grains,&added&sugars,&and&
added&saturated/trans&fats,&tend&to&be&of&poor&nutritional&quality&and&less&
expensive&calorie`for`calorie&than&alternatives&(7,8).&U.S.&adults&living&in&food`
insecure&households&consume&fewer&weekly&servings&of&fruits,&vegetables,&and&
dairy&and&lower&levels&of&micronutrients,!including!the!B!complex!vitamins,!
magnesium,!iron,!zinc,!and!calcium!(5,9,10).!These&dietary&patterns&are&linked&to&
the&development&of&chronic&disease,&including&hypertension,&hyperlipidemia,&
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
and&diabetes&(11,12).&There&have&been&many&studies&suggesting&that&food&
insecurity&among&children&has&adverse&health&effects,&including&increased&rates&
of&iron`deficiency&anemia,&acute&infection,&chronic&illness,&and&developmental&
and&mental&health&problems!(13–19).&A&number&of&studies&have&demonstrated&
associations&between&food&insecurity&and&overweight/obesity&among&children&
and&adult&women&using&both&self`reported&and&objective&measures&of&BMI!(20),!
although!results!among!children!have!been!inconsistent!(21–23). !
!
!
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&programs&can&have&a&stabilizing&effect&that&
improves&the&perceived&legitimacy&of&the&country&
Brinkman&and&Korbel&writes:.&
Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And!
Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and!
Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82Y>.!
!Third,!food&security&interventions&can&support&the&development&of&capacities&
and&public&administration&systems.!In!El!Salvador,!for!example,!a!schoolYfeeding!
programme!was!started!during!the!civil!war!in!1984.!WFP!supported!capacity!
development,!from!the!institutional!framework!and!oversight!to!logistics,!
procurement!and!the!design!of!the!food!basket!(Bundy!et!al.!2009).!In!Nepal,!the!
establishment!of!a!nationYwide!food!security!monitoring!system,!supported!by!WFP,!
has!helped!the!government!respond!to!food!insecurity!and!contributed!to!the!
legitimacy!of!the!state!and!strengthened!stateYsociety!relations!(McCandless!2012).!
Because!horizontal!inequalities!played!a!role!in!the!Maoist!rebellion!in!Nepal,!an!
equitable!response!capacity!of!the!government!also!addresses!a!root!cause.!Similar!
arguments!are!prompting!the!Government!of!South!Sudan,!with!the!support!of!WFP,!to!
establish!a!strategic!grain!reserve!system,!which!will!develop!government!capacity!to!
address!food!insecurity!and!contribute!to!state!legitimacy!(McCandless!2012).!These&
programmes&have&a&proven&track&record&of&changing&attitudes&in&the&aftermath&
of&conflict.&A&review&of&peacebuilding&activities&found&that&the&impact&of&access&to&
social&services&on&communities&was&described&as&“stabilizing,”&“tension&
diffusing,”&and&“calming&aggressions&and&the&belligerent&mood”!(Kyrgyzstan);!as&
“confidence&building,”&“fostering&unity,”&and&potentially&strengthening&the&“spirit&
of&collaboration&and&cooperation”!(Uganda);!and&as&a&return&to&“normal&
life”(Central!African!Republic)!(McCandless!2012).!
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Food&security&interventions&also&improve&the&sustainability&
of&infrastructure&and&livelihood.&
Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And!
Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and!
Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82Y>.!
Fourth,&food&security&interventions&can&improve&the&sustainability&of&livelihood&
systems&and&food&security&outcomes.&For&example,&the&rehabilitation&and&
management&of&water&resources&by&different&ethnic&groups&in&Kyrgyzstan&
contributes&to&multi`ethnic&reconciliation&and&addresses&underlying&drivers&of&
conflict,&including&resource&scarcity&and&ethnic&tensions.!Early!outcomes!of!the!
programme,!which!is!supported!by!FAO,!WFP!and!others,!include!increased!social!
cohesion!across!ethnic!lines!(McCandless!2012).!A&peacebuilding&programme&
among&pastoralists&in&Ethiopia&focusing&on&conflict&management&capacity&also&
unintentionally&contributed&to&resilience&because&it&improved&social&cohesion&
and&relations&among&communities,&which&made&them&more&resilient&in&the&face&
of&drought&or&other&shocks,&because&of&freedom&of&movement,&access&to&water&
and&land&and&more&diverse&livelihoods!(MercyCorps!2012).!In!Somalia,!a!water!and!
sanitation!programme!by!UNICEF!was!radically!adapted!early!on!to!incorporate!a!
component!for!negotiations!to!resolve!conflicts!about!water!access,!which!led!to!an!
agreement!among!local!leaders!on!the!construction!of!water!systems!and!monitoring!
mechanisms!(McCandless!2012).Safety!net!systems,!such!as!school!feeding,!cash`&and&
food`for`work&programmes,&and&child&nutrition&support&also&contribute&to&
sustainability&and&better&food&security&outcomes.!CashY!or!foodYforYwork!
programmes!focus!on!(re)building!vital!infrastructure,!such!as!dams,!roads,!swamp!
reclamation!structures,!hillside!terraces,!water!facilities!and!catchment!areas.!For!
example,!WFP!has!conducted!a!large!road!rehabilitation!project!in!South!Sudan!since!
2006,!which!has!improved!links!in!South!Sudan!and!with!neighbouring!countries!and!
helped!revitalized!trade.!The!roads!built!so!far!have!halved!the!average!travel!time!to!
Champion)Briefs)
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markets,!schools!and!health!centres!and!reduced!cereal!prices!in!locations!with!road!
access.&Cash`&or&food`for`work&programmes&can&particularly&be&important&in&
cases&where&youth&are&vulnerable&to&recruitment&by&rebels,&gangs&or&organized&
criminal&violence.&Safety&nets&can&also&provide&an&important&mechanism&to&
prevent&urban&riots&or&other&forms&of&violence&in&reaction&to&sudden&changes&in&
access&to&food,&for&example,&as&a&result&to&increases&in&food&prices.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Food&security&initiatives&promote&social&cohesion&especially&
among&young&people&and&groups&with&ethnic&tension&
which&are&the&strongest&contributors&to&unrest&and&
violence.&
Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And!
Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and!
Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82>.!
Fifth,&various&food&security&interventions&have&contributed&to&social&cohesion.&
This&comes&about&partly&as&a&result&of&working&closely&with&communities.&In&
Liberia,&for&example,&the&evaluation&of&a&protracted&relief&and&recovery&
operation&found&that&90&percent&of&the&1,200&participants&interviewed&believed&
that&the&short`term&jobs,&provided&through&the&operation,&had&helped&to&promote&
peace&and&reconciliation!(WFP!2009a).!This!percentage!of!positive!replies!was!
higher!than!for!skills!learned!or!improvements!in!living!conditions.!Greater&social&
cohesion&can&result&even&from&brief&exposure&to&new&community`based&
participatory&institutions&(Fearon&et&al.&2009).&Focusing&on&youth&is&essential,&
particularly&given&the&role&that&unemployed&youth&have&played&in&fueling&
violence.!Therefore,!in!Sierra!Leone,!a!new!programme!targets!youth!by!offering!them!
cashY!and!foodYforYwork!activities!that!rehabilitate!roads,!drainage!systems,!and!other!
community!assets.!WFP!worked!alongside!other!humanitarian!agencies!to!facilitate!
the!return!of!IDPs!in!the!Blolequin!area!of!Côte!d’Ivoire.!Bitter!land!disputes!erupted!
as!IDPs!returned!to!resettle.!IDP!camps!surrounded!the!village!of!Gohogbehi.!For!some!
time,!mutual!fear!between!the!IDPs!and!Gohogbehi!residents!had!brought!work!on!the!
plantations!to!a!standstill,!and!the!bridges!joining!the!village!and!the!camps!were!
destroyed.!Talks!between!WFP!and!the!two!communities!led!to!an!agreement!whereby!
the!parties!would!receive!a!oneYmonth!general!food!distribution!followed!by!three!
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months!of!food!for!work!in!exchange!for!rehabilitating!the!bridges.!Both&
communities&received&their&general&food&distribution&at&the&same&location;&and&
constructing&the&bridges&together&gave&them&an&opportunity&to&live&and&work&
together.&Today,&the&two&communities&co`exist&peacefully,&goods&and&people&
circulate&freely&and&access&to&the&town&is&ensured.&Food&assistance&has&helped&
these&communities&to&develop&social&cohesion!(WFP!2009b).&In&Mindanao&(the&
Philippines),&a&school&meals&programme&increased&community&participation.&In&
an&evaluation,&parents&claimed&to&have&grown&closer&as&a&community,&and&
become&better&able&to&trust&members&and&be&more&sensitive&to&others’&needs.&
School&meals&also&strengthened&the&opportunities&for&dialogue&between&the&
government&and&targeted&communities.&Through&food`for`work&or&training&
people&became&more&cooperative&and&took&on&new&projects&together&(WFP&
2009c).&These&examples&show&that&peacebuilding&outcomes&can&be&achieved&
through&the&process&of&providing&food&security&assistance.&Peacebuilding&
outcomes&were&achieved&without&adding&to&–&let&alone&replacing&–&food&security&
objectives.!Yet,!the!impact!on!peace!can!be!greater!if!conflict!dynamics!are!taken!into!
account!in!programme!design.&In&fact,&involving&communities&in&the&design&and&
implementation&of&programmes&and&having&an&inclusive&approach&to&
programmes&will&contribute&to&peacebuilding&outcomes.&The&social&interaction&
and&joint&analysis&builds&social&cohesion.&At&a&minimum,&no&groups&should&feel&
excluded&or&unfairly&treated.!Doing!so!can!undermine!a!fragile,!nascent!peace.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Food&security&is&not&just&the&ability&access&food&but&also&
ensuring&that&everyone&has&the&means&to&afford&it.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The!question!of!what!constitutes!adequate!food!has!been!widely!debated,!and!
universal!agreement!to!the!term!has!remained!elusive.&The&Rome&Declaration&and&
Plan&of&Action&of&1996&stated&that&the&“right&to&adequate&food&is&realized&when&
every&man,&woman&and&child,&alone&or&in&community&with&others,&has&physical&
and&economic&access&at&all&times&to&adequate&food&or&means&for&its&
procurement.”12!A!comment!within!the!Declaration!defined!the!term!“adequate!
food”!as:!The!availability!of!food!in!a!quantity!and!quality!sufficient!to!satisfy!the!
dietary!needs!of!individuals,!free!from!adverse!substances,!and!acceptable!within!a!
given!culture;!the!accessibility!of!such!food!in!ways!that!are!sustainable!and!that!do!
not!interfere!with!the!enjoyment!of!other!human!rights.13&This&means&that&the&right&
to&food&entails&not&just&physical&access&to&food&or&the&ability&to&grow&food&in&a&
sustainable&way,&but&economic&accessibility&as&well.&The&monetary&costs&
required&to&obtain&adequate&food&should&be&at&a&level&that&doing&so&would&not&
compromise&other&basic&fundamental&human&rights&or&needs.14&The&Food&and&
Agriculture&Organization&of&the&U.N.&has&stated&that&food&insecurity&exists&when&
people&do&not&have&adequate&physical,&social,&or&economic&access&to&food&that&is&
sufficient,&safe&and&nutritious&enough&to&meet&their&dietary&needs.!
!!
&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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The&issue&is&generally&not&a&lack&of&food&but&rather&inability&
to&afford&it.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
Not&surprisingly,&the&areas&with&the&highest&hunger&rates&coincide&with&the&areas&
of&highest&poverty:!SubYSaharan!Africa!and!South!Asia.!These!regions!account!for!
72%!of!the!world!population!living!on!less!than!one!U.S.!dollar!a!day.20!The!
International!Food!Policy!Research!Institute!(IFPRI)!divides!the!extent!of!a!
population’s!poverty!into!three!subcategories:!subjacent,!medial,!and!ultra!poor.!
Subjacent!poor!live!on!between!$0.75!and!$1!per!day;!medial!poor!live!on!between!
$0.50!and!$0.75!per!day;!and!the!ultra!poor!live!on!less!than!$0.50!per!day.!Those&
who&live&in&these&extreme&states&of&poverty&find&themselves&without&education,&
with&fewer&assets,&and&with&little&to&no&access&to&markets.&They&spend&the&little&
money&they&have&on&food,&but&it&is&rarely&enough.&Their&hunger&and&malnutrition&
in&turn&reduce&their&productivity.21&These&conditions&of&extreme&poverty&make&
it&nearly&impossible&to&escape&and&gain&financial&access&to&the&food&they&need&to&
survive.22&Contrary&to&intuitive&thought,&food&scarcity&is&generally&not&the&main&
problem&in&developing&countries.23&Food&production&has&been&ahead&of&
population&growth&for&over&half&a&century&now.24&People&do&not&go&hungry&
because&there&is&a&lack&food;&they&go&hungry&because&they&lack&the&resources&to&
purchase&or&grow&their&own&food.25&It&is&the&combination&of&low&income&and&the&
rising&costs&of&food,&discussed&next,&that&create&a&large&portion&of&hunger&in&the&
world.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Rising&cost&of&food&and&declining&food&stocks&contribute&to&
cost&of&food&harming&impoverished&people.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
Recent&world&economic&problems&have&also&contributed&to&the&rise&of&global&
hunger;&much&of&the&increase&can&be&attributed&to&the&rising&food&prices&of&recent&
years.26&This&rise&in&food&prices,&combined&with&the&fact&that&an&estimated&
61.5%&of&the&world&lives&below&the&poverty&line,&has&had&devastating&effects.27&
For&example,&according&to&one&study&by&the&Congressional&Research&Service,&
“[o]nce&food&prices&rise,&the&poor&tend&to&decrease&their&intake&of&nutritious&
foods,!such!as!fruits!and!vegetables!and!replace!them!with!food!that!is!more!filling!but!
less!expensive,!like!roots.”28&This,&in&turn,&results&in&malnourishment&of&the&poor,&
which&can&lead&to&further&health&complications.29&Furthermore,&the&World&Bank&
has&stated&that&high&food&prices&are&pushing&poor&people&deeper&into&poverty&
across&the&globe,&particularly&in&countries&that&import&most&of&their&foods&and&
have&limited&capacity&to&cushion&the&shock&of&high&prices.30!As!analyzed!by!the!
Economic!Research!Service!of!the!U.S.!Department!of!Agriculture!in!May!2009,!factors!
contributing!to!rising!food!include:!decreased!international!stocks!of!staple!grains!and!
cereals;!increased!commodity!prices!brought!about!by!drought,!floods,!and!global!
climate!change;!increased!food!and!fuel!consumption!by!middleYincome!countries;!and!
increased!pressure!on!land!use!and!production!of!basic!cereals!for!greater!cultivation!
of!bioYfuels.31!Although&there&is&still&a&sufficient&amount&of&grains&and&other&
foods&to&feed&the&world’s&population,&the&decrease&in&the&surplus&of&food&stocks&
has&caused&the&prices&of&food&to&rise.!The!increase!in!fuel!prices!over!the!last!decade!
has!also!contributed!to!the!rising!cost!of!food!due!to!increased!cultivation,!transport,!
and!exporting!costs.!These&factors&have&caused&the&prices&of&even&the&most&basic&
grains&and&cereals&to&soar.!
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Transnational&companies&aggravate&the&issue&by&decreasing&
ecological&productivity&and&exploiting&desperate&
farmers.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
Furthermore,&private&transnational&corporations&(TNC’s)&have&contributed&to&
this&process&by&driving&countries&to&reallocate&production&from&domestic&food&
crop&to&export&crops.42!It!is!estimated!that!each!year!there!are!a!million!hectares!
that!are!thus!shifted.43!Not&only&does&this&have&detrimental&effects&on&hunger,&it&
also&is&damaging&to&local&ecosystems,&resulting&in&lower&amounts&of&crop&
production&by&hectare.44!For!example,!the!International!Rice!Research!Institute!has!
found!that!rice!yields!have!steadily!declined!since!the!1960s,!from!ten!tons!per!
hectare!in!the!1960s!to!seven!tons!per!hectare!in!the!late!1990s!(meaning!that!it!now!
takes!more!land!to!produce!the!same!amount!of!rice).45!The&TNC’s&also&contribute&
to&food&insecurity&by&often&failing&to&pay&their&workers&enough&to&purchase&
sufficient&import&food&for&their&families.46&Many&of&these&workers&fail&to&
complain&about&insufficient&wages&because&they&believe&it&is&better&to&be&
underpaid&than&it&is&to&be&unemployed,&and&with&the&high&unemployment&rates&in&
these&developing&countries,&they&do&not&want&to&risk&losing&their&current&jobs.4!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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&
Children&are&the&most&vulnerable&and&are&disproportionately&
affected&by&food&insecurity.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
Children&are&the&most&vulnerable&to&food&insecurity.&The&Food&and&Agriculture&
Organization&has&stated&that&the&majority&of&the&10&million&children&who&die&each&
year&in&developing&countries&“would&not&die&if&their&bodies&and&immune&systems&
had&not&been&weakened&by&hunger&and&malnutrition.”50&Studies&have&shown&that&
malnourishment&was&present&in&45%&of&children&who&died&after&contracting&
measles&and&60%&of&children&who&died&after&severe&diarrhea.51&The&possible&
long`term&damage&to&children&and&infants&is&nearly&immeasurable.&Children&have&
special&nutritional&needs&at&a&young&age&to&ensure&proper&physical&and&mental&
development.&If&the&children’s&nutritional&needs&are&not&met,&they&face&
permanent&consequences&of&stunted&growth,&reduced&cognitive&development,&
and&decreased&immune&system&development&leaving&them&susceptible&to&disease.&
Furthermore,&families&who&are&already&barely&surviving&may&avoid&taking&their&
children&to&the&doctor.&Thus,&if&the&nutritional&needs&of&children&are&not&met,&
even&for&a&short&period&of&time,&their&performance&and&productivity&later&in&life&
will&be&detrimentally&affected.52&Children&are&affected&by&rising&food&insecurity&
in&additional&ways.&For&example,&when&these&families&and&other&individuals&can&
no&longer&cut&their&food&budget&any&further,&they&begin&to&decrease&spending&on&
other&necessities.&Many&will&remove&their&children&from&school&so&that&they&can&
spend&their&money&on&more&food&instead&of&on&education,&thus&damaging&the&
children’s&education&and&possibilities&for&a&successful&future.&Children&who&are&
pulled&out&of&school&to&save&money,&and&possibly&forced&to&work&to&bring&in&more&
money&for&the&family,&are&very&vulnerable&to&exploitation.&According&to&some&
scholars,&young&girls&who&have&been&pulled&out&of&school&are&likely&to&become&
domestic&or&sex&workers,&as&this&is&the&most&common&and&economic&route&for&
Champion)Briefs)
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these&girls&to&maximize&their&utility,&since&they&have&not&learned&any&employable&
skills&in&school.!
The&International&Food&Security&Treaty&is&key&to&enforcement&
and&international&cooperation&to&end&world&hunger.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
Without&specific&international&obligations&focused&on&the&right&to&food,&hunger&
will&persist.&It&is&a&sad&fact&that&the&levels&of&hungry&and&undernourished&people&
in&the&world&have&risen!since!the!first!World!Food!Summit!in!1996.177!By!2009,!the!
number!of!hungry!and!malnourished!people!in!the!world!was!estimated!to!be!1.02!
billion!people.178!This!means!that!one!out!of!every!six!people!in!the!world!is!still!
hungry!or!malnourished.179!International&action&without&a&specific&treaty&has&not&
been&very&encouraging&in&moving&towards&the&goal&of&international&food&
security180&given&that&the&total&number&of&people&living&hungry&continues&to&
increase.&The&solution&lies&with&the&International&Food&Security&Treaty&(IFST),&a&
product&of&years&of&work&and&dedication&beginning&in&the&1990’s.!Through!their!
joint!effort,!volunteers!in!the!United!States!and!Canada!active!in!struggle!to!secure!an!
international!right!to!food,!worked!to!place!the!Human!Right!to!food!in!an!
international!document.!The!result!is!a!treaty!that!will!be!used!to!achieve!the!goal!of!
ending!world!hunger!and!securing!everyone’s!right!to!food.!World!hunger!is!on!the!
rise,!while!nationally!only!a!relatively!few!states!have!officially!recognized!the!right!to!
adequate!food!by!incorporating!it!into!their!domestic!legislation.181!In!fact,!only!
twentyYtwo!out!of!the!192!United!Nations!(U.N.)!member!states!have!incorporated!the!
right!to!food!into!their!constitutions.&By&recognizing&a&fundamental&right&to&be&
free&from&hunger&and&working&to&protect&this&right&through&an&international&
treaty,&the&international&community&can&finally&take&a&united&and&effective&
stance&against&hunger.182&The&IFST&would&compel&nations&to&never&again&
acquiesce&to&this&terrible&form&of&oppression&that&hunger&embodies&and&would&
Champion)Briefs)
152&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
respect&and&enforce&an&individual’s&legal&claim&to&the&right&to&food,&promoting&
his&or&her&emancipation&from&hunger.183!Outlined!below!are!seven!key!reasons!
which!will!demonstrate!why!the!international!community!cannot!wait!any!longer!for!
the!International!Food!Security!Treaty.!
Champion)Briefs)
153&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
The&IFST&is&key&to&enforcement&and&accountability.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&IFST&will&ensure&that&governments&are&held&accountable&for&any&violations&of&
the&fundamental&right&to&be&free&from&hunger.&A&treaty&provides&a&clear&outline&of&
guaranteed&rights&that&countries&must&protect.!There!are!many!references!in!
international!human!rights!documents!to!the!fundamental!right!to!food!and!the!right!
to!be!free!from!hunger,!including!the!International!Covenant!on!the!Economic,!Social,!
and!Cultural!Rights!(ICESCR)184!which!states!in!Article!11(1),!The!State!Parties!to!the!
present!Covenant!recognize!the!right!of!everyone!to!an!adequate!standard!of!living!for!
himself!and!his!family,!including!adequate!food,!clothing,!and!housing!and!to!the!
continuous!improvement!of!living!conditions.!The!State!Parties!will!take!appropriate!
steps!to!ensure!the!realization!of!this!right,!recognizing!to!this!effect!the!essential!
importance!of!international!coYoperation!based!on!free!consent.185!The!ICESCR!does!
not,!however,!provide!for!the!extent!and!nature!of!a!party’s!duty!to!ensure!realization!
of!the!right!to!food,!and!allows!for!“progressive!realization”!without!sufficient!
explanation.!The&IFST&is&needed&to&clearly&and&outline&signing&parties’&obligations&
and&duties&to&effectively&decrease&the&levels&of&world&hunger&and&malnutrition.&
The&current&approach,&where&participating&nations&agree&to&non`binding&
standards&that&they&cannot&require&others&to&follow,&has&not&worked.&The&
ineffectiveness&of&this&approach&is&shown&in&the&alarming&rate&of&worldwide&
hunger.&The&IFST&will&serve&as&a&reminder&that&the&right&to&food&for&all&is&not&just&
a&political&choice,&but&a&legal&duty.186&A&uniform&treaty&is&needed&to&confront&
this&international&epidemic&of&hunger&because,&as&legal&scholar&Smita&Narula&has&
reasoned,&“[u]nless&and&until&the&accountability&of&global&actors&is&more&clearly&
defined&under&international&law,&the&potential&impact&of&both&domestic&and&U.N.`
related&initiatives&will&continue&to&be&undermined.”!
Champion)Briefs)
154&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
March/April&2015&
&
The&IFST&is&key&to&accountability&because&it&requires&
participating&states&to&report&their&data&meaning&they&
can’t&backslide&or&hide&failures.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&IFST&defines&mechanisms&for&enforcement&and&reporting&that&all&parties&to&
the&treaty&would&be&required&to&follow.&The&treaty’s&reporting&requirements,&
both&regarding&the&number&of&hungry&in&a&country&and&how&well&a&party&is&
complying&with&its&duties,&are&critical&to&ensuring&compliance.&The&IFST&will&
require&parties&to&provide&information&on&the&level&of&hunger&to&the&U.N.&which&is&
needed&for&the&enforcement&of&the&right&to&food.&If&hunger&conditions&prove&to&be&
dire,&then&resources&can&more&easily&be&allocated&to&those&who&need&it&the&most.&
It&is&“only&by&knowing&who&the&hungry&are,&why&they&are&hungry,&and&where&they&
reside,&can&we&design&truly&effective&policies&to&remove&or&lower&the&obstacles&to&
their&enjoyment&of&the&right&to&food.”188!However,!obtaining!reliable!data!remains!
a!major!challenge.189!Even!in!countries!where!data!is!available,!policyYmakers!often!
ignore!or!hide!the!information!and!claim!ignorance!to!justify!remaining!passive.190!
As!one!commentator!put!it,!“[T]hey!must!know!nothing,!in!order!to!be!allowed!to!do!
nothing.”191!Provisions&in&the&IFST&will&ensure&that&parties&who&sign&will&never&
again&be&able&to&hide&behind&a&lack&of&information&when&they&choose&to&do&
nothing&to&stop&world&hunger.&The&old&approach&used&by&countries,&where&
ignorance&was&bliss,&would&now&qualify&as&a&direct&violation&of&the&
responsibilities&to&guarantee&the&right&to&food&security&under&the&IFST’s&
reporting&requirements.192&Accurate&information&makes&enforcement&possible.&
Even&if&the&IFST&does&not&solve&the&hunger&problem&right&away,&it&can&exact&
Champion)Briefs)
155&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
pressure&against&the&indifference&to&hunger&and&thus&obviate&enforcement&by&
preventing&a&hunger&crisis&from&arising&in&the&first&place.&The&shame&of&not&
taking&appropriate&action&regarding&a&country’s&obligations&toward&reducing&the&
levels&of&preventable&hunger&may&give&incentive&to&parties&to&fulfill&their&
obligations.!A&country&that&ratifies&the&treaty&will&never&again&be&able&to&
passively&let&hunger&exist&in&the&world&because&it&would&have&agreed&to&do&
everything&in&its&power&to&fight&it.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
156&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
March/April&2015&
&
The&IFST&is&also&key&to&checking&back&international&
corporations&to&not&exploit&their&workers&if&they&wish&to&
business&in&participating&countries.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
A&treaty&will&also&increase&the&accountability&of&Trans`National&Corporations&
(TNCs)&and&International&Financial&Institutions&(IFIs)&working&worldwide.&While&
such&IFIs&and&TNCs&themselves&are&not&obligated&by&the&treaty,&the&countries&
where&they&are&either&incorporated&or&do&business,&being&parties&to&a&treaty,&will&
be&obligated&to&respect,&protect,&and&fulfill&the&right&to&food.&As&a&consequence,&
they&will&need&to&consider&their&obligations&vis`a`vi&IFI’s&and&TNC’s&within&their&
borders.193&In&the&absence&of&enforceable&national&and&international&law&for&
private&international&institutions&to&follow,&the&incentive&to&make&money&at&the&
cost&of&driving&up&the&levels&of&hunger&up&may&continue&to&be&too&great.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
157&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Purely&economic&approaches&to&food&security&are&inadequate&
at&addressing&the&problem&only&the&IFST&can&solve.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&purely&economic&approach&that&has&been&previously&employed&to&combat&
hunger&will&not&solve&the&hunger&problem.&In!the!past,!financial!organizations!such!
as!the!World!Trade!Organization!(WTO)!have!been!responsible!for!trying!to!solve!the!
world’s!hunger!problem!because!food!supplies!are!classified!in!the!same!category!as!
other!international!imports!and!exports.!This!approach,!while!an!attempt!to!solve!the!
world!hunger!problem,!makes!the!mistake!of!applying!an!economic!approach!to!food.!
Given!past!criticism!over!the!WTO’s!methods,!it!would!“seem!improbable!that!the!
legal!framework!constructed!by!the!WTO!would!offer!an!adequate!basis!for!defending!
the!human!right!to!food!against!potential!threats.”194!The&trickledown&economic&
approach,&where&it&is&assumed&money&will&flow&from&the&rich&who&receive&it&all&
the&way&down&to&the&poor&who&need&it,&has&been&shown&not&to&work.&Often,&when&
developing&nations&are&given&money&to&help&solve&their&hunger&issues,&those&who&
are&most&vulnerable&to&oppressive&hunger&are&least&likely&to&get&help.195&In&fact,&
studies&have&illustrated&that&economically`focused&trade&liberalizations&
exacerbate&the&economic&inequalities,&hurting&the&rural&poor&and&taking&away&
protections&while&increasing&the&profits&of&business.196!Economic!approaches!to!
dealing!with!hunger,!including!various!WTO!policies,!are!often!argued!to!be!the!most!
efficient,!but!sometimes!the&most&economically&efficient&policy&is&often&morally&
unacceptable.197&This&is&because&the&economic&approach&emphasizes&mere&
averages&and&not&individual&rights.198&An&approach&that&focuses&more&on&
individual&human&rights&obligates&countries&to&ensure&the&fulfillment&of&basic&
Champion)Briefs)
158&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
human&rights&without&discrimination&at&the&individual&level.199&The&
International&Foods&Security&Treaty&emphasizes&that&food&is&no&ordinary&
international&commodity,&but&a&fundamental&human&necessity.&For&that&reason,&it&
will&emphasize&that&trade&in&food&should&be&distinguished&from&the&other&trading&
sectors.200!When&the&International&Food&Security&Treaty&comes&to&fruition,&
hunger&will&decrease&significantly&even&if&it&is&not&eradicated.&The&IFST&will&bring&the&
right&of&access&to&food&to&the&forefront&of&international&human&rights&law&by&creating&an&
obligation&to&enforce&that&right !
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
159&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
The&IFST&is&also&key&to&ensuring&international&security&and&
reducing&civic&conflict.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&right&to&food&could&stand&solely&on&moral&grounds,&but&it&also&serves&to&
enhance&national&security.&If&everyone&has&enough&to&eat,&then&those&who&have&
plenty&to&eat&are&safer.&People&can&become&desperate&when&they&do&not&have&
enough&to&eat&while&others&around&them&have&more&than&enough.!United!States!
Secretary!of!State!Hillary&Clinton&spoke&out&about&the&issue&of&national&security&as&
it&relates&to&food&security&during&the&Clinton&Global&Initiative&Conference&in&
2009,201&pointing&out&how&“Massive&hunger&poses&a&threat&to&the&stability&of&
governments,&societies,&and&borders.”202&The&IFST&will&improve&national&
security&by&improving&access&to&food&worldwide&and&preventing&events&such&as&
the&food&riots&that&have&occurred&in&more&than&sixty&countries&since&2007.203&
The&nations&of&the&first`world&cannot&afford&to&continually&be&seen&as&indifferent&
to&the&suffering&of&the&developing&world&around&them&when&the&levels&of&hunger&
in&the&first`world&nations&are&so&much&lower&than&they&are&everywhere&else.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
160&
AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
The&IFST&is&a&key&starting&point&to&ending&world&hunger.&
International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food!
Security!Treaty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!
Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
Social&problems&very&rarely&solve&themselves&without&a&plan&of&action.&As&legal&
scholar&Henry&J.&Steiner&put&it,&“No&program&springs&full&blown&from&the&bare&
declaration&of&the&right.”204&The&IFST&provides&a&plan&of&action&toward&a&goal&
that&can&no&longer&be&seen&as&an&impossible&objective.&At&a&certain&point,&rights&
discourse&gives&out&and&action&becomes&a&necessity.205&An&effective&plan&of&
action&counters&feelings&of&complacency&and&helplessness&in&the&face&of&world&
hunger.&The&law&is&a&force&that&motivates&people&to&do&things&that&they&would&not&
otherwise&feel&that&they&could&or&should&do.&As&countries&are&getting&more&and&
more&interdependent,&the&right&to&food&becomes&an&issue&that&cannot&be&
effectively&addressed&solely&with&within&national&boundaries.206&Only&a&
mechanism&like&the&IFST&can&ensure&food&security&worldwide.&Individually,&
countries&might&not&be&completely&able&to&feed&their&populations,&but&
internationally,&hunger&does&not&stand&a&chance&when&different&nations&work&
together.&Without&the&uniform,&enforceable&law&that&this&treaty&seeks&to&create,&
there&will&continue&to&be&“gaps&in&the&legal&analysis&and&theoretical&holes&which&
fail&to&adequately&address&the&right&to&food,”!leaving!the!concept!of!food!security!
open!to!criticism!which!allows!it!to!“be!dismissed!as!impassioned!
rhetoric.”207!International&treaties&work&as&a&sword&to&fight&seemingly&
insurmountable&social&problems&and&as&a&shield&that&can&protect&the&most&
vulnerable&members&of&the&global&society.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
161&
AFF:&International&Law&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
A&right&to&food&is&enshrined&in&international&law.&
Nations,!United.!"Special!Rapporteur!On!The!Right!To!Food."!UN!Human!Rights.!
January!08,!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Food/Pages/FoodIndex.aspx>.!
For!the!Special!Rapporteur,!the&right&to&food&is&the&right&to&have&regular,&
permanent&and&unrestricted&access,!either!directly!or!by!means!of!financial!
purchases,&to&quantitatively&and&qualitatively&adequate&and&sufficient&food&
corresponding&to&the&cultural&traditions&of&the&people&to&which&the&consumer&
belongs,!and!which!ensure!a!physical!and!mental,!individual!and!collective,!fulfilling!
and!dignified!life!free!of!fear.!This&definition&is&in&line&with&the&core&elements&of&
the&right&to&food&as&defined&by&General&Comment&No.&12&of&the&United&Nations&
Committee&on&Economic,&Social&and&Cultural&Rights!(the!body!in!charge!of!
monitoring!the!implementation!of!the!International!Covenant!on!Economic,!Social!and!
Cultural!Rights!in!those!states!which!are!party!to!it).The&Committee&declared&that&
“the&right&to&adequate&food&is&realized&when&every&man,&woman&and&child,&alone&
or&in&community&with&others,&has&physical&and&economic&access&at&all&times&to&
adequate&food&or&means&for&its&procurement.!The!right!to!adequate!food!shall!
therefore!not!be!interpreted!in!a!narrow!or!restrictive!sense!which!equates!it!with!a!
minimum!package!of!calories,!proteins!and!other!specific!nutrients.!The!right!to!
adequate!food!will!have!to!be!realized!progressively.!However,!States&have&a&core&
obligation&to&take&the&necessary&action&to&mitigate&and&alleviate&hunger&even&in&
times&of&natural&or&other&disasters.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
162&
AFF:&International&Law&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&guarantees&food&
security.&
UDHR,.!"Universal!Declaration!Of!Human!Rights."!Article!25.!February!09,!2015.!Web.!
February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml#a25>.!
(1)&Everyone&has&the&right&to&a&standard&of&living&adequate&for&the&health!and!
wellYbeing!of!himself!and!of!his!family,!including&food,!clothing,!housing!and!medical!
care!and!necessary!social!services,!and&the&right&to&security&in&the&event&
of!unemployment,!sickness,!disability,!widowhood,!old!age!or!other!lack!of!
livelihood!in!circumstances&beyond&his&control.(2)!Motherhood!and!childhood!are!
entitled!to!special!care!and!assistance.!All!children,!whether!born!in!or!out!of!wedlock,!
shall!enjoy!the!same!social!protection.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
163&
AFF:&International&Law&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
The&Declaration&on&the&Right&to&Development&requires&states&
to&provide&food&security.&
Nations,!United.!"Declaration!On!The!Right!To!Development."!UN!General!Assembly.!
April!12,!1986.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/41/a41r128.htm>.!
States&should&undertake,&at&the&national&level,&all&necessary&measures&for&the&
realization&of&the&right&to&development&and&shall&ensure,&inter&alia,&equality&of&
opportunity&for&all&in&their&access&to&basic&resources,!education,!health!
services,![including]&food,!housing,!employment!and!the!fair!distribution!of!
income.!!Effective!measures!should!be!undertaken!to!ensure!that!women!have!an!
active!role!in!the!development!process.!!Appropriate!economic!and!social!reforms!
should!be!carried!out!with!a!view!to!eradicating!all!social!injustices.!!
Champion)Briefs)
!
164&
AFF:&International&Law&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
&
The&International&Covenant&on&Economic,&Social&and&Cultural&
Rights&mandates&that&states&should&provide&adequate&
food&for&their&citizens.&
Nations,!United.!"International!Covenant!On!Economic,!Social!And!Cultural!Rights."!UN!
General!Assembly.!April!12,!1986.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.nesri.org/sites/default/files/uploads/Economic_Social_Rights_Co
venant.pdf>.!
1.!The&States&Parties&to&the&present&Covenant&recognize&the&right&of&everyone&to&
an&adequate&standard&of&living&for&himself&and&his&family,&including&adequate&
food,!clothing!and!housing,!and!to!the!continuous!improvement!of!living!
conditions.!The&States&Parties&will&take&appropriate&steps&to&ensure&the&
realization&of&this&right,&recognizing&to&this&effect&the&essential&importance&of&
international&co`operation&based&on&free&consent.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
165&
AFF:&International&Law&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
The&American&Declaration&of&the&Rights&and&Duties&of&Man&
includes&a&right&to&food&security.&
International!Conference!of!American!States.!"American!Declaration!Of!The!Rights!
And!Duties!Of!Man."!Ninth!Conference.!February!09,!2015.!Web.!February!03,!
2015.!
<http://www.nesri.org/sites/default/files/uploads/American_Declaration_of_t
he_Rights_and_Duties_Man.pdf>.!
Article!XI.!Every&person&has&the&right&to&the&preservation&of&his&health&through&
sanitary&and&social&measures&relating&to&food,!clothing,!housing!and!medical!
care,!to&the&extent&permitted&by&public&and&community&resources.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
166&
AFF:&International&Law&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
The&Convention&on&the&Rights&of&the&Child&includes&
provisions&for&food&security.&
Nations,!United.!"Convention!On!The!Rights!Of!The!Child."!UN!General!Assembly.!
February!09,!2015.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.nesri.org/sites/default/files/uploads/Convention_on_the_Rights_
of_the_Child.pdf>.!
Article!24!1.!States&Parties&recognize&the&right&of&the&child&to&the&enjoyment&of&the&
highest&attainable&standard&of&health&and&to&facilities&for&the&treatment&of&illness&
and&rehabilitation&of&health.&States&Parties&shall&strive&to&ensure&that&no&child&is&
deprived&of&his&or&her&right&of&access&to&such&health&care&services.!2.!States&
Parties&shall&pursue&full&implementation&of&this&right&and,&in&particular,&shall&
take&appropriate&measures:!(a)!To!diminish!infant!and!child!mortality;!(b)!To!
ensure!the!provision!of!necessary!medical!assistance!and!health!care!to!all!children!
with!emphasis!on!the!development!of!primary!health!care;!(c)!To!combat!disease!and!
malnutrition,!including!within!the!framework!of!primary!health!care,!through,!inter!
alia,!the!application!of!readily!available!technology!and!through!the!provision!
of![provide]&adequate&nutritious&foods&and&clean&drinking`water,!taking!into!
consideration!the!dangers!and!risks!of!environmental!pollution;!(d)!To!ensure!
appropriate!preYnatal!and!postnatal!health!care!for!mothers;!(e)![and]!To&ensure&
that&all&segments&of&society,&in&particular&parents&and&children,&are&informed,&
have&access&to&education&and&are&supported&in&the&use&of&basic&knowledge&of&
child&health&and&nutrition,!the!advantages!of!breastfeeding,!hygiene!and!
environmental!sanitation!and!the!prevention!of!accidents;!(f)!To!develop!preventive!
health!care,!guidance!for!parents!and!family!planning!education!and!services.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
167&
AFF:&International&Law&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
States&have&a&duty&to&provide&food&security&for&children.&
Nations,!United.!"Convention!On!The!Rights!Of!The!Child."!UN!General!Assembly.!
February!09,!2015.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.nesri.org/sites/default/files/uploads/Convention_on_the_Rights_
of_the_Child.pdf>.!
Article!27!1.!States&Parties&recognize&the&right&of&every&child&to&a&standard&of&
living&adequate&for&the&child's&physical,&mental,&spiritual,&moral&and&social&
development.!2.!The!parent(s)!or!others!responsible!for!the!child!have!the!primary!
responsibility!to!secure,!within!their!abilities!and!financial!capacities,!the!conditions!
of!living!necessary!for!the!child's!development.!3.!States&Parties,&in&accordance&with&
national&conditions&and&within&their&means,&shall&take&appropriate&measures&to&
assist&parents&and&others&responsible&for&the&child&to&implement&this&right&and&
shall&in&case&of&need&provide&material&assistance&and&support&programmes,&
particularly&with&regard&to&nutrition,!clothing!and!housing.!4.!States!Parties!shall!
take!all!appropriate!measures!to!secure!the!recovery!of!maintenance!for!the!child!
from!the!parents!or!other!persons!having!financial!responsibility!for!the!child,!both!
within!the!State!Party!and!from!abroad.!In!particular,!where!the!person!having!
financial!responsibility!for!the!child!lives!in!a!State!different!from!that!of!the!child,!
States!Parties!shall!promote!the!accession!to!international!agreements!or!the!
conclusion!of!such!agreements,!as!well!as!the!making!of!other!appropriate!
arrangements.!!
!
!
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International&law&codifies&food&security&as&a&human&right.&
Eide,!Asbjorn.!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And!
Development."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.!November!30,!1990.!
Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent
=1&collection=journals>.!
Roosevelt's!vision!of!freedom!from!want!in!1941!was!broadly!endorsed!by!the!
international!community,!as!evidenced!in!the&Charter&of&the&United!Nations22and&
the&International&Bill&of&Human&Rights.23!This!vision!also!led&to&the&inclusion&of&
economic&and&social&rights,&including&the&right&to&food,!as!integral!components!of!
the!contemporary!human!rights!system.!The!Universal!Declaration!of!Human!Rights!
(UDHR)!4!is&very&clear&on&this&point,!with!the!indivisibility!and!interdependence!of!
civil!and!political!rights!on!one!side!and!economic,!social,!and!cultural!rights!on!the!
other!sideYboth!becoming!fundamental!tenets!of!the!U.N.!approach!to!human!rights.!
But!while!this&doctrine&frequently&has&been&reaffirmed&by&various&human&rights&
institutions,!it!has!not!sufficiently!been!reflected!in!practice,!either!at!the!national!or!
the!international!level.!Legal!and!political!arguments!have!been!used!to!prevent!the!
realization!of!these!rights.!Contemporary!human!rights!are!defined!in!the!UDHR,!
adopted!in!1948!and!elaborated!in!a!number!of!subsequent!instruments.!The&two&
documents&primarily&cited&as&identifying&the&right&to&food&as&a&human&right&are&
the&UDHR&itself!and&the&International&Covenant&on&Economic,&Social&and&Cultural&
Rights.2!"!The&Declaration&states&that&"everyone&has&the&right&to&a&standard&of&
living&adequate&for&the&health&and&well`being&of&himself&and&his&family,&including&
food…!"26!The!International!Covenant!on!Economic,!Social!and!Cultural!
Rights!states!that!"[t]he!States!Parties!to!the!present!Covenant!recogniz[e]!the&
fundamental&right&of&everyone&to&be&free&from&hunger.!27!These!two!international!
instruments!have!been!widely!embraced.2!"!Thus,everyone&in&the&global&
community!has&the&right&to!food,!or!more!precisely,!to!adequate&food.29!
Unfortunately,!of!the!approximately!5!billion!persons!now!living,!probably!800!million!
go!hungry!every!day,!and!many!more!do!not!have!adequate!food.!!
*Ellipsis!from!source!!
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International&mechanisms&exist&to&transfer&food&to&those&in&
need.&
Eide,!Asbjorn.!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And!
Development."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.!November!30,!1990.!
Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent
=1&collection=journals>.!
The&World&Food&Programme!(WFP)Ythe!Food!Aid!Organization!of!the!United!Nations!
SystemYwas&established&in&1961&to&facilitate&the&transfer&of&food&from&countries&
with&food&surpluses&to&countries&with&food&shortages.!Since!its!establishment,!WFP&
has!increasingly!sought&to!respond!to!the!specific!needs!of!recipient!groups!and!
to!coordinate!food!aid!with!the!promotion!of!sustainable&development&and&food&
self`reliance.!The!increasing!attention!given!by!WFP!to!the!nature!of!food!aid,!
emphasizing!that!it!should!respect!the!dignity!and!selfYrespect!of!its!recipients,!points!
to!the!possibility!of!the!explicit!application!of!a!human!rights!perspective!in!the!
future!WFP!took!a!particular!and!active!interest!in!the!General!Assembly!Resolution!
on!the!Right!to!Development69!and!in!this!context!has&pointed&to!the!connection!
between!food!aid!and!right!to!development!issues!which,!in!the!words!of!the!
Programme!itself:!assumes!greater&clarity&when&the&RIGHT&TO&FOOD&is&placed&in&
its&proper&context&as&the&most&fundamental&of&all&human&rights,&and&a&
precondition&to&development.!By!providing!food!as!relief!during!emergencies!or!as!a!
resource!in!support!of!development!activities,!WFP&promotes,&in&a&concrete&way,&
the&achievement&of&the&right&to&food&and&contributes&toward&laying&the&
foundations&on&the&basis&of&which&the&goals&envisaged&in&the&Declaration!on!
the!Right!to!Development!can&be&achieved.!The!right!to!development!is!seriously!in!
jeopardy!whenever!the!right!to!food!cannot!be!fulfilled...!The!main!point!at!issue!for!
WFP!is!how!food!aid!can!be!used!to!accelerate!development!and!selfYreliance!by!
removing!the!obstacles!that!prevent!nations!and!peoples!from!exercising!the!right!to!
development.!Food!aid!is!also!viewed!by!WFP!as!contributing!to!human!development!
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since!the!rations!provided,!which!are!always!directed!to!the!poor,!alleviate!the!serious!
effect!of!underYnourishment!on!human!development.!70!Concrete!signs!of!WFP's!
desire!to!overcome!obstacles!to!the!realization!of!the!right!to!food!are!evident!in!its!
efforts!to!ensure!the!safe!passage!of!food!for!people!threatened!by!hunger.!In!the!case!
of!Sudan,!WFP&was&involved&in&persistent&negotiations&which&led&to&a&1989&
agreement,&known&as&the&"corridors&of&tranquility,"&between&the&United&Nations&
and&the&government&of&Sudan&for&the&safe&delivery&of&food&to&all&corners&of&Sudan.!
This!effort!is!"one!of!the!largest!and!most!dramatic!relief!operations!ever!mounted!by!
the!United!Nations."7'!!
!
*Ellipsis!from!source!!
!
!
!
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The&UN&is&clear:&everyone&should&get&food&based&on&
international&law.&
United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.!"The!Right!To!Adequate!
Food."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!34.!November!30,!1990.!Web.!February!05,!
2015.!<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.pdf>.!
Food&must&be&available,&accessible&and&adequate:!6!Availability&requires!on!the!
one!hand!that!food&should&be&available&from&natural&resources&either&
through!the!production!of!food,!by!cultivating!land!or!animal!
husbandry,!or!through!other&ways!of!obtaining!food,!such!as!fishing,!hunting!or!
gathering.!On!the!other!hand,!it&means&that&food&should&be&available&for&sale!in!
markets!and!shops.!Accessibility&requires&economic&and&physical&access&to&food&to&
be&guaranteed.!Economic!accessibility!means!that!food!must!be!
affordable.!Individuals&should!be!able!to!afford!food!for!an&adequate&diet&without&
compromising&on!any!other!basic&needs,!such!as!school!fees,!medicines!or!rent.!For!
example,!the!affordability!of!food!can!be!guaranteed!by!ensuring!that!the!minimum!
wage!or!social!security!benefit!is!sufficient!to!meet!the!cost!of!nutritious!food!and!
other!basic!needs.!Physical!accessibility!means!that!food&should&be&accessible!to!all,!
including!to&the&physically&vulnerable,!such!as!children,!the!sick,!persons!with!
disabilities!or!the!elderly,!for&whom&it&may&be&difficult&to!go!out!
to!get!food.!Access!to!food!must!also!be&guaranteed&to&people&in&remote&areas&and&
to&victims&of&armed&conflicts&or&natural&disasters,&as&well&as&to&prisoners.!For!
example,!to!guarantee!physical!access!to!food!to!people!living!in!remote!areas!the!
infrastructure!could!be!improved,!so!that!they!can!reach!markets!by!public!
transport.!Adequacy&means&that&the&food&must&satisfy&dietary&needs,!taking!into!
account!the!individual’s!age,!living!conditions,!health,!occupation,!sex,!etc.!For!
example,!if!children’s!food!does!not!contain!the!nutrients!necessary!for!their!physical!
and!mental!development,!it!is!not!adequate.!Food!that!is!energyYdense!and!lowY
nutrient,!which!can!contribute!to!obesity!and!other!illnesses,!could!be!another!
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example!of!inadequate!food.!Food&should&be&safe&for&human&consumption&and&free&
from&adverse&substances,!such!as!contaminants!from!industrial!or!agricultural!
processes,!including!residues!from!pesticides,!hormones!or!veterinary!
drugs.!Adequate&food&should&also&be&culturally&acceptable.!For!example,!aid!
containing!food!that!is!religious!or!cultural!taboo!for!the!recipients!or!inconsistent!
with!their!eating!habits!would!not!be!culturally!acceptable.!
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Governments&only&need&to&provide&the&conditions.&They&don’t&
need&to&distribute&the&food.&
United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.!"The!Right!To!Adequate!
Food."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!34.!November!30,!1990.!Web.!February!05,!
2015.!http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.pdf!
The&right&to&food&is&NOT&the&same&as&a&right&to&be&fed.!Many&assume&that!the!right!
to!food!means!that!Governments&have&to&hand&out&free&food&to&anyone&who&needs&
it.!They!conclude!that!this!would!not!be!feasible!or!might!cause!dependency.!This&is&a&
misunderstanding.!The!right!to!food!is!not!a!right!to!be!fed,!but!primarily!the!right!to!
feed!oneself!in!dignity.!Individuals&are&expected&to&meet&their&own&needs,!through!
their!own!efforts!and!using!their!own!resources.To&be&able&to&do&this,&a&person&must&
live&in&conditions&that&allow&him&or&her&either&to&produce&food&or&to&buy&it.!To!
produce!his!or!her!own!food,!a!person!needs!land,!seeds,!water!and!other!resources,!
and!to!buy!it,!one!needs!money!and!access!to!the!market.!The&right&to&food&requires&
States&to&provide&an&enabling&environment&in&which&people&can&use&their&full&
potential&to&produce&or&procure&adequate&food&for&themselves&and&their&
families.!However,&when&people&are&not&able&to&feed&themselves&with&their&own&
means,!for!instance!because!of!an!armed!conflict,!natural!disaster!or!because!they!are!
in!detention,!the&State&must&provide&food&directly.&!
!
!
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The&international&legal&right&to&food&shares&connections&with&
the&idea&of&food&security.&
United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.!"The!Right!To!Adequate!
Food."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!34.!November!30,!1990.!Web.!February!05,!
2015.!<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.pdf>.!
The&right&to&food&is&different&from&food&security!and!food!sovereignty.!These!three!
concepts!are!different,!although&there&is&some&overlap.!According!to!FAO,!food&
security&exists!“when!all!people,!at!all!times,!have!physical,!social!and!economic!
access!to!sufficient,!safe!and!nutritious!food!that!meets!their!dietary!needs!and!food!
preferences!for!an!active!and!healthy!life.”7!!It!is&a&precondition&for&the&full&
enjoyment&of&the&right&to&food.!However,!the!concept!of!food!security!itself!is!not!a!
legal!concept!per!se!and!does!not!impose!obligations!on!stakeholders!nor!does!it!
provide!entitlements!to!them.!Food!sovereignty!is!an!emerging!concept!according!to!
which!peoples!define!their!own!food!and!own!model!of!food!production!(such!as!
agriculture!and!fisheries),!determine!the!extent!to!which!they!want!to!be!selfYreliant!
and!protect!domestic!food!production!and!regulate!trade!in!order!to!achieve!
sustainable!development!objectives.8!!Food!sovereignty!is!suggested!as!a!concept!that!
promotes!an!alternative!model!for!agriculture,!trade!policies!and!practices!that!serve!
people’s!rights!to!food!and!to!safe,!healthy!and!ecologically!sustainable!food!
production.!A!right!to!food!sovereignty!is!recognized!under!some!national!
laws;9!!however,!there!is!currently!no!international!consensus!on!it.!The&right&to&food&
is&a&human&right&recognized&under&international&law&that&provides&entitlements&
to&individuals&to&access&to&adequate&food&and&to&the&resources&that&are&necessary&
for&the&sustainable&enjoyment&of&food&security.!The&right&to&food&places&legal&
obligations&on&States&to&overcome&hunger&and&malnutrition&and&realize&food&
security&for&all.!The!right!to!food!also!addresses!States’!obligations!beyond!their!
borders,!including!tradeYrelated!ones.!For!example,!the!International!Covenant!on!
Economic,!Social!and!Cultural!Rights!requires!its!State!parties!to!take!the!measures!
necessary!for!an!equitable!distribution!of!world!food!supplies!in!relation!to!need!(art.!
11!(2)!(b)).!While!it!does!not!prescribe!any!specific!model!to!achieve!such!
distribution,!it!obliges!States!to!ensure!their!trade!or!other!policies!serve!this!aim.!
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Communities&need&agreements&about&what&the&common&
goods&each&individual&is&entitled&to&are&in&order&to&end&
the&tolerance&of&structural&injustice.&Only&with&this&
agreement&can&we&stop&being&heedless&towards&the&
impoverished.&
MacIntyre,!Alasdair.!"Heedlessness."!Paper!presented!at!the!Fall!Conference!of!the!
Notre!Dame!Center!of!Ethics!and!Culture!entitled!"Your!Light!Will!Rise!in!the!
Darkness:!Responding!to!the!Cry!of!the!Poor".!November!30,!1990.!Web.!
February!03,!2015.!<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.!
What!they!agreed!in!identifying!as!missing&in&far&too&many!was!any![is&a]&sense&
of!their!common&humanity&with&the&poor,!any!sense!that!the!deprivations!were!also!
an!injury!to!them.!About!how!that!common!humanity!should!be!characterized,!they!
were!of!course!in!conflict.!!But!their&[Shaw&and&Chesterton’s&]shared&claim&that&how&
we&think&and&feel&about&poverty&depends&on&how&we&understand&our&common&
humanity&is&far&more&important.&&For&this&is&a&thought&that,&characteristically,&we&
do&not&have.&A!thought!that,!one!hundred!years!after!Shaw!and!Chesterton,!is!as!
unfamiliar!as!it!was!to!those!who!Chesterton!castigated.!!So&why&is&this&so?&&What&is&
it&that&is&missing?&The&answer&is&that&we&lack&anything&like&a&shared&adequate&
conception&of&common&goods.!!We&have&no&problem&with&the&notion&of&collective&
goods,!of!public!goods,!of!goods!that!each&of&us&can&achieve&only&with&cooperation&
with&others!whether!it!be!through!the!construction!of!roads!and!highways!organized!
by!the!state!or!through!the!pooling!of!individual!savings!in!mutual!funds.!!And&we&
have&no&problem&with&the&claim&that&certain&conditions&must&be&satisfied&if&a&
civil&and&orderly&social&life&is&to&be&sustained&and&that&we&all&of&us&have&a&shared&
interest&in&ensuring&that&those&conditions&are&satisfied.!Commonly,!when!
politicians!or!Catholic!bishops!employ!the!idiom!of!the!common!good!in!their!rhetoric,!
it!is!to!such!collective!goods!and!to!such!conditions!that!they!are!referring.!!But&of&
course&it&is&impossible&to&uphold&the&common&good&so&understood&and&yet&to&
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tolerate&–&indeed&to&ignore&–&those&structural&injustices!that!I!have!identified.!!So&
what&stronger&and&richer&conception&of&common&goods&is&it&that&we&need?!!What!
part!does!the!concept!of!such!a!common!good!play!in!human!life?!!What&makes&
human&beings&distinctive&among&other&beings&is&that&their&flourishing&–&whether&
as&individuals&or&as&groups&–&depends&upon&their&directing&themselves&towards&
the&achievement&of&certain&goods!and!that!they!can!fail!to!direct!themselves!
towards!those!goods!either!because!they!misconceive!them!or!because!of!a!certain!
wilfulness!or!both.!!The!lives!of!human!beings!can!go!wrong!in!ways!that!members!of!
other!species!can’t!go!wrong.!!When!the!lives!of!chimpanzees,!wolves,!elephants!and!
dolphins!go!wrong!it’s!always!because!of!external!causes:!injury,!famine,!disease,!
predators.!!!
!
!
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Though&there&is&a&multiplicity&of&ways&one&might&lead&a&good&
life&there&are&essential&things&which&are&good&for&
humans.&
MacIntyre,!Alasdair.!"On!Having!Survived!Academic!Moral!Philosophy!Of!The!
Twentieth!Century."!2013.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!<!
http://www3.nd.edu/~undpress/excerpts/P03062Yex.pdf>!
To!this!it!can!be!replied!that!there&are&indeed&many&different&ways&of&leading&a&
good&human&life,&but&that&there&are&at&least&four&sets&of&goods&that&are&
characteristically&needed&by&every&human&individual&if&she&or&he&is&to&
flourish.!!First,&without&adequate&nutrition,!clothing,!shelter,!physical!
exercise,!education,and&opportunity!to!work!no&one&is&likely&to&be&able&to&develop&
his&or&her&powers&–&physical,&intellectual,&moral,&aesthetic—adequately.!Second,&
everyone&benefits&from&affectionate&support!by,!wellY
designed!instruction!from,!and&critical&interaction!with!family,!friends,!and!
colleagues.!!Third,&without&an&institutional&framework&that&provides&stability&and&
security&over&time!a!variety!of!forms!of!association,&exchange,&and&long`term&
planning&are&impossibl[e]y.!!And&fourth,&if&an&individual&is&to&become&and&sustain&
her`&or&himself&as&an&independent&rational&agent,&she&or&he&needs&powers&of&
practical&rationality,&of&self`knowledge,&of&communication,&and&of&inquiry&and&
understanding.!!Lives&that&are&significantly&defective&in&any&one&of&these&respects&
are&judged&worse,that!is,!less!choiceYworthy,!than!lives!that!are!not.!!These&goods&
are&goods&without&which&excellence&in&activity&is&often&impossible,&and!so!the!key!
to!our!various!uses!of!goodwith!regard!to!them!is!a!shared!conception!of!excellence!in!
activity,!of!what!it!is!to!live!virtuously.!!!!!
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Humans&live&in&a&state&of&vulnerability&which&requires&
humans&be&concerned&with&the&things&they&are&
dependent&upon.&
Barry,!John.!"MacIntyre!And!Havel!As!Green!Political!Thinkers:!Unreasonable!Thinking!
In!Turbulent!Times."!Western!Political!Science!Association!Annual!Conference.!
2013.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!!
http://www3.nd.edu/~undpress/excerpts/P03062Yex.pdf>!
It!is!surprising,!given!MacIntyre’s&acknowledgement&of&human&vulnerability!and!
dependence,!and!his!more!recent!embracing!of!an!understanding!of!the!animal!
natures!of!humans!–!including!the!recognition!of!the!affinity!between!humans!
as!‘practical!reasoners’,!and!nonYhuman!species!such!as!dolphins!and!great!apes!
–!not!to!mention!his!critique!of!capitalism,!economic!growth!and!embracing!of!a!
localist!political!perspective,!that!up!to!now!there!has!not!been!more!
engagement!with!or!use!of!his!insights!within!green!political!
theory.[1]!!!Indeed,!his!book!Dependent'Rational'Animals!(MacIntyre,!1999)!can!
be!viewed!as!outlining!a!‘green’!perspective,!or!at!least!a!vision!of!moral!and!
political!life!which!is!compatible!with!the!main!contours!of!green!political!
theory.!!He!begins!with!an!all!too!rare!acknowledgement!of!intellectual!
error.!!As!he!puts!it!in!the!preface,!he!admits!that!he,!!was!in!error!in!supposing!
an!ethics!independent!of!biology!to!be!possible…and!this!for!two!distinct,!but!
related!reasons.!!The!first!is!that!no!account!of!the!goods,!rules!ands!virtues!
that!are!definitive!of!our!moral!life!can!be!adequate!that!does!not!explain…how!
that!form!of!life!is!possible!for!beings!who!are!biologically!constituted!as!we!
are,!by!providing!us!with!an!account!of!our!development!towards!and!into!that!
form!of!life.!!That!development!has!as!its!starting!point!our!initial!animal!
condition.!!Secondly,!a&failure&to&understand&that&condition&and!the!light!
thrown!upon!it!by&a&comparison&between&humans&and&members&of&other&
intelligent&animal&species&will&obscure&crucial&features&of&that![human]&
Champion)Briefs)
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development.&&One)such)failure,'of'immense'importance'on'its'own'account,'is)
the)nature)and)extent)of)human)vulnerability)and)disability.!(MacIntyre,!
1999:!x;!emphasis!added).!!In!pointing!out!these!two!salient!facts!–!
that!humansare!not!just!like!animals,!but!are)animals,&and&also&the&
ineliminable&vulnerability&and&dependence&of&human&beings!–!MacIntyre!
articulates!arguments!central!to!green!normative!thinking.!!Green!thinking!has!
as!a!central!orientating!theme!the!need!to!transcend!the!species!barrier!in!our!
moral!and!political!thinking.!!It!also!holds!that!humans!are!dependent!in!all!
sorts!of!ways!(on!fellow!humans!and!the!nonhuman!world),!and!that!this!
dependence!is!normatively!significant,!as!well!as!politically!salient.!!Against&
dominant&strands&of!political!thought!and!prevailing!European!culture,!an&
acceptance&of&human&vulnerability&and&dependence&is&viewed&not&as&some&
‘abnormal’&or&deviation&from&the&moral&or&political&norm&we&should&expect&
or&strive&towards&for&human&beings,&but&as&fundamentally&constitutive&of&
what&it&means&to&be&human.!
!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
There&are&certain&evident&facts&about&the&world&around&us&
that&we&ignore.&
MacIntyre,!Alasdair.!"Heedlessness."!Notre!Dame!Center!For!Ethics!and!Cultre.!
October!31,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.!
There&are&salient&aspects&of&our&everyday&lives&that&engage&our&attention&
recurrently!and!inescapably:!aspects!of!our!shared!lives&in&households,&
workplaces,&schools,&neighborhoods.&&There&are&other&aspects,&both&of&the&local&
and&the&wider&world,!aspects!of!social,!economic,!political,!and!cultural!
happenings!that&secure&more&or&less&of&our&attention&from&time&to&time:&wars,&
drastic&changes&in&the&weather,&crime&statistics,&strange&occurrences&reported&in&
the&media&(“Fat!Man!Breeds!Thin!Ostriches”).!But&there&are&also&aspects&of&our&
everyday&lives&of&which&we&may&be&in&some&marginal&way&aware&but&of&which&we&
don’t&attend.&But&it’s&not&just&that&we&don’t&attend.&We&take&care&not&to&attend,&we&
take&care&to&exclude&from&consciousness&facts&that&would&cause&us&too&much&
discomfort&if&we&were&to&attend&to&them,!facts!that&would&put&us&to&the&question&
in&ways&we&don’t&want&to&be&put&to&the&question.!!So!there!are!questions!that!it!may!
seem!obvious!to!ask,!but!which!we!rarely!ask.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
We&ignore&that&our&access&to&cheap&food&comes&at&the&
expense&of&other&people.&
MacIntyre,!Alasdair.!"Heedlessness."!Notre!Dame!Center!For!Ethics!and!Cultre.!
October!31,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!<!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.!
Begin&in&the&supermarket,!any!supermarket.!!A&first&generally&unasked&question&
is:&whence&this&extraordinary&quantity&and&quality&of&extraordinarily&cheap&
food.!!For!the!food!that!American&consumers&buy&in&supermarkets,&is,&compared&
with&all&other&times&and&places&is&amazingly&cheap.!What!makes!it!cheap!is!a!
complex!matter!involving!the!economics!of!farming,!transportation,!and!retail!
enterprise.!!But!one&important&and&indispensable&cause&of&our&food&being&as&
cheap&as&it&is&that&that&wages&of&farm&workers,!most!of!them!Latin!American,!and!
many!of!them!immigrants,!are&as&low&as&they&are.!!According!to!the!National!
Agricultural!Workers!Survey,!published!by!the!Department!of!Labor,!farm&workers&
on&average&work&for&42&hours&a&week&for&$7.25&an&hour.&&The&average&annual&
income&for&individuals&is&between&10,000&and&12,500&dollars&and&for&families&
between&15,000&and&17,500&dollars.&&Thirty&percent&of&farm&workers&have&an&
income&that&places&them&below&the&federal&poverty&line.!!So!we&can&afford&to&buy&
and&enjoy&the&cheap&food&from&the&supermarket&as&we&do&only&because&so&many&
farm&workers!work!fullYtime!for!the!best!wages!that!they!can!get,!and!yet!live&in&
poverty.!!We’re&as&well`to`do&as&we&are&only&because&they&are&as&poor&as&they&
are.!!It’s!not!just!that!our!society!is!a!society!of!the!better!off!and!the!worse!off!but!
that!it’s!a!society!in!which!those!which!are!better!off!are!so!in!key!part!because!the!
poor!are!poor.!!I&call&the&comfortable&frame&of&mind&which&avoids&attention&to&
such&facts&“heedlessness.”!!!!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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&
March/April&2015&
Those&who&have&been&discarded&by&our&economy&do&not&have&
access&to&food.&
MacIntyre,!Alasdair.!"Heedlessness."!Notre!Dame!Center!For!Ethics!and!Cultre.!
October!31,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.!
Consider&another&example&by&returning&to&the&supermarket!and!asking!another,!
generally!unasked,!question:!why&is&there&a&supermarket&here?&&To&which&the&
immediate&response&may&be&“but&surely&there&are&supermarkets&
everywhere?”&&This&however&is&false.&&There&are&large&areas&of&this&country&which&
have&been&described&as&“food&deserts.”!Consider!one!of!them,!which!is!about!to!be!
no!longer!such,!Greater&Englewood,&on&the&south&side&of&Chicago.&&In&its&9&square&
miles&there&have&been&up&until&now&only&two&full&service&grocery&stores.&&While&
within&three&miles&of&where&I&wrote&this&paper&there&are&seven;&a&food&
jungle!rather!than!a!food!desert.!!Soon&in&Greater&Englewood&there&will&be&a&Whole&
Food&grocery.&A&grocery&brought&there&not&by&market&forces,&as&here,&but&by&the&
consistent&struggle&of&community&organizations&and&by&the&intervention&of&the&
city!of!Chicago.!!Why!this!contrast?!Why&do&some&have&to&choose&between&
numerous&stores&while&others&have&either&to&do&without&or&to&engage&in&political&
struggle?!!In&West&Englewood&over&32&percent&of&the&population&have&incomes&
below&the&poverty&level.&&In&East&Englewood&the&figure&is&almost&44&
percent.!!Therefore,!in!Englewood&there&is&an&absence&of&what&economists&call&
“effective&demand,”&a&lack&of&incentives&for&the&executives&of&supermarket!chains!
to!open!supermarkets.!!Food&deserts&turn&out&to&be&areas&whose&population&has&to&
a&large&degree&been&abandoned&by&the&agencies&of&economic&growth.!!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
There&is&structural&injustice&in&the&economy&regarding&who&
has&access&to&food,&but&heedlessness&prevents&us&from&
being&aware&of&this.&
MacIntyre,!Alasdair.!"Heedlessness."!Notre!Dame!Center!For!Ethics!and!Cultre.!
October!31,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!<!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.!
But!those&who&benefit&rarely&take&note&that&it’s&generally&only&by&happenstance&
that&they&belong&to&one&of&those&populations&that&the&economy&needs&for&its&labor&
force,&rather&than&to&one&that&has&been&discarded;&that&they&inhabit&a&food&jungle&
rather&than&a&food&desert.!!Here!then!is!a!second!kind!of!injustice!that!s!inflicted!by!
the!structure!of!the!economy.!!An&economy&that&not&only&imposes&the&hard&life&of&
the&working&poor&on&some&so&that&others&better&off&may&benefit,&but&that&
distributes&its&incentives&and&rewards&so&that&they&are&made&available&to&some&
but&withheld&from&others.&&This&structural&injustice&does&not&strike&us&every&time&
that&we&visit&the&supermarket.&&We’ve&learned&to&put&it&out&of&mind,!and!we!lead!
more!comfortable!lives!because!we’ve!learned!this.!!Heedlessness&is&inattention&to&
structural&injustice.!!!!!!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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AFF:&Political&Instability/Conflict&Adv.&AC&
March/April&2015&
China’s&water&is&running&dry,&which&is&a&national&security&
concern.&
Brown,!LesterR.!"China."!World!Watch.!August!07,!1998.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.ualberta.ca/~mdzahidu/brhamaputra_diversion/lester_brian.pdf
>.!
Any&major&threat&to&China’s&food&self`sufficiency,!if!not!addressed!by!strong!new!
measures,!would&likely&push&up&world&grain&prices,&creating&social&and&political&
instabilities&in&Third&World&cities—as!previous!WORLD!WATCH!articles!have!
pointed!out!(see!box,!page!12).!New&information&on&the&deteriorating&water&
situation&has&confirmed&the&imminence&of&this&possibility.!The!challenge!now!
facing!the!Chinese!government!is!how!to!meet!the!soaring!water!needs!of!its!swelling!
urban!and!industrial!sectors!without!undermining!both!its!own!agriculture!and!the!
world’s!food!security.!The&decline&in&China’s&capacity&to&irrigate&its&crops&is&
coming&at&a&time&when&depleted&world&grain&stocks&are&near&an&alltime&low.!With!
its!booming!economy!and!huge!trade!surpluses,!China&can&survive&its&water&
shortages&by&simply&importing&more&of&its&food,!because!it!can!afford!to!pay!more!
for!grain.!But&lowincome&countries&with&growing&grain&deficits&may&not&be&able&to&
pay&these&higher&prices.!For!the!1.3!billion!of!the!world’s!people!who!live!on!$1!a!day!
or!less,!higher!grain!prices!could!quickly!become!lifeYthreatening.!The&problem&is&
now&so&clearly&linked&to&global&security&that&the&U.S.&National&Intelligence&
Council&(NIC),!the!umbrella!over!all!U.S.!intelligence!agencies,!has&begun&to&monitor&
the&situation!with!the!kind!of!attention!it!once!focused!on!Soviet!military!maneuvers.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
China&must&fix&its&food&production&or&cause&international&
chaos.&
Brown,!LesterR.!"China's!Water!Shortage!Could!Shake!World!Food!Security."!World!
Watch.!August!07,!1998.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.ualberta.ca/~mdzahidu/brhamaputra_diversion/lester_brian.pdf
>.!
If!China&is!facing!everYgrowing!water!deficits!in!agriculture,!then!it!is&also!facing&a&
growing&gap&between&its!rapidly!rising!demand&for&food&and&the&ability&of&farmers&
to&expand&production.!If!the!NIC!projections!of!the&need&to&import!175!million!tons!
in!2025!is!extrapolated!to&the&year&2030!to!mesh!with!our!projected!time!horizon,!
it!goes&over&200&million&tons—the&equivalent&of&total&world&grain&exports&
today.!With!the!scope!of!its!analysis!limited!to!China,!the!NIC!study!simply!assumes!
that!the!needed!175!million!tons!of!grain!imports!will!be!readily!available!from!
exporting!countries,!but!the!trends!in&the&principal&exporters—the!United!States,!
Canada,!Australia,!Argentina,!and!the!European!Union—raise!doubts!about!this!
assumption.!These!countries,!which!produce!85!percent!of!the!world’s!grain!exports,!
steadily!increased!their!exports!from!less!than!60!million!tons!in!1960!to!200!million!
tons!by!1980.!But!since!1980,!there&has&been&no&growth&in&world&grain&
exports!even!though!the!United!States!has!returned!to!production!all!the!cropland!
idled!under!its!farm!commodity!programs!(see!Figure!2).!The!global!total!has!
fluctuated!around!200!million!tons!per!year!for!nearly!two!decades,!initially!because!
demand!was!not!growing,!but!more!recently!because!of!an!inability!to!produce!more!
for!export.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Hunger&is&a&problem&of&poverty&rather&than&lack&of&food&
resources.&
Eide,!Asbjorn.!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And!
Development."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.!November!30,!1990.!
Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent
=1&collection=journals>.!
Hunger&and&limited&access&to&food&are&primarily&problems&of&poverty,!not!food!
availability.!Thus,!to!tackle!the!global!food!problem,!we!must!look!into!the!causes!and!
manifestations!of!poverty!in!different!parts!of!the!world!and!explore!ways!in!which!it!
can!be!overcome.!Instead!of!assuming,!as!many!have!in!the!past,!that!increased!
production,!storage,!transport,!and!marketing!are!necessary!to!advance!the!enjoyment!
of!the!right!to!food,!we&must&pay&attention&to&who&produces,&what&is&produced,&
and&who&will&consume&what&is&produced.!Moreover,!it!is!an!oversimplification!to!
analyze!the!problem!merely!in!terms!of!rich!countries!and!poor!countries.!In!rich!
countries!not!everyone!is!rich;!pockets&of&poverty&exist&almost&everywhere.!In!poor!
countries,!not!everyone!is!poor;!abundance!can!be!found!amidst!squalor.!Even&in&
times&of&famine,&it&is&not&rare&to&find&substantial&food&export&from&the&region&
wherein&famine&occurs.!For!some!it!may!come!as!a!surprise!that!hunger!is!not!due!to!
an!average!lack!of!food!in!the!world!or!within!individual!States.!In!simple!economic!
terms,&the&supply&of&food&depends!mostly!on&effective&demand,&which&is&very&
elastic,!and!not!on!needs.!If&those&who&were&hungry&had&the&economic&resources&
to&turn&their&need&for&food&into&effective&demand&for&food&in&economic&terms,&
then&producers&would&supply&food&for&the&hungry.!As!matters!exist,&producers&
produce&for&those&who&can&pay,&not&for&those!who&have&needs.!For!example,!the!
increased!purchasing!power!of!richer!consumers!leads!to!increased!demand!for!meat!
and!hence!increased!production!of!livestock,!even!though!the!space!needed!to!produce!
fodder!for!meatYproducing!livestock!mayYin!the!case!of!grainYbe!ten!times!greater!
than!the!space!needed!to!produce!grain!for!direct!consumption!by!people!to!provide!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
the!same!amount!of!calories."!High!purchasing!power!also!diverts!food!resources!to!
pets.!Additionally,!agricultural!products!are!not!necessarily!food,!but!include,!inter!
alia,!flowers,!which!are!in!demand!by!those!whose!food!needs!are!met.!In!short,&those&
with&limited&purchasing&power&tend&to&lose&out&to&those&with&higher&purchasing&
power&as&resources&that&could&be&used&to&produce&low`cost&food&are&used&for&
more&costly&purposes.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
The&majority&of&malnourished&people&are&in&poverty.&
United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.!"The!Right!To!Adequate!
Food."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!34.!November!30,!1990.!Web.!February!05,!
2015.!<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.pdf>.!
The&vast&majority&of&people&suffering&from&hunger&and&malnutrition&are&poor!and!
marginalized,!struggling!to!survive!in!rural!areas.!About!50&per&cent&of&people&
suffering&from&hunger&are&smallholders&and&20&per&cent&rural&landless&people.!
Another!10&per&cent&are&pastoralists,&fisherfolk&and&forest&users.!The!remaining!20!
per!cent!live!in!urban!areas.28!The&rural&poor&often&lack&access&to&sufficient&
productive&resources,!such!as!land,29!water,!fertilizers!and!seeds,!as!well!as!to!
markets,!information!and!technology.!Very!often,!lack!of!access!to!land!and!other!
productive!resources!can!lead!to!the!denial!of!the!right!to!food,!as!most!individuals!
and!households!in!rural!areas!are!dependent!on!such!resources!either!to!produce!food!
for!themselves!or!as!a!source!of!income!to!purchase!the!food!they!need.!The&denial&of&
access&to&land&can&occur,&for&example,&in&the&context&of&unfair&competition&over&
land&with&large&agribusiness,&extractive&industries!or&development&projects.!In!
such!competition&the&rural&poor&are&often&at&a&considerable&disadvantage&as&a&
result&of&discrimination&and&a&denial&of&various&human&rights,&including&
exclusion&from&decision`making&and&from&access&to&justice.!Sometimes!the!denial!
of!access!to!land!takes!the!form!of!forced!evictions.!Even!when!they!can!produce!
agricultural!products,!lack!of!access!to!markets!may!prevent!them!from!selling!their!
products!and!buying!other!foods!necessary!for!an!adequate!diet.!Lack&of&access&to&
education,!including!vocational!training,!and!information!and!technologies!can&also&
prevent&them&from&improving&their&productivity&and&protecting&the&
environment,&or&from&obtaining&knowledge&on&nutrition.!Landless!workers,!such!
as!sharecroppers!and!agricultural!labourers,!are!denied!their!right!to!food!when!they!
cannot!afford!adequate!food!and!other!basic!needs!because!their!wages!are!too!low.!
They!may!not!enjoy!freedom!of!association,!necessary!for!negotiating!job!security!and!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
decent!wages,!either.!Few!countries!have!a!social!security!system,!particularly!one!
that!functions!well!in!rural!areas.!When&economic&hardship&strikes,&the&rural&poor&
may&face&food&insecurity.&!
Hunger&and&poverty&are&linked&in&a&cycle.&
Dix,!Tara.!"Recipe!For!A!Hungry!Planet."!US!Catholic.!February!09,!2015.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!<http://uscatholic.claretians.!org/site/News2?page=!
NewsArticle&id=12729&news_iv_!ctrl=0&abbr=usc_>.!
Sen.!George!McGovern,!former!ambassador!to!the!United!Nations’!food!agency!and!
coauthor!of!Ending!Hunger!Now!(Augsburg!Fortress),!puts!it!in!blunt!terms:!“If&we&fail&
to&do&this,&we&will&stand&condemned&before&the&bar&of&history.!In!that!case,!shame&
on&you,&and&shame&on&me.”&The&biggest&problem&facing&the&hungry&is&the&poverty&
trap:&the&cyclical&combination&of&no&money,&no&food,&and&no&health&care.&
Malnutrition&leads&to&illness;&illness&drains&financial&resources;&drained&finances&
lead&to&malnutrition.&Factor&in&a&lack&of&access&to&education,&financial&services,&or&
credit``all&of&which&prevent&upward&economic&mobility``and&you’ve&got&a&person&
who&is``in&a&word``trapped.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
190&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
We&ought&to&reject&food&insecurity&and&poverty.&
Udayakumar,!S.P.!"The!Futures!Of!The!Poor."!Futures!Vol.!27,!no.!3!pp!339Y351.!
February!09,!1995.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/001632879500004G!
!
Although!race,!ethnicity,!gender,!generation!and!political!powerlessness!all!contribute!
to!poverty,!the&‘economic&worth’&factor&forms&the&basis&in&‘poorcide,’&the&genocide&
of&the&poor.&It&is&an&economic&group!(or!class)!discriminated&against&in&
poorcide.&A&particular&group&of&people&is&massacred&in&genocide,&but&poverty&
kills&indiscriminately,!irrespective!of!the!group.!
Genocide&just&kills&you,&but&poverty&tortures&and&condemns&you&to&a&slow&and&
painful&death.&Poverty&degrades&human&beings,&negates&human&dignity&and&
wastes&human&resources,&genocide&prompts&physical&elimination,&but&poverty&
causes&physical&pain,&mental&agony,&moral&degradation&and&spiritual&
dissipation.!Extending!the!analysis!of!physical!violence!and!structural!violence!to!
genocide,!we!can!distinguish!between!direct!and!indirect!or!physical!and!structural,!
genocide.!Genocide&means&not&just&massive&killing&(which&we&can&call&direct&or&
physical&genocide)&but&also&includes&calculated&attacks&on&and&constant&efforts&at&
undermining&the&basic&human&dignity&and&life`support&systems&of&a&particular&
group&of&people&(which&may&be&described&as!the!indirect!or!structural&genocide).&
Poorcide&may&not&be&actual&physical&elimination&of&the&poor&in&a&massive&scale,&
but&it’s&a&slow`pace&silent&holocaust.&&Genocide&takes&place&in&pockets&of&human&
polity,&but&poverty&afflicts&humanity&all&over&the&world.&Unlike&genocide,&poverty&
is&widespread,&systematically&rooted&and&popularly&accepted.!However!fickle!and!
fragile,!the&victims,!or!potential!victims,!of&genocide&may&be&able&to&take&some&
precautions.&But&the&victims&of&poverty&can&only&watch&themselves&being&taken&
for&granted,&or!even!worse,&being&taken&advantage&of&by&the&privileged.&In!a!
genocidal!act,!only!those!with!prejudices!and!biases!participate,!but!we&are&all&
complicit&in&the&poverty&crime.&Leading&a&‘rich&lifestyle;&or&letting&the&problem&
persist&is&the&definite&complicity&in&the&crime&of&poorcide.!!
Champion)Briefs)
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191&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
In&India&poverty&and&hunger&are&so&intimately&linked&that&
government&measures&of&poverty&don’t&even&fully&
appreciate&the&problem&of&hunger.&
Ghai,!Anita.!"Guest!Editorial:!Human!Security,!Social!Cohesion,!And!Disability."!Review!
of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal!Volume!5,!Issue!3.!February!09,!
2015.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.biasfree.org/operation.pdf#page=15!>.!
Poverty!has!been!analyzed!in!innumerable!ways.!For!example,!the&poverty&line&in&
India&measures&only&the&most&basic&calorie&intake,&recording&not&nutrition,&but&
only&the&satiation&of&hunger.!“At!present,!the&poverty&line&stands&at&368&
rupees!($9.20!USD)!and!559!rupees!($14!USD)!per!person!per!month!for!rural!and!
urban!areas!respectively,!just!about!enough!to!buy!650!grams!of!food!grains!every!
day.!A&nutritious&diet&itself&would&cost&around&573&rupees!($!15!USD)!per!capita!
per!month,!let!alone!the!cost!of!securing!other!basic!needs”!(Infochange,!
2009).!However,&such&measures&do&not&incorporate&the&costs&of&shelter,&clothing,&
transport,&fuel,&health&care,&and&education.&According&to&Guruswamy&and&
Abraham!(2009),!the&Indian&Council&of&Medical&Research(ICMR),!prescribes&3,800&
calories&for&an&adult&male&doing&heavy&activity&and&2,925&calories&for&an&adult&
female&carrying&out&heavy&activity.&Consequently,&millions&of&poor,&unskilled&
wage&laborers&in&India&who&do&heavy&manual&labor&every&day,&a&stipulation&of&
2,100&`&2,400&calories&in&urban&and&rural&areas&is&grossly&insufficient.!Mabub!ul!
Huq!(as!cited!in!Shariff,!1999,!p.!45)!states,!“Nearly&one`third&of&the&total&number&of&
absolute&poor&in&the&world&live&in&India.&What&is&more&distressing&is&that&while&
46%&of&India’s&people&survive&in&absolute&poverty…about&two&thirds&are&
‘capability&poor’&i.e.&they&do&not&receive&the&minimum&level&of&education&and&
health&care&necessary&for&functioning&human&capabilities!Notwithstanding!the!fact!
that!official!figures!show!a!decrease!in!poverty,!but!the!fact!that!only!the!basic!calorie!
intake!is!considered!as!critical!is!alarming!
Champion)Briefs)
192&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
In&order&to&examine&food&security,&we&must&examine&social&
inequalities.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
That!being!said,!the!definitions!of!food&justice&currently!being!offered&by&
scholars&and!activists!omit&important!aspects&of&the&disparities&inherent&to&food&
systems.!Present&definitions&tend&to&conceptualize&food&justice&in&distributive&
terms&as&being&a&matter&of&improving&wages&and&conditions&for&those&working&in&
the&food&system&and&ensuring&and&the&fairness&in&which&fresh&and&healthy&food&is&
distributed&amongst&eaters.!However,!the!commonly!appealed!to!caseYstudies!of!
inequalities!within!food!systems—even!those!offered!by!proponents!of!distributionY
centric!definitions!of!food!justice—suggest!that!participative!disparities!are!at!the!
root!of!the!most!important!distributional!disparities.!This!suggests!that!there&has&
been&a&failure&to&adequately&recognize&food&justice’s&participative&aspects.!If!
Allen!(2010)!is!correct,!and!that!a&robust&and&comprehensive&understanding&of&
food&system&disparities&is&required&for&an&effective&strategy&to&achieve&food&
justice,!then!only!considering!the!distributive!disparities!within!food!systems!is!
insufficient.!Rather,!to&understand&food&injustices&requires&understanding&the&
root&causes&and&the&dynamics&of&structural&hierarchies&that&underlie&or&
contribute&to&injustices.!To!properly!diagnose!and!address!disparities!in!food!
systems,!those&concerned&with&food&justice&must&examine&the&participative&
inequalities&that&are&the&basis&of&material&and&distributive&injustices.!Redefining!
the!concept!of!food!justice!in!more!participative!terms!could!help!to!make!this!clear.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
193&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&and&environmental&justice&are&intrinsically&
linked.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
In&the&last&15&years&or&so&there&has&been&a&melding&of&environmental&justice&and&
food&security.!Groups&and&individuals&who&had&been&concerned&about&
environmental&disparities&began&to&become&interested&in&food&security,!
availability,!and!access.!This!resulted!in!the!development!of!the!notion!of!food!justice.!
As!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010)!point!out!this&idea&of&food&justice&is&a&powerful&one&
and&has&become&the&basis&of&a&movement&in&its&own&right&independent&from&the&
environmental&justice&movement.!Because&of&the&importance&and&influential&
nature&of&the&concept&of&food&justice&there&have&been&several&attempts&to&
define!it.!Offering!a!full!accounting!and!taxonomy!of!the!definitions!that!have!been!
offered!for!‘‘food!justice’’!is!outside!of!the!scope!of!this!paper!but!there!are!a!
manageable!number!of!definitions!that!are!most!often!cited.!The!first!of!these!is!that!
offered!by!Lang!and!Heasman!(2004).!They!define!food&injustice&as&follows:&….the&
maldistribution&of&food,&poor&access&to&a&good&diet,&inequities&in&the&labour&
process&and&unfair&returns&for&key&suppliers&along&the&food&chain.!This!definition,!
perhaps!with!the!exception!of!the!phrase!‘‘inequities&in&the&labour&process’’—which!
is!ambiguous,!emphasizes&distribution.&It&focuses&on&who&gets&what&food&and&how&
those&producing&food&share&earnings&and&profits.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
194&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&protects&labor&workers.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
Finally,!given&that&agriculture&is&seasonal&and&that&there&is&only&intermittent&need&
for&labor&during&the&growing&season,&farm&workers&have&little&assurance&that&
they&can&routinely&get&work.!Brown!and!Getz!(2011)!report!that!the&average&farm&
worker&in&California&works&only&1,000&h&over&the&34.5&week&growing&season.&
This&averages&to&approximately&28&h&of&work&per&week.&However,&it&is&unlikely&
that&workers&in&fact&work&a&consistent&30`h&workweek.!Rather,!they!likely!work!
very!long!hours!during!planting!and!harvest!and!then!must!find!alternative!sources!of!
income!during!the!interim.!So!far,!as!they!have!been!described!above,&the&disparities&
experienced&by&farm&and&food&workers&may&seem&prima&facie&to&be&distributive&
ones.!They&seem,!and!are,inequalities&regarding&who&receives&benefits&and&who&
experiences&the&burdens&associated&with&those&benefits.!However,!the!aboveY
discussed!distributive!disparities—!even!if!one!only!considers!what!those!offering!
distributive!accounts!of!food!justice!have!written!about!them—are!attributable!to!
participative!disparities.!Further,!while&they&define&food&justice&in&terms&of&
distribution,!scholars!such!as!Gottlieb&and&Joshi&(2010)!and!Alkon!and!Agyeman!
(2011a)!tend!to!suggest&that&eliminating&the&disparity&between&who&benefits&and&
who&bears&the&cost&of&how&food&is&produced,&transported,&and&distributed&would&
involve&improving&the&ability&of&food&and&farm&workers&to&participate&in&
governing&the&food&system.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
195&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Farm&workers&live&in&poor&conditions&`&four&warrants.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
Accounts&of&the&poor&conditions&experienced&by&farm&workers&seem&to&suggest&
that&those&conditions&are&often&associated&with&factors&that&limit&the&ability&of&
workers&to&make&choices&or&self`advocate&to&pursue&their&interests.!Of!these!
factors!there!are!four!that!appear!to!particularly&[factors]&contribute&to&the&poor&
conditions&experienced&by&farm&workers:&(1)&misleading&recruitment&practices,&
(2)&the&use&of&threats&and&violence,&(3)&the&willingness&of&employers&to&accept&
high&attrition&rates&amongst&unskilled&laborers,&and&(4)&the&hiring&
undocumented&immigrant&workers&who&are&unable&to&protest&poor&conditions&
due&to&a&lack&of&legal&recognition.!Their!caseYstudies!also!suggest!that!the!poor!
working!conditions!of!agricultural!laborers!only!improved!after!those!laborers!were!
able!to!organize!to!better!negotiate!with!their!employers.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
196&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Immigrant&labor&workers&are&tricked&into&poor&work&
conditions.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
From!the!narratives!within!the!United!States!Department!of!State!(2013)!Trafficking!
in!Persons!Report!2013!it!seems!that!human&smugglers&and&contractors&mislead&
undocumented&workers&in&a&number&of&ways.&First,&workers&are&often&recruited&
in&their&home&countries&under&false&pretenses&regarding&the&locations&where&
they&will&be&transported.!While!the!workers!may!request!to!be!brought!to!specific!
locations!within!the!United!States!(such!as!in!locations!near!family!members)!they!are!
often!brought!to!locations!where!they!can!be!hired!out!by!the!smugglers.!Second,&
human&smugglers&often&suggest&to&potential&undocumented&workers&that&their&
jobs&will&be&less&laborious&or&unpleasant&and&that&their&wages&will&be&much&
higher&than&will&in&fact&be.!Workers!are!thusly!led!to!believe!that!it!would!be!much!
easier!for!the!workers!to!repay!the!debts!they!incur!during!the!emigration!
process.!Being&misinformed&in&such&a&manner&makes&it&difficult&for&workers&to&
make&informed&decisions&regarding&whether&the&offered&work&conditions&and&
remuneration&are&acceptable.Such&misinformation&then!serves&as&a&manner&in&
which&workers&are&coerced&into&working&in&subpar&conditions&and&for&wages&that&
keep&them&impoverished.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
197&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Legal&reform&is&key&to&help&farm&laborers&`&they&have&been&
exploited&for&decades.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
The&importance&of&legal&protections&supporting&workers’&ability&to&negotiate&and&
organized&is!further!highlighted!by!the!final!manner!in!which!participative&
injustices&contribute&to&distributive&inequalities&for&farm&workers.!Specifically,!I!
refer!to!the!recent!trend!of!agricultural!employers!actively!recruiting!undocumented!
immigrants.!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010)!point!out!that!since&World&War&II&there&has&
been&a&concerted&effort&to&recruit&undocumented&immigrants&for&farm&labor&in&
the&United&States.!According!to!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010),&at&present&the&importing&
of&undocumented&laborers&from&Asia&and&Central&and&South&America&has&become&
so&rampant&that&upwards&to&90&%&of&the&farm&laborers!(and!more!than!30!%!of!all!
those!employed!within!agriculture)!in&the&United&States&are&undocumented.&This&is&
one&of&the&key&underlying&reasons&that&farm&workers&often&face&such&terrible&
conditions&as&describe&above.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
"Food&deserts"&disproportionately&exist&in&low&income&
communities.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
Another&category&of&disparities&that&have&been&seen&as&of&primary&importance&in&
the&arena&of&food&justice&are&disparities&in&access&to&food&between&different&
populations.!The!example!of!this!that!is!most!often!cited!can!be!found!in!the!food!
deserts!that!are!found!within!communities!of!color!and!lowYincome!communities.!
According!to!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010)!the!term!‘‘food&desert’’&was&first&coined&in&
the&England&to&describe&communities&or&neighborhoods&where&there&were&no&
fullservice&grocery&stores&and&little&fresh&food&available.!In!the!context!of!the!
United!States,!the&majority&of&food&deserts&are&found&in&two&sorts&of&communities:&
lowerincome&and&communities&of&color&in&inner`cities&and&rural&communities.&In&
these&areas&available&food&is&generally&heavily&processed&and&sold&at&fast&food&
restaurants,&liquor&stores,&and&bodegas!(Gottlieb!and!Joshi!2010;!Ornelas!2010).!
For!example,!within!the!city!of!Chicago!more!than!half!a!million!residents!of!primarily!
AfricanYAmerican!neighborhoods!have!veryYlittle!or!no!access!to!a!market!selling!
fresh!produce!(Gottlieb!and!Joshi!2010).!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!note!that&most&African`
Americans&living&in&Chicago&had&to&travel&twice&as&far&to&get&to&a&grocery&store&
than&to&get&to&a&fast&food&restaurant.!A!study!carried!out!and!published!by!the!Food!
Empowerment!Project!(FEP)!(Ornelas!2010)!found!that!similar!was!true!in!Santa!Clara!
County!in!California.!The!FEP!study!found!that!not!only!were!there!proportionally!far!
fewer!grocery!stores!relative!to!liquor!stores,!fast!food!restaurants,!and!convenience!
stores!in!lowerYincome!neighborhoods!when!contrasted!to!higherYincome!
neighborhoods—it!also!found!that!the&quality&of&food&was&much&poorer&in&the&few&
available&full`service&grocers&in&the&lower`income&areas.!Specifically!it!found!
that!grocery&stores&serving&lower`income&populations&were—when&compared&to&
Champion)Briefs)
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stores&serving&higher`income&populations—only&half&as&likely&to&carry&fresh&non`
organic&fruit&and&vegetables,&about&12&%&as&likely&to&carry&fresh&organic&fruit,&
and&never&carried&fresh&organic&vegetables&(Ornelas!2010).!Even!when!it!came!to!
frozen!or!canned!produce,!stores!in!lowerYincome!areas!were!much!less!likely!to!carry!
stock!when!compared!to!stores!in!higherYincome!areas!(Ornelas!2010).!This&pattern&
was&repeated&for&all&products&with&the&exception&of&tobacco&products,&which&
were&substantially&more&likely&to&be&sold&in&stores&serving&lower`income&
communities!(Ornelas!2010).6!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
200&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Two&reasons&why&chain&grocers&don’t&solve.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
To!achieve!the!necessary!economies!of!scale!requires!that!big!box!and!chain!
supermarkets!be!quite!big.!While!historically!grocers!operated!stores!that!were!
smaller!than!20,000!square!feet,!contemporary&big&box&and&chain&supermarkets&
often&exceed&200,000&square&feet&in&floor&space!(Gottlieb!and!Joshi!2010).!This&
contributes&to&the&development&and&spread&of&food&deserts&in&two&ways.&First,&in&
urban&areas,&where&real&estate&is&often&at&a&premium,&the&land&required&for&both&
floor&space&and&parking&makes&large&supermarkets&and&big&box&stores&is&
prohibitively&expensive.&Second,&to&operate&a&store&that&has&a&floor&space&
exceeding&200,000&square&feet&requires&the&ability&to&maintain&a&large&clientele.!
Something,!that&is&impossible&in&rural&areas&where&population&densities&are&quite&
low.!Because!of!the!two!aboveYdescribed!factors,!the!shift!from!small!grocers!to!large!
chain!markets!has!resulted!in!a!shift!of!food!availability!from!urban!grocers!and!rural!
farm!stands!to!suburban!supermarkets.!This&shift&from&local&to&chain&grocers&
illustrates&a&key&participative&element&of&the&development&of&spread&of&food&
deserts.!Specifically,!it&demonstrates&that&the&distributive&problem&of&there&being&
a&lack&of&availability&of&fresh&produce&in&innercities&and&rural&areas&is&due&to&a&
large&part&to&control&of&food&distribution—as&the&result&of&market&conditions—
being&taken&away&from&members&of&local&communities&and&centralized&in&the&
hands&of&a&number&of&national&and&international&firms.!Because!economic!
structures!favor!large!chains!to!the!detriment!of!independent!grocers!and!other!smallY
scale!distributors!various!vulnerable!communities!are!denied!ready!access!to!fresh!
food.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
201&
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March/April&2015&
Those&without&readily&accessible&food&are&viewed&negatively.&
Bastian,!Amber.!"The!Responsibilisation!Of!Food!Security:!What!Is!The!Problem!
Represented!To!Be?."!Health!Sociology!Review.!January!06,!2013.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!<http://ojs.eY
contentmanagement.com/index.php/hsr/article/view/2075>.!
This!focus&on&individual&behaviour&defects&attention&from&structural&issues&such&
as&food&supply,&economic&pressures&to&work&long&hours,&urban&design&and&poor&
public&transport&(Bonfi!glioli,!Smith,!King,!Chapman,!&!Holding,!2007;!Pagnini,!King,!
Booth,!Wilkenfeld,!&!Booth,!2009).!For&single&working&parents&or&double&working&
parent&households,&time&pressure&may&be&a&barrier&to&preparing&healthy&
meals&(Booth!et!al.,!2006).!The&representation&does&not&consider&the&impact&of&
socioeconomic&status&on&access&to&healthy&foods,&as&lower&socioeconomic&
neighbourhoods&may&present&more&structural&barriers&to&healthy&eating&
compared&to&more&affluent&areas&(Reidpath,!Burns,!Garrard,!Mahoney,!&!Townsend,!
2002).!What&is&left&unproblematic&in&this&representation&is&that&skill&
development&programmes&stop&working&when&income&levels&are&below&a&certain&
threshold.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
202&
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March/April&2015&
Rich&countries&horde&food&and&countries&have&to&rely&on&
trade&for&food&security.&
Kannam,!K.P.!"Concerns!On!Food!Security."!Economic!and!Political!Weekly.!October!
11,!2000.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4409916>.!
International!trade:!Given&the&accelerating&pace&of&economic&liberalisation&and&
globalisation,&the&question&of&depending&on&international&trade&to&ensure&food&
security&of&the&country&was&debated.&The&issue&was&raised&right&at&the&inaugural&
address&which&suggested&that&while&reducing&domestic&subsidy&on&food,&we&
should&fight&the&subsidies&in&the&rich&countries&and&thereby&seize&opportunities&
for&trade&in&agricultural&commodities.!The!question!before!the!seminar!was!
whether!international!trade!is!a!dependable!mechanism!for!ensuring!food!security.!
This!question!assumes!importance!in!the!context!of!the!pressures!exerted!by!the!rich!
countries,!through!the!WTO,!to!remove!trade!barriers!in!agricultural!
commodities.!The&rich&countries,!despite!their!avowed!commitment!to!free!trade,&
accord&high&priority&to&protect&their&agriculture.&Subsidies&to&the&farmers&in&the&
rich&countries&vary&from&one`third&of&the&farmers'&income&in&the&US&to&one`half&in&
the&EU&to&two`thirds&in&Japan.!Moreover,!there&are&a&number&of&non`tariff&barriers&
resorted&to&by&these&countries&in&the&name&of&health,&safety&and&so&on.!
Withdrawal!of!these!subsidies!may!lead!to!some!advantages!for!developing!countries.!
It!was,!however,!not!clear!whether!this!will!happen!in!future.!The!EU!is!the!most!
vehement!in!protecting!agriculture.!On!top!of!this,!the&current&world&foodstock&is&
just&enough&to&take&care&of&current&requirements&and&any&major&imbalance&in&
food&supply&is&likely&to&lead&to&crisis.&It&is&in&this&context&that&a&country&like&India&
will&have&to&assess&the&viability&of&depending&on&trade&for&its&food&security.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
203&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&varies&based&upon&goal.&
Tweeten,!Luther.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security."!Review!of!Agricultural!
Economics.!February!09,!1999.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/1349892>.!
Foreign&assistance&is&especially&critical&in&early&stages&when&the&economic&base&
of&a&developing&country&is&inadequate&to&provide&even&minimal&development&
tools&such&as&improved&agricultural&technology!(Burnside!and!Dollar).!
Development!assistance!can!be!decisive!for!countries!to!break!the!poverty!cycle!of!too!
little!income!to!support!public!infrastructure!and!services!necessary!to!raise!income.!
But!the!most!important!contribution!of!developed!countries!to!many!developing!
countries!is!open!markets.!Many&African&countries,&for&example,&will&not&be&able&to&
prosper&on&agriculture&alone.&They&will&need&to&shift&to&manufacturing&products&
for&export&after&advancements&in&agriculture&first&provide&the&economic&base&to&
improve&human&capital&essential&for&competing&globally&in&nonfarm&industries&
and&attracting&foreign&investment.!That!development!process!will!function!best!if!
international!markets!are!open.!Food&security&issues&differ&by&length&of&run.&In&the&
short&run&with&given&food&supplies,&the&challenge&is&buffer&stocks,&open&trade,&
and&transfers&to&match&food&availability&with&individual&food&needs.!In&the&
intermediate&run,&the&challenge&is&economic&growth&featuring&greater&
productivity&to&raise&food&production&and&consumer&buying&power.!In&the&long&
run,&the&challenge&is&for&the&demographic&transition&to&run&its&course&to&zero&
population&growth!(ZPG).!Family!planning!alone!will!not!suffice;!higher!incomes!are!
necessary!to!provide!schooling,!urbanization,!gender!equity!in!job!preparation!and!
opportunity,!health!care!for!child!survival,!and!other!contributors!to!lower!birth!rates!
and!ZPG!in!developing!countries.5!Developed!countries!are!mostly!near!or!below!
fertility!rates!needed!for!ZPG.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
204&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Children&are&harmed&by&food&insecurity.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Children&in&food`insecure&households&experience&a&variety&of&disruptions&in&
their&eating&habits.&Eighty`one&percent&of&food`insecure&households&reported&
relying&on&only&a&few&kinds&of&low`cost&foods&to&feed&their&children;&52&percent&
reported&that&at&times&they&couldn't&afford&to&feed&their&children&balanced&meals;&
and&one`quarter&reported&that&at&times&they&couldn't&afford&to&give&the&children&
enough&to&eat!(Nord,!2003b).!Further,researchers&have&documented&a&variety&of&
negative&consequences&of&food&insecurity,&ranging&from&deficits&in&nutritional&
consumption!(see,!for!example,!Kendall,!Olson,!&!Frongillo,!1996)!to&poor&outcomes&
on&broader&measures&of&well`being,&ranging&from&health&to&behavior&to&school&
performance!(see,!for!example,!Dunifon!&!KowaleskiYJones,!2003;!Winicki!&!Jemison,!
2003).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
205&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Poverty&and&food&insecurity&may&correlate,&but&are&separate&
phenomena.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Much&of&the&research&on&the&determinants&of&food&insecurity&has&focused&on&the&
role&of&sociodemographic&characteristics&of&households&and&individuals.!Not!
surprisingly,!poverty&and&food&insecurity&are&closely&linked:&the&prevalence&of&
food&insecurity&declines&from&35.1&percent&among&poor&households&to&4.9&
percent&among&households&above&1.85&times&the&federal&poverty&line!(Nord,!
Andrews,!&!Carlson,!2004).!Nonetheless,&poverty&and&food&insecurity&are&distinct&
phenomena.&More&than&half&of&poor&households&are&not&considered&food&
insecure,&and&equally&important,&more&than&half&of&food`insecure&households&are&
not&poor!(Nord,!Andrews,!&!Carlson,!2004).!Food&insecurity&does&not&reach&
negligible&levels&until&household&income&exceeds&five&times&the&poverty&
threshold!(Nord!&!Brent,!2002).!The!factors!that!moderate!the!relationship!between!
income!and!food!security!are!not!well!understood.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
206&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Factors&that&contribute&to&food&insecurity.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
In!addition!to!poverty!status,!Nord!and!colleagues!(2004)!find!that!single&
parenthood,&race!(specifically,!African!ancestry),!and&Hispanic&ethnicity&are&
associated&with&higher&rates&of&food&insecurity.&Other&research&highlights&the&
relationship&between&food&insecurity&and&low&education!(Daponte!&!Stephens,!
2004;!Rose,!Gundersen,!&!Oliveira,!1998),&lack&of&home&ownership!(Rose!et!al.,!
1998),!lack&of&savings!(Olson,!Rauschenbach,!Frongillo,!&!Kendall,!1997),!recent&
changes&in&income!(Gundersen!&!Gruber,!2001),!unemployment!(Daponte!&!
Stephens,!2004),!poor&health,&and&social&isolation!(Tarasuk,!2001).!Although&
research&initially&focused&on&individual&and&household&characteristics,&there&
have&also&been&efforts&to&explore&the&role&of&contextual&factors&in&contributing&to&
food&security&outcomes.&Such&efforts&have&variously&examined&the&role&of&food&
assistance&programs,&welfare&policies,&and&economic&and&social&contexts,&
generally&focusing&on&one&or&another&of&these&factors&rather&than&using&a&more&
integrative&approach&that&simultaneously&considers&multiple&factors.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
207&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Reductions&of&welfare&and&mobility&contribute&to&food&
insecurity.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Other!research!has!examined!linkages!between!welfare!policies!and!food!security.!
Results!are!ambivalent,!though!at!least!some!research&finds&a&link&between&
reductions&in&welfare&benefits&and&increases&in&food&insecurity!(Cook!et!al.,!2002;!
Borjas,!2001).!Finally,!evidence&suggests&that&economic&and&social&contexts&at&the&
state&and&sub`state&levels&are&linked&to&food&insecurity.!Tapogna,!Suter,!Nord,!and!
Leachman!(2004)!find!that!state&differences&in&residential&mobility,&
unemployment,&and&housing&costs&are&strong&predictors&of&state&hunger&
rates.!Looking!at!subYstate!factors,!Bernell,!Weber,!and!Edwards!(2004)!find!that!food&
insecurity&in&Oregon&is&more&common&in&the&context&of&high&unemployment&and&
low&wages,!as!well!as!among!households!experiencing!greater!residential!mobility.!
Finally,!Yang!and!Dunifon!(2004),!examining!data!from!rural!communities!in!New!
York,!find!that!access&to&food&outlets&is&not&linked&to&household&food&security.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
208&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&study&account&for&state&by&state&
variations.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Federal&nutrition&assistance&programs`including&the&Food&Stamp&program,&the&
School&Breakfast&and&Lunch&programs,&and&summer&food&programs`represent&a&
major&policy&commitment&to&meeting&the&food`related&needs&of&vulnerable&
segments&of&the&population.!These!programs!vary!in!important!ways!from!state!to!
state,!and!even!from!community!to!community,!such!that!households!in!different!
geographic!locations!differ!in!the!availability!of!these!programs!as!sources!of!
support.!The&Food&Stamp&program,!for!instance,!has&nationwide&income&and&asset&
criteria,&but&states&and&localities&differ&in&other&criteria,&such&as&vehicle&
restrictions,&frequency&with&which&eligibility&recertification&is&required,&number&
and&location&and&hours&of&application&sites,&extent&of&outreach&about&program&
availability,&and&job&search&requirements!(see,!for!example!Gabor,!Hardison,!
Botsko,!&!Bartlett,!2003).!Estimates!of!state!participation!rates!among!eligible!
persons!range!from!under!50!percent!to!over!70!percent!(Schirm!&!Castner,!2003),!
and!recent!research!has!linked!a!variety!of!state!program!characteristics!to!
participation!rates!(Kornfeld,!2002).!Other!programs!exhibit!still!greater!variation.!
The!availability!of!the!School!Breakfast!program!among!states!ranges!from!42!percent!
to!100!percent!of!schools,!and!the!ratio!of!lowYincome!children!participating!in!the!
breakfast!program!relative!to!those!participating!in!the!lunch!program!during!2001Y
2002!ranged!from!24!percent!to!57!percent!(Food!Research!and!Action!Center,!2002).&
Similar&variation&is&found&in&the&summer&meal&programs,&including&the&Summer&
Food&Service&program,&which&provides&meals&to&children&participating&in&camps&
and&other&recreational&programs,&and&the&Summer&School&Lunch&program,&which&
provides&meals&to&students&attending&summer&school.!In!contrast,!there!is!much!
less!state!variation!in!the!availability!of!the!National!School!Lunch!program,!and!it!is!
not!included!in!our!analyses.!
Champion)Briefs)
209&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&study&account&for&federal&food&
assistance.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Availability!and!accessibility!of!federal!food!assistance!and!nutrition!programs.!We!
are!interested!in!the!extent!to!which!differences!(across!states!and!over!time)!in!the!
availability!and!accessibility!of!food!assistance!programs!are!linked!to!differences!in!
food!security!outcomes.!We!characterize!the!availability!and!accessibility!of!Food!
Stamps,!School!Breakfast,!and!summer!meal!programs!with!indicators!of!stateYwide!
participation!levels.!We!operationalize!availability!and!accessibility!of!the!School!
Breakfast!program!by!the!average!number!of!students!eating!free!or!reducedYprice!
breakfast!per!day!for!each!100!students!eating!free!or!reducedYprice!School!Lunch.!
Likewise,!we&measure&the&availability&and&accessibility&of&the&Summer&Food&
Service&program&and&Summer&School&Lunch&program&by&the&average&daily&
participation&per&100&participants&in&the&free&or&reduced`price&lunch&program&
during&the&school&year.&Participation&in&School&Lunch&is&frequently&used&as&a&
benchmark&against&which&to&measure&School&Breakfast&and&summer&meal&
program&participation,&because&it&is&much&more&uniformly&available&and&more&
consistently&used.!In!the!case!of!the!Food!Stamp!program,!we!construct!a!measure!of!
average!monthly!number!of!food!stamp!recipients!divided!by!number!of!poor!persons!
(based!on!the!Census!Bureau's!Small!Area!Poverty!Estimates).2!There!are!potential!
biases!associated!with!these!variables.!We&treat&higher&participation&among&
eligible&families&as&a&proxy&for&greater&program&accessibility.!However,!it!is!also!
likely!that!programs!are!more!widely!used!by!families!with!greater!need,!even!after!
controlling!for!observable!characteristics.!If!this!is!the!case,!our!estimates!of!the!
relationship!between!program!participation!and!food!insecurity!would!be!biased!
Champion)Briefs)
210&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
downward,!making!such!relationships!more!difficult!to!detect.!Note,!though,!that!
unobserved!characteristics!that!contribute!to!program!participation!are!only!a!
problem!to!the!extent!that!they!differ!systematically!across!locations,!net!of!other!
variables!in!the!model.!Our&model&includes&several&measures&of&aggregate&well`
being!(see!below)!that&help&control&for&differences&in&need&across&locations.3!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
211&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Summer&meal&programs&lower&risk&for&food&insecurity.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Table!2!presents!coefficients!and!odds!ratios!from!the!random!intercept!model!
(Equation!3).!Most!of!the!household!variables!emerge!as!significant!predictors!of!food!
insecurity,!largely!consistent!with!existing!research.!Important&predictors&of&food&
insecurity&include&lower&income,&renting&versus&owning&a&home,&single&mother&
status,&more&children,&lower&education,&having&a&disabled&person&or&a&noncitizen&
in&the&household,&and&race/ethnicity&other&than&non`Hispanic&white&or&Asian.!
Also!in!Table!2!are!the!coefficients!and!odds!ratios!for!the!contextual!variables.&
Looking&first&at&variables&characterizing&availability&and&accessibility&of&federal&
nutrition&assistance&programs,&we&find&that&greater&state&rates&of&participation&
in&both&the&Summer&Food&Service&program&and&the&Summer&School&Lunch&
program&are&associated&with&a&lower&risk&of&food&insecurity.!As!discussed!above,!
these!variables!represent!the!extent!to!which!summer!meal!programs!are!used!by!
lowYincome!children,!and!thus!are!intended!to!capture!variation!in!the!availability,!
accessibility,!and!desirability!of!such!programs.!The!interpretation,!then,!is!
that!households&in&states&with&more&widely&utilized&summer&meal&programs&have&
lower&risk&of&food&insecurity.!In!contrast,!we&find&no&relationship&between&the&
extent&of&state`level&participation&in&either&the&Food&Stamp&or&the&School&
Breakfast&program&and&food&security&outcomes.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
212&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Taxes&increase&food&insecurity.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
We!also!find!some!evidence&that&tax&policy&is&associated&with&food&security.!Our&
results&suggest&that&the&greater&the&state&tax&burden&on&low`income&families,&the&
greater&the&risk&of&food&insecurity,!with&each&percentage`point&increase&in&the&
lowincome&tax&burden&associated&with&a&1.7&percent&increase&in&the&odds&of&food&
insecurity.!The!overall!tax!burden,!in!contrast,!is!not!significantly!related!to!food!
insecurity.!State!economic!characteristics!are!strongly!linked!to!food!insecurity!in!this!
model.!Median&rent&is&among&the&strongest&predictors:&results&imply&that&a&$100&
increase&in&median&rent&is&associated&with&a&17.5&percent!increase&in&the&odds&of&
food&insecurity.!Focusing!on!job!availability!and!quality,!we!find!that!higher!average!
wages!are!linked!to!lower!food!insecurity,!whereas!higher!unemployment!rates!are!
linked!to!higher!food!insecurity.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
213&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
AT&Libertarian&NC&`&There&is&not&significant&relationship&
between&tax&burden&and&food&insecurity.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Focusing&on&tax&policy,&we&find&that&the&low`income&tax&burden&is&no&longer&a&
significant&predictor&of&overall&food&insecurity;!it&does,!however,!appear!
tostrengthen&the&relationship&between&low`income&status&and&food&insecurity`
low`income&households&have&a&greater&risk&of&food&insecurity&when&the&low`
income&tax&burden&is&higher.!This&is&consistent&with&our&expectations.!As!
before,!we&find&no&significant&relationship&between&the&overall&tax&burden&and&
the&risk&of&food&insecurity.!Turning!to!economic!characteristics,!we&again&find&that&
higher&average&wages&are&linked&to&lower&odds&of&food&insecurity.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
214&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Stability&is&key&`&unemployment&is&not&directly&linked&to&
insecurity.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
The&unemployment&rate&is&no&longer&linked&to&the&overall&food&insecurity&rate;&
however,&results&suggest&that&higher&unemployment&may&exacerbate&the&
detrimental&impact&of&low&income&on&food&insecurity.!Median!rent!continues!to!
have!a!strong!impact!on!food!insecurity,!but!with!no!differential!impacts!for!particular!
income!groups.!We!also!find!that!higher&poverty&rates&are&linked&to&lower&food&
insecurity&among&near`poor&and&low`income&households.&This&could&indicate&
that&the&cost&of&living&is&lower&in&high`poverty&areas,&a&situation&that&could&
contribute&to&greater&food&security&for&economically&vulnerable&families!(Nord,!
2003a).!Finally,!looking!at!social!context,!we&find&that&greater&residential&stability&
in&the&state&continues&to&be&linked&to&lower&food&insecurity.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
215&
AFF:&Poverty&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Family&who&are&not&poor&still&struggle&with&food&security.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
More!surprising,!perhaps,!is!the!finding!that!context&matters&most&for&families&that&
are&economically&vulnerable&yet&not&poor.!Our!results!suggest!that!such!families&
may&benefit&even&more&than&other&households&from&a&context&characterized&by&a&
more&accessible&Food&Stamp&program,&a&lower&tax&burden,&and&a&stronger&labor&
market.!This&pattern&of&results&suggests&that&there&may&be&a&particularly&
vulnerable&segment&of&the&population,&those&who&are&in&precarious&financial&
circumstances&yet&who&have&not&fallen&into&poverty,&whose&ability&to&meet&food`
related&needs&is&most&affected&by&the&economic&and&policy&context.!Previous!
research!has!not!examined!whether!certain!subYgroups!of!the!population!are!
especially!susceptible!to!contextual!factors;!doing!so!is!an!important!contribution!of!
this!work.!
!
!
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Race&is&crucial&in&food&studies.&
Slocum,!Rachel.!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.!2010.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!
http://phg.sagepub.com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/content/35/3/303!
The&study&of&race&is&critical&to&understanding&food.!Bringing!together!antiYracist!
theory!and!food!research,!this!paper!proposes!that!we&can&better&understand&
farming&and&provisioning,&tasting!and!picking,!eating!and!being!eaten,!going&
hungry!and!gardening!by&paying&attention&to&race.!If!food!studies!is!understood!
narrowly,!it!will!be!difficult!to!see!the!variety!and!abundance!of!scholarship!on!race!
and!food!that!exists.!By!‘food’,!I!mean!all!the!processes!that!make!animal,!vegetable!or!
mineral!into!something!to!eat!and!then!all!that!is!involved!in!what!happens!next!to!
bodies!and!societies.!Food&must&be&understood&within&circulations&of&power&and&
race&must&be&analyzed&with&a&keen&awareness&as&to&what&is&politically&at&stake&in&
the&use&of&this&concept.!In&making&explicit&the&centrality&of&race&to&the&study&of&
food,&one&might&ask&what&is&race!politically,!ecologically,!institutionally!or!
historically!in&this&context,&and&what&does&that&definition&mean&to&our&subject&of&
study?&We&might&ask&what&does&food&become&when&we&consider&race&and,&
conversely,&how&might&we&view&race&differently&through&food&practices?!What!
difference!does!race!make!in!the!fields!where!food!is!grown,!the!places!it!is!sold!and!
the!manner!in!which!it!is!eaten?!!
!
!
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The&current&status&of&food&security&threatens&the&sovereignty&
of&indigenous&peoples.&
,!UnitedNationsOfficeoftheCommissionerforHumanRights.!"The!Right!To!Adequate!
Food."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!34.!NO!DATE.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.pdf>.!
Understanding!what!the&right&to&food!means&to&indigenous&peoples&is,!
however,!more&complex&than&merely!examining!statistics!on!hunger&and&
malnutrition.!Indigenous!peoples!have!their!own!concepts!of!what!constitutes!
adequate!food,!and!their!aspirations!are!divorced!from!mainstream!development!and!
conventional!economic!criteria.!Indigenous&perceptions&of&livelihood&security&
are!inextricably!grounded&in&their&sociocultural&traditions&and&their&special&
relationship&to&ancestral&territories&and&resources.!Food!and!its!procurement!and!
consumption!are!often!an!important!part!of!their!culture,!as!well!as!of!social,!
economic!and!political!organization.!The!realization!of!indigenous!peoples’!right!to!
food!depends!crucially!on!their!access!to!and!control!over!the!natural!resources!on!
their!ancestral!lands,!as!they!often!feed!themselves!by!cultivating!these!lands!or!by!
collecting!food,!fishing,!hunting!or!raising!animals!on!them.!The&confiscation&of&lands&
without&the&free,&prior&and&informed&consent&of&the&indigenous&
peoples!concerned!and!the!lack&of&legal&recognition&of&indigenous&forms&of&
landownership&are&serious&obstacles&to&the&realization&of&the&right&to&food.!It!is,!
therefore,!important!to!provide!indigenous!peoples!with!legal!titles!to!their!ancestral!
lands.!According!to!Convention!169!of!the!International!Labour!Organization!(ILO)!
concerning!Indigenous!and!Tribal!Peoples!in!Independent!Countries,!“Governments!
shall!take!steps!as!necessary!to!identify!the!lands!which!the!peoples!concerned!
traditionally!occupy,!and!to!guarantee!effective!protection!of!their!rights!of!ownership!
and!possession”!(art.!14!(2)).!The!United!Nations!Declaration!on!the!Rights!of!
Indigenous!Peoples,!adopted!in!2007,!also!affirms!that!indigenous&peoples&have&the&
right&to&use&and&develop&the&lands&that&they&possess&by&reason&of&traditional&
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
ownership!(art.!26)!and!that!States!should!give!due!recognition!to!indigenous!land!
tenure!systems!(art.!27).!Indigenous!peoples’!access!to!and!control!over!plant!and!
animal!genetic!resources,!such!as!seeds!traditionally!cultivated!by!indigenous!
communities,!as!well!as!to!community!knowledge!gained!over!generations!are!also!
threatened.!There!is!concern!that!recent&developments&in&international&
intellectual&property&rights&regimes,!such!as!the!World!Trade!Organization’s!
Agreement!on!TradeYrelated!Aspects!of!Intellectual!Property!Rights!(TRIPS),!may&
protect&“inventions”&of&business&enterprises&and&research&institutions&based&on&
indigenous&communities’&traditional&resource&and&knowledge&and&deprive&them&
of&free&access&and&use&of&such&resource&and&knowledge.30!The!FAO!Right!to!Food!
Guidelines!suggest!that!States!should!take!measures!to!“prevent!the!erosion!of!and!
ensure!the!conservation!and!sustainable!use!of!genetic!resources!for!food!and!
agriculture”,!including!for!the!protection!of!traditional!knowledge!and!equitable!
participation!in!sharing!benefits!through!the!participation!of!local!and!indigenous!
communities!in!relevant!decisionYmaking!(Guideline!8).!The!United!Nations!
Declaration!on!the!Rights!of!Indigenous!Peoples!also!recognizes!indigenous!peoples’!
right!to!maintain,!control,!protect!and!develop!the!manifestations!of!their!sciences,!
technologies!and!cultures,!including!genetic!resources,!seeds,!and!knowledge!of!the!
properties!of!fauna!and!flora!(art.!31).!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
Education&is&key&to&undo&the&racist&view&of&the&US&food&
system.&
Walter,!Pierre.!"Educational!Alternatives!In!Food!Production,!Knowledge!And!
Consumption:!The!Public!Pedagogies!Of!Growing!Power!And!Tsyunhehkw."!
Australian!Journal!of!Adult!Learning!Volume!52,!Number!3.!January!11,!2012.!
Web.!February!08,!2015.!<http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1000194>.!
The!two!cases!present!an!educational&curriculum!which&is&in&part&about&learning,&
re`learning&and&re`valuing&traditional&foodwork!–!including!growing,!preparing,!
processing!and!harvesting!food,!but!also!eating!food:!as!reYenvisioned!practices,!
these!are!in!fact!pedagogical!acts.!This&pedagogy&then&helps&not&only&to&undo&the&
legacies&of&racism,&colonialism&and&dispossession&and&the&whiteness’&upon&which&
the&US&food&system&is&built!(Slocum!2006),!but&also&to&establish&a&more&just&
system&of&food&security,&cultural&identity&and&health&for&racialised&groups!such!
the!Oneida!and!marginalised!African!American!urban!youth.!Part!of!the!intent!of!
organizing!the!many!shared!meals,!rituals!and!food!ceremonies!in!the!life!of!
Tsyunhehkw^!(e.g.!the!Oneida!Harvest!and!Husking!Bee),!for!example,!is!to!teach!a!
common!Oneida!identity!through!the!act!of!preparing!and!eating!traditional!
foods.!This&sort&of&learning,!as!it!is!described!by!the!Oneida!organizers!and!public!
descriptions!of!Tsyunhehkw^,!is&partly&about&the&recovery&of&lost&knowledge&and&
cultural&practices,&but&is&also&about&embodied,&relational&and&spiritual&learning&
alongside&others&in&the&community;!it!is!means!of!reviving!collective!Oneida!identity!
through!food.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
220&
AFF:&Racism&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Public&pedagogy&disrupts&whiteness&in&the&food&movement.&
Walter,!Pierre.!"Educational!Alternatives!In!Food!Production,!Knowledge!And!
Consumption:!The!Public!Pedagogies!Of!Growing!Power!And!Tsyunhehkw."!
Australian!Journal!of!Adult!Learning!Volume!52,!Number!3.!January!11,!2012.!
Web.!February!08,!2015.!<http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1000194>.!
It!is!evident!from!this!study!that!Tsyunhehkw^!and!Growing!Power!act!
as!sites!of!public!pedagogy!which!disrupt&and&create&educational&alternatives&to&
dominant&racialised&and&classed&ideologies&and&practices&in&the&U.S.&food&system.!
As!such,!they&contribute&to&more&critical,&socially&aware&conceptualizations&and&
practices&of&production,&distribution&and&consumption&in&the&food&movement,!as&
it&moves&away&from&its&white,&middle&class&foundations&toward&more&broadly&
inclusive&incarnations.!These!pedagogies!are!cognizant!of!historical!legacies!of!
racism,!colonialism!and!class!oppression!and!work!to!overcome!them.!By!contrast,!it!is!
not!clear!how!they!take!up!an!understanding!of!gender!oppression!in!their!
educational!work.!In!both!cases,!the&importance&of&informal&and&
transformative!adult!learning&is&evident&in&their&aims,&curriculum&and&
educational&processes.&How&and&where&this&learning&occurs&in&practice,&and&how&
it&might&be&encouraged&by&adult&educators;&that&is,&how&these&sites&mobilise&
people&to&social&action,&who&is&mobilised,&and&with&what&results,&is&fertile&ground&
for&further&research,&both&in&these&and&other&sites&of&public&pedagogy&in&the&food&
movement.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
221&
AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
On&pain&of&contradiction&we&must&recognize&the&right&to&
subsistence&as&a&general&duty.&
Peffer,!Rodney.!"WORLD!HUNGER,!MORAL!THEORY,!AND!RADICAL!RAWLSIANISM."!
International!Journal!of!Politics!and!Ethics.!January!03,!2003.!Web.!February!
06,!2015.!
<http://home.sandiego.edu/~peffer/Essays/World%20Hunger,%20Moral%20
Theory,%20&%20Radical%20Rawlsianism.doc>.!
It!must!be!recognized,!it!seems!to!me,!that!we&have&a&general&duty&(i.e.&a&duty&
towards&all&humans,&not&just&towards&those&with&whom&we&are&socially&close)&to&
aid&people&when&they&are&in&dire&necessity&and&a&social&duty!(i.e.!a!duty!of!social!
justice)&to&establish&social&arrangements&that&address&the&standard&threats&that&
we&might&all&face.&Arguably,&no&rational&and&reasonable&person&would&deny&this&
because&all&rational&and&reasonable&persons&know&that&the&exigencies&of&human&
existence&mean&that&we&all&may&need&such&help&at&some&point&in&our&lives.&
Therefore,&out&of&respect&for&ourselves&and&others&we&must&recognize&the&duty&to&
aid&those&in&dire&necessity!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
222&
AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
The&global&food&system&links&environmentalism&with&social&
justice.&
Gottlieb,!Robert.!""First!Feed!The!Face":!Environmental!Justice!And!Community!Food!
Security."!Antipode,!Vol.!28,!No.!2.!December!04,!1995.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://harvey.binghamton.edu/~pgay/etext/CommuityFoodSecurity.pdf>.!
More!broadly!stated,!food&system&issues&are&significantly,!though!not!
exclusively,!environmental&questions.!The!globalization!of!the!food!system!and&the&
influences&it&has&had&on&particular&actors!within!the!system!(farmers,!marketing,!
retail,!etc.)!has&created&major&environmental&as&well&as&equity!or!
”justice”impacts.!This!includes!the!way!food!is!grown,!the!distance!it!travels!to!reach!
its!final!end!market,!the!nature!of!the!food!product!(or!its!durability,!as!Friedmann!
describes!it)!and!what!food!is!available!or!accessible!(Friedmann,!1994;!Koc,!1994)&
Each&of&those&food&system&elements&contain&an&environmental&core!(e.g.,!
production!hazards,!land!use!considerations,!public!health!aspects,!etc.)!as&well&as&
broader&social&questions!(community!access!and!control!of!a!production!system;!
sustainable!development;!economic!security)!that!have!also!become!central!
environmental!justice!considerations.!A&food&security&agenda&seeks&to&address&
those&questions!(the!distance/durability!factors)!in!part!by!offering!a!counter!
paradigm!(what!Friedmann!(1993)!calls!locality!and!seasonality,!or!Kloppenburg,!
Hendrickson,!and!Stevenson!(1994)!define!as!a!”regional!foodshed”!approach).!
Further,!this&alternative!food!system!or!”food!regime”!represents&significant&
environmental!(reduced!hazards,!urban!greening,!etc.)!and&”justice”&
benefits&(improved!diet,!greater!community!control!over!resources,!etc).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
223&
AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
India’s&food&security&program&is&financially&unsustainable.&
Dhume,!Sadanand.!"New!Delhi's!Hunger!Games."!The!Wall!Street!Journal.!December!
04,!1995.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323393804578557050745
156758>.!
To!start!with,!it's!unaffordable.!The&government&claims&the&program&will&cost!about!
$22!billion!a!year,!or!$4.5&billion&more&than&an&existing&food&subsidy&program!that!
covers!325!million!people.!But&the&Commission&for&Agricultural&Costs&and&Prices,!
itself!a!government!body,!says&the&real&cost&may&be&high&as&$42&billion&per&year.!
Meanwhile,!Finance!Minister!Palaniappan!Chidambaram!is!telling!foreign!business!
and!government!leaders!that!Delhi&is&serious&about&reining&in&its&fiscal&deficit&
(budgeted&at&5.2%&of&GDP!in!the!fiscal!year!ended!March!31).!It's!hard!to!see!how!he!
can!square!that!assertion!with!such!a!large!new!entitlement.!Even&if&India&could&
afford&such&spending,&the&program&would&still&be&illogical.!Simply!put,!hunger&is&
yesterday's&battle.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
224&
AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
Income&Generating&activities&as&a&method&of&food&security&can&
be&used&to&empower&people&with&disabilities.&
Williams,!Fiona.!"Mainstreaming!Disability!In!Bangladesh."!New!Agriculturist.!
December!04,!1995.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!<http://www.newY
ag.info/en/focus/focusItem.php?a=3072>.!
Group&Development&Agents&(GDA)&supported&the&functioning&of&the&groups,&by&
sensitising&members&on&disability&and&making&sure&that&people&with&disabilities&
were&included&in&all&group&activities.!GDA's&were&assisted&by&a&team&of&
specialised&trainers&who&provided&group&members&with&information&to&help&
them&select&and&implement&income&generating&activities.!People!with!disabilities!
were!also!assessed!and!disability!workers!decided!whether!physiotherapy,!medical!
treatment!or!specific!devices!would!be!needed!to!improve!their!ability!to!take!part!in!
WVG!activities.Molida!and!Hena!chose!to!raise!chickens.!After!receiving!the!birds!and!
training!on!how!to!raise!chickens,!they!were!soon!able!to!eat!and!sell!the!eggs!and!
provide!a!few!hens!to!another!group!member.!In!return!they!received!a!goat!from!
another!group!member.!With!the!profit!they!made,!they!were!able!to!rent!a!plot!of!
land!and!start!growing!pumpkins.!They!also!keep!ducks.!Now,!generating!their!own!
income,!they!are!no!longer!fully!dependent!on!their!brother.&The&success&of&women&
with&disabilities&in&income&generation&activities&has&been&equal&to&the&success&
rate&of&women&without&disabilities.&Some&GDAs&have&reported&that&women&with&
disabilities&took&their&activities&more&seriously&and&were&therefore&able&to&
achieve&better&results.&"Earning&their&own&income&has&proved&to&be&a&very&
empowering&exercise&for&women&with&disabilities,"&Bruijn&explains.&"They&are&
often&seen&as&a&burden&to&the&family,&but&once&they&are&able&to&contribute&to&the&
family&income&they&get&more&respect.&So&the&income&generating&activities&have&
not&only&improved&their&economic&status,&but&also&their&social&status&and&self`
confidence."!
Champion)Briefs)
225&
AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
Income&Generating&activities&as&a&method&of&food&security&can&
be&used&to&empower&people&with&disabilities.&
Williams,!Fiona.!"Mainstreaming!Disability!In!Bangladesh."!New!Agriculturist.!
December!04,!1995.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!<http://www.newY
ag.info/en/focus/focusItem.php?a=3072>.!
Group&Development&Agents&(GDA)&supported&the&functioning&of&the&groups,&by&
sensitising& members&on&disability&and&making&sure&that&people&with&disabilities&
were&included&in&all&group&activities.!GDA's&were&assisted&by&a&team&of&
specialised&trainers&who&provided&group&members&with&information&to&help&
them&select&and&implement&income&generating&activities.!People!with!disabilities!
were!also!assessed!and!disability!workers!decided!whether!physiotherapy,!medical!
treatment!or!specific!devices!would!be!needed!to!improve!their!ability!to!take!part!in!
WVG!activities.Molida!and!Hena!chose!to!raise!chickens.!After!receiving!the!birds!and!
training!on!how!to!raise!chickens,!they!were!soon!able!to!eat!and!sell!the!eggs!and!
provide!a!few!hens!to!another!group!member.!In!return!they!received!a!goat!from!
another!group!member.!With!the!profit!they!made,!they!were!able!to!rent!a!plot!of!
land!and!start!growing!pumpkins.!They!also!keep!ducks.!Now,!generating!their!own!
income,!they!are!no!longer!fully!dependent!on!their!brother.The&success&of&women&
with&disabilities&in&income&generation&activities&has&been&equal&to&the&success&
rate&of&women&without&disabilities.&Some&GDAs&have&reported&that&women&with&
disabilities&took&their&activities&more&seriously&and&were&therefore&able&to&
achieve&better&results.&"Earning&their&own&income&has&proved&to&be&a&very&
empowering&exercise&for&women&with&disabilities,"&Bruijn&explains.&"They&are&
often&seen&as&a&burden&to&the&family,&but&once&they&are&able&to&contribute&to&the&
family&income&they&get&more&respect.&So&the&income&generating&activities&have&
not&only&improved&their&economic&status,&but&also&their&social&status&and&self`
confidence."!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
226&
AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
Increased&income&and&food&consumption&leads&to&increased&
beef&consumption.&
Schroeder,!Ted.!"Income!Growth!And!International!Meat!Consumption."!Journal!of!
International!Food!and!Agribusiness!Marketing.!September!01,!1996.!Web.!
February!07,!2015.!
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J047v07n03_02?journalCode=
wifa20#preview!
With& technological& adoption& and& trade& liberalization,& per& capita& incomes& have&
grown& rapidly& in& industrialized& countries.& Income& growth& has& resulted& in&
increased& per& capita& meat& consumption.& Projecting& future& meat& consumption&
requires& quantifying& the& relationship& between& per& capita& income& and& meat&
consumption.&This&study&estimates&the&relationship&between&income&growth&and&
meat& consumption& using& data& from& 32& countries.! Beef,! pork,! poultry,! and! lamb!
income!elasticities!declined!at!different!rates!as!income!levels!increased.!High&income&
countries& have& experienced& relatively& constant& per& capita& meat& consumption.&
Low& income& counmes& with& low& income& growth& have& had& stagnant& meat&
consumption.& Low& income& countries& with& growing& incomes& have& experienced&
increasing& meat& consumption.! Countries! such! as! China! characterized! by! relatively!
large! income! growth! and! moderate! population! growth! have! experienced! large!
increases!in!total!meat!consumption.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
227&
AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
Livestock&used&to&satisfy&beef&demand&is&the&leading&cause&of&
warming.&
Walsh,!Jason.!"How!Does!Meat!In!The!Diet!Take!An!Environmental!Toll?."!Scientific!
American.!September!01,!1996.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=meatYandY
environment)hs>.!
By&the&numbers,&Pachauri&is&absolutely&right.&In&a&2006&report,&the&U.N.&Food&and&
Agriculture&Organization&(FAO)&concluded&that&worldwide&livestock&farming&
generates&18%&of&the&planet's&greenhouse&gas&emissions&—&by&comparison,&all&
the&world's&cars,&trains,&planes&and&boats&account&for&a&combined&13%&of&
greenhouse&gas&emissions.&Much&of&livestock's&contribution&to&global&warming&
come&from&deforestation,&as&the&growing&demand&for&meat&results&in&trees&being&
cut&down&to&make&space&for&pasture&or&farmland&to&grow&animal&feed.&Livestock&
takes&up&a&lot&of&space&—&nearly&one`third&of&the&earth's&entire&landmass.&In&Latin&
America,&the&FAO&estimates&that&some&70%&of&former&forest&cover&has&been&
converted&for&grazing.&Lost&forest&cover&heats&the&planet,&because&trees&absorb&
CO2&while&they're&alive&—&and&when&they're&burned&or&cut&down,&the&greenhouse&
gas&is&released&back&into&the&atmosphere.&&Then&there's&manure&—&all&that&animal&
waste&generates&nitrous&oxide,&a&greenhouse&gas&that&has&296&times&the&warming&
effect&of&CO2.&And&of&course,&there&is&cow&flatulence:&as&cattle&digest&grass&or&
grain,&they&produce&methane&gas,&of&which&they&expel&up&to&200&L&a&day.&Given&
that&there&are&100&million&cattle&in&the&U.S.&alone,&and&that&methane&has&23&times&
the&warming&impact&of&CO2,&the&gas&adds&up.&&
!
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An&overwhelming&majority&of&Americans&across&all&
ideological&groups&support&the&government's&role&in&
ensuring&food&security.&
,!FoodResearchandActionCenter.!"Americans'!Views!On!Hunger."!Hart!Research.!
January!10,!2014.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://frac.org/pdf/frac_tyson_oct_2014_public_view_hunger_poll.pdf>.!
A&majority&look&to&the&government&for&leadership,&and&recognize&the&strengths&of&
the&federal&nutrition&programs.&The&belief&that&the&government&needs&to&display&
leadership&in&the&fight&against&hunger&is&very&strong.&More&than&80&percent&of&
Democrats&and&70&percent&of&Independents&look&to&the&federal&and&local&
government&to&lead,&and&50&percent&of&Republicans&believe&that&the&federal&
government&has&responsibility.&61&percent&agree&that&“we&should&support&and&
improve&government`sponsored&food&assistance&programs&so&that&more&people&
who&are&struggling&can&get&the&help&they&need.”&Eighty`one&percent&of&Democrats,&
60&percent&of&Independents,&and&39&percent&of&Republicans&agree&with&this&
statement.!People!believe!that!the!child!nutrition!programs!–!especially!school!meals!
and!the!Women,!Infants,!and!Children!(WIC)!program!–!are!leading!to!better!outcomes!
for!children!by!helping!them!learn!and!improving!their!overall!health!and!wellY
being.!By&more&than&three&to&one,&Americans&believe&that&spending&on&such&
programs&should&increase&(50&percent)&rather&than&decrease&(15&percent).&!
!
!
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Concerns&of&overpopulation&are&based&on&a&false&
understanding&of&how&populations&sustain&themselves.&
Ellis,!Erle.!"Overpopulation!Is!Not!The!Problem."!NY!Times.!January!10,!2014.!Web.!
February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/14/opinion/overpopulationYisYnotYtheY
problem.html?_r=0,!>.!
MANY&scientists&believe&that&by&transforming&the&earth’s&natural&landscapes,&we&
are&undermining&the&very&life&support&systems&that&sustain&us.&Like&bacteria!in!a!
petri!dish,!our!exploding!numbers!are!reaching!the!limits!of!a!finite!planet,!with!dire!
consequences.!Disaster!looms!as!humans!exceed!the!earth’s!natural!carrying!capacity.!
Clearly,!this!could!not!be!sustainable.!This!is!nonsense.!Even!today,!I!hear!some!of!my!
scientific!colleagues!repeat!these!and!similar!claims!—!often!unchallenged.!And!once,!I!
too!believed!them.!Yet!these&claims&demonstrate&a&profound&misunderstanding&of&
the&ecology&of&human&systems.&The&conditions&that&sustain&humanity&are&not&
natural&and&never&have&been.&Since!prehistory,&human&populations&have&used&
technologies&and&engineered&ecosystems&to&sustain&populations&well&beyond&the&
capabilities&of&unaltered&“natural”&ecosystems.&The&evidence&from&archaeology&is&
clear.!Our!predecessors!in!the!genus!Homo!used!social!hunting!strategies!and!tools!of!
stone!and!fire!to!extract!more!sustenance!from!landscapes!than!would!otherwise!be!
possible.!And,!of!course,!Homo!sapiens!went!much!further,!learning!over!generations,!
once!their!preferred!big!game!became!rare!or!extinct,!to!make!use!of!a!far!broader!
spectrum!of!species.!They!did!this!by!extracting!more!nutrients!from!these!species!by!
cooking!and!grinding!them,!by!propagating!the!most!useful!species!and!by!burning!
woodlands!to!enhance!hunting!and!foraging!success.!Even!before!the!last!ice!age!had!
ended,!thousands!of!years!before!agriculture,!hunterYgatherer!societies!were!well!
established!across!the!earth!and!depended!increasingly!on!sophisticated!technological!
strategies!to!sustain!growing!populations!in!landscapes!long!ago!transformed!by!their!
ancestors.&The&planet’s&carrying&capacity&for&prehistoric&human&hunter`gatherers&
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was&probably&no&more&than&100&million.&But&without&their&Paleolithic&
technologies&and&ways&of&life,&the&number&would&be&far&less&—&perhaps&a&few&tens&
of&millions.!The!rise!of!agriculture!enabled!even!greater!population!growth!requiring!
ever!more!intensive!landYuse!practices!to!gain!more!sustenance!from!the!same!old!
land.!At!their!peak,!those!agricultural!systems!might!have!sustained!as!many!as!three!
billion!people!in!poverty!on!nearYvegetarian!diets.!The!world!population!is!now!
estimated!at!7.2!billion.!But!with!current!industrial!technologies,!the!Food!and!
Agriculture!Organization!of!the!United!Nations!has!estimated!that!the!more!than!nine!
billion!people!expected!by!2050!as!the!population!nears!its!peak!could!be!supported!
as!long!as!necessary!investments!in!infrastructure!and!conducive!trade,!antiYpoverty!
and!food!security!policies!are!in!place.!Who!knows!what!will!be!possible!with&the&
technologies&of&the&future?&The&important&message&from&these&rough&numbers&
should&be&clear.&There&really&is&no&such&thing&as&a&human&carrying&capacity.&We&
are&nothing&at&all&like&bacteria&in&a&petri&dish.&Why&is&it&that&highly&trained&
natural&scientists&don’t&understand&this?&My&experience&is&likely&to&be&
illustrative.&Trained&as&a&biologist,&I&learned&the&classic&mathematics&of&
population&growth&—&that&populations&must&have&their&limits&and&must&
ultimately&reach&a&balance&with&their&environments.!Not!to!think!so!would!be!to!
misunderstand!physics:!there!is!only!one!earth,!of!course!!It!was!only!after!years!of!
research!into!the!ecology!of!agriculture!in!China!that!I!reached!the!point!where!my!
observations!forced!me!to!see!beyond!my!biologists’s!blinders.!Unable!to!explain!how!
populations!grew!for!millenniums!while!increasing!the!productivity!of!the!same!land,!I!
discovered!the!agricultural!economist!Ester!Boserup,!the!antidote!to!the!demographer!
and!economist!Thomas!Malthus!and!his!theory!that!population!growth!tends!to!outrun!
the!food!supply.!Her!theories!of!population!growth!as!a!driver!of!land!productivity!
explained!the!data!I!was!gathering!in!ways!that!Malthus!could!never!do.!While!
remaining!an!ecologist,!I!became!a!fellow!traveler!with!those!who!directly!study!longY
term!humanYenvironment!relationships!—!archaeologists,!geographers,!
environmental!historians!and!agricultural!economists.!The!science!of!human!
sustenance!is!inherently!a!social!science.!Neither!physics!nor!chemistry!nor!even!
biology!is!adequate!to!understand!how!it!has!been!possible!for!one!species!to!reshape!
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both!its!own!future!and!the!destiny!of!an!entire!planet.!This!is!the!science!of!the!
Anthropocene.!The!idea!that!humans!must!live!within!the!natural!environmental!
limits!of!our!planet!denies!the!realities!of!our!entire!history,!and!most!likely!the!
future.!Humans&are&niche&creators.&We&transform&ecosystems&to&sustain&
ourselves.&This&is&what&we&do&and&have&always&done.&Our&planet’s&human`
carrying&capacity&emerges&from&the&capabilities&of&our&social&systems&and&our&
technologies&more&than&from&any&environmental&limits.!Two!hundred!thousand!
years!ago!we!started!down!this!path.!The!planet!will!never!be!the!same.!It!is!time!for!
all!of!us!to!wake!up!to!the!limits!we!really!face:!the!social!and!technological!systems!
that!sustain!us!need!improvement.!There&is&no&environmental&reason&for&people&to&
go&hungry&now&or&in&the&future.&There&is&no&need&to&use&any&more&land&to&sustain&
humanity&—&increasing&land&productivity&using&existing&technologies&can&boost&
global&supplies&and&even&leave&more&land&for&nature&—&a&goal&that&is&both&more&
popular&and&more&possible&than&ever.&The&only&limits&to&creating&a&planet&that&
future&generations&will&be&proud&of&are&our&imaginations&and&our&social&
systems.!In!moving!toward!a!better!Anthropocene,!the!environment!will!be!what!we!
make!it.!
!!
!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Justice&requires&distribution&of&food.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
On!the!other!hand,!those!more!concerned!about!participative!justice!are!less!
concerned!about!endpoints!and!are!more!concerned!about!process.!Rather!than!
focusing!on!specific!distribution!of!valued!and!disvalued!things,!participative&justice&
focuses&on&how&differences&in&power&or&recognition&between&different&
individuals&and&communities&lead&to&those&distributions.!For!one!adopting!a!more!
participative!approach!to!justice!achieving&justice&is&not&only&a&matter&of&
redistributing&goods,&it&is&a&matter&of&correcting&disparities&in&social,&political,&
and&economic&standing&to&allow&those&who&have&been&historically&
underprivileged&to&advocate&for&their&concerns.!In!other!words,!one&who&favors&a&
more&participative&understanding&of&justice&would&require&more&than&
distributions&be&fair,&they&would&require&that&the&procedures&underlying&those&
distributions&fairly&include&all&relevant&parties&in&deciding&how&benefits&and&
burdens&are&shared.!There!have!been!a!number!of!reasons!given!for!framing!justice!
in!participative!terms.!One!that!is!suggested!by!Young!(1990)!is!that!people!are!
heterogeneous!when!it!comes!to!their!preferences!and!their!understanding!of!what!
counts!as!a!fair!distribution!of!benefits!and!burdens.!If&people&have&differing&
understandings&of&fairness&in&regards&to&distribution&then&it&is&unlikely&that&any&
given&distribution&would&be&universally&accessible.!Further,unless&one&includes&
an&adequately&broad&range&of&perspectives&in&decisions&regarding&distributions,&
distributions&would&tend&to&favor&those&included&in&decisions&and&disadvantage&
those&excluded.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
Food&justice&requires&a&system&when&individuals&are&
represented&in&its&governing.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
!
It&would&be&a&good&start&to&make&land&available&for&people&to&grow&food&and&to&
create&the&infrastructure&to&allow&for&the&development&of&local&food&systems.!Yet,!
one!could!do!this!while!largely!excluding!people!from!decisions!and!governing.!Many&
autocratic&regimes!such!as!the!Khmer!Rouge!in!Cambodiahave&redistributed&land&
and&resources&and&built&infrastructure&that&allowed&for&the&development&of&local&
food&systems.!However,&it&would&be&odd&to&say&that&those&living&under&those&
regimes&achieved&participative&food&justice.&Participative&food&justice&would&
require&something!more;!it!would!require&that&all&individuals&must&be&
substantively&included&in&the&governing&of&the&food&system&that&they&are&
dependent&upon.!The!suggestion!that!justice!requires!that!people!can!exercise!rights!
comes!closer!but!still!is!too!vague!for!an!adequately!participative!account!of!food!
justice.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Food&justice&shouldn’t&just&be&about&participation.&It&should&
also&be&about&participation.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
However,!Alkon!and!Agyeman!(2011b)!only!recognize!the!importance!of!participation!
orthogonally.!They!note!that!activism&on&the&part&of&the&individuals&living&with&
low`income&communities&or&communities&of&color&have&played&an&important&part&
in&achieving&food&justice.!But,!the!manner!in!which!they!suggest!food&problems&
should&be&understood&through&the&lens&of&food&justice&is&still&centered&on&
distribution&rather&than&participation.!Alkon!and!Agyeman!(2011b)!suggest!
that!through&a&food&justice&lens&that&analysis&of&food&systems&should&attend&to&the&
effect&of&race&and&class&in&the&production,&distribution,&and&consumption&of&
food.!This!only!calls!attention!to!various!categories!that!may!be!relevant!when!
examining!how!benefits!and!burdens!within!the!food!system!are!distributed.!It!does!
not!suggest!that!the!inequalities!in!the!food!system!should!also!be!understood!in!
terms!of!how!communities!of!color!and!lowYincome!communities!have!had!their!
perspectives!excluded!from!decisions!regarding!the!governing!of!the!food!system.!The!
continuing!emphasis!on!distribution!in!the!definition!of!food!justice!is!somewhat!
surprising.!As!I!will!show!below,!even&if&one&considers&the&work&of&those&who&have&
defined&food&justice&in&the&above&distributive&terms,&there&is&a&recognition&that&
the&inclusion&of&marginalized&perspectives&has&played&a&central&role&in&undoing&
distributional&disparities&and&that&the&genesis&of&many&distributional&disparities&
is&the&intentional&exclusion&of&various&groups&from&control&of&the&food&system.!
Given!such!recognition,!it!seems!that!food&justice&ought&to&be&defined&with&
participation&being&at&least&as&important&as&distribution.!
!
!
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Food&Security&is&promoted&by&a&welfare&state.&
Bastian,!Amber.!"The!Responsibilisation!Of!Food!Security:!What!Is!The!Problem!
Represented!To!Be?."!Health!Sociology!Review.!January!06,!2013.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!<http://ojs.eY
contentmanagement.com/index.php/hsr/article/view/2075>.!
A!converse!perspective!is!offered!through!a!focus!on!the!social!determinants!of!health!
and!governments’!role!to!intervene!to!ensure!its!citizens!are!afforded!equal!
opportunities!and!access!to!health!care!and!education.!The&provision&of&income&and&
housing&is&considered&the&responsibility&of&government,&which&is&a&move&back&
towards&a&role&for&‘big&government’&or&greater&government&intervention&in&free&
market&economies.!The!recent!World!Health!Organisation!commision!on!the!social!
determinants!of!health!(WHO,!2008)!highlights!how!health!inequalities!within!and!
between!countries!are!caused!by!an!unequal!distribution!of!power,!income,!goods!and!
access!to!services!as!a!result!of!poor!social!policies!and!programmes.!While!the!report!
acknowledges!economic!growth!of!a!country!is!undoubtedly!important,!as!it!provides!
required!resources!to!invest!in!the!improvement!of!the!lives!of!the!population,!it!
highlights!how!this!growth!alone!without!appropriate!social!policies!brings!little!
benefi!t!to!improving!the!unequal!distribution!of!goods!and!services.!Under&this&
perspective&poor&and&unequal&living&conditions,&including&unequal&access&to&
food,&are&the&consequence&of&inadequate&social&policies&and&programmes&and&
unfair&economic&arrangements.!In&order&to&improve&equal&access&to&goods&and&
services&an&increased&role&for&government&is&proposed&through&creating&a&strong&
public&sector&that&is&committed,&capable&and&adequately&financed.!In!order!to!
achieve!this,!strengthened!government!and!governance!is!required!along!with!
increased!private!sector!accountability!(Marmot,!Friel,!Bell,!Houweling,!&!Taylor,!
2008;!WHO,!2008).!This&increased&role&for&government&was&found&through&
stakeholder&discourse&on&addressing&the&social&structural&elements&of&food&
security&such&as&individual&financial&resources&versus&cost&of&food,&adequate&
cooking&and&food&preparation&facilities&and&greater&regulation&of&the&food&
industry&in&order&to&change&how&food&is&produced&and&sold.!
Champion)Briefs)
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Community&connections&are&key&to&food&security.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
We&expect&food&insecurity&to&be&lower&when&economic&conditions&are&more&
favorable.&Job&availability&and&quality&are&central,&not&only&because&of&the&direct&
impact&of&jobs&on&income,&but&also&because&quality&job&opportunities&reduce&
economic&uncertainty&and&increase&the&overall&economic&strength&of&a&
community.!Likewise,!the&cost&of&living&is&important.!There!is!substantial!
geographic!variation!in!costs,!particularly!in!housing,!and!this!has!important!
implications!for!the!availability!of!money!for!food.!Finally,&the&social&connections&
among&members&of&a&community&may&play&a&role&in&influencing&household&food&
security.&Social&support&represents&a&stock&of&resources`financial,&emotional,&
and&informational`on&which&households&can&rely&for&potential&assistance.!We!
expect!that!households&may&experience&less&food&insecurity&when&there&are&
strong&connections&among&community&members,&both&because&of&possibilities&
for&mutual&assistance&and&because&of&greater&access&to&information&about&
available&resources.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
Infrastructure&and&community&connections&are&key&to&
prevent&food&insecurity&`&studies&prove.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Overall,!findings&from&this&study&lend&strong&support&to&the&concept&of&a&food&
security&infrastructure&that&promotes&household&food&security&among&
community&members.!Results!are!intuitively!plausible,!but!also!shed!new!light!on!the!
factors!associated!with!food!insecurity.!It!makes!sense!that!food&assistance&
programs&would&have&a&beneficial&impact&on&food&security,&yet&such&a&
relationship&has&been&difficult&to&document&due&to&issues&of&self`selection&among&
potentially&eligible&persons.!Our!results!confirm!that!food&insecurity&is&less&
common&when&the&Food&Stamp&and&Summer&Nutrition&programs&are&more&widely&
available!and!utilized,!providing!new!evidence!to!policymakers!about!the!benefits!of!
these!programs.!Likewise,!it&makes&sense&that&food&insecurity&would&be&worse&
when&families&have&less&disposable&income,&such&as&would&happen&in&a&context&
characterized&by&high&housing&costs&and&a&high&tax&burden.!Our!results!confirm!
this!pattern,!and!importantly,!provide!estimates!of!the!magnitude!of!the!relationship.!
!
!
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Affordable&housing&is&another&alternative&to&promote&food&
security.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Recent&federal&initiatives&have&sought&to&remove&some&of&the&administrative&
barriers&to&providing&these&programs,&offering&promising&possibilities&for&
expanding!access!(Food!Research!and!Action!Center,!2005).!Looking!beyond!food!
assistance,!the&large&and&robust&relationship&between&housing&costs&and&food&
insecurity&suggests&that&efforts&to&promote&affordable&housing&could&be&an&
important&strategy,&whether&pursued&at&the&local,&state,&or&national&level.!And,!
the!finding!that!tax!burdens!on!lowYincome!households!play!a!role!highlights!the!
potential!importance!of!progressive!tax!structures!in!reducing!food!insecurity!among!
vulnerable!families.!Taken&as&a&whole,&results&support&the&notion&that&efforts&to&
address&food&insecurity&would&benefit&from&a&multifaceted&approach&that&
acknowledges&the&importance&of&both&personal&and&community&resources&in&
ensuring&households&are&able&to&meet&their&food`related&needs.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
239&
AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC&
March/April&2015&
Food&access&problems&harm&community&values.&
Gottlieb,!Robert.!"Community!Food!Security:!Policies!For!A!More!Sustainable!Food!
System!In!The!Context!Of!The!1995!Farm!Bill!And!Beyond."!The!Ralph!and!
Goldy!Lewis!Center!for!Regional!Policy!Studies!UCLA.!January!05,!1995.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!<http://works.bepress.com/rgottlieb/36/>.!
Without&a&stake&in&the&production&or&distribution&of&their&food,&many&urban&
residents&feel&estranged&from&or&marginalized&by&the&food&system.&The&1992&
riots&in&Los&Angeles&underlined&the&representation&of&inner&city&neighborhood&
food&stores&as&hostile&forces&rather&than&community&resources.&Communities&
have&a&stake&in&their&neighborhoods,&and&making&them&more&habitable&in&
physical,&functional,&and&environmental&terms&with&respect&to&food&system&
relationships&can&provide&significant&benefits&in&the&form&of&community&
development&objectives.!One!clear!community!improvement!in!terms!of!food!
security!is!greater!access!to!food!sources.!Food&access&problems&in&turn&spill&over&
into&public&transportation&concerns&and&opportunities&to&create&more&innovative&
public/private&or&non`profit&transportation&strategies!(e.g.,!use!of!vans,!jitneys,!
taxis,!shared!delivery!services).!In!this!context,!the&food&system&itself&can&be&seen&as&
having&become&a&focal&point&in&urban&demands&for&social&justice&and&community&
development&needs.3!
Champion)Briefs)
240&
AFF:&Rule&Util&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Hunger&is&a&large&and&growing&problem.&
International!Food!Security!Treaty,!Campaign.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!
International!Food!Security!Treaty."!International!Human!Rights!Clinic!at!
Willamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!Food!Security!Treaty!
Campaign.!February!09,!2015.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
Currently!there&are&an&estimated&1.02&billion&people&living&with&hunger&and&the&
number&continues&to&grow.1!!One!billion!of!those!going!hungry!are!in!the!developing!
world.2!!In&2009&alone,&the&number&grew&by&approximately&one`hundred&million&
people.3!!Although&the&international&community&has&made&progress&over&the&
past&forty&years&by&reducing&the&percentage&of&the&world’s&population&who&suffer&
from&hunger,&the&total&number&of&people&living&with&hunger&continues&to&
increase&as&the&world’s&population&increases.4!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
241&
AFF:&Rule&Util&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
When&there&are&no&other&actors,&government&should&give&as&
much&as&possible.&
Singer,!Peter.!"Famine,!Affluence,!And!Morality."!Philosophy!&!Public!Affairs,!Vol.!1,!
No.!3.!November!30,!1971.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2265052.pdf?acceptTC=true>.!
The!view!that!numbers!do!make!a!difference!can!be!made!plausible!if!stated!in!this!
way:!if&everyone!in!circumstances!like!mine&gave&$5&to&the&Bengal&Relief&Fund,&
there&would&be&enough&to&provide&food,&shelter,&and&medical&care&for&the&
refugees;!there&is&no!reason!why!I!should!give!more!than!anyone!else!in!the!same!
circumstances!as!I!am;!therefore!I!have!no!obligation&to&give&more&than&$5.!Each!
premise!in!this!argument!is!true,!and!the!argument!looks!sound.!It!may!convince!us,!
unless!we!notice!that!it!is!based!on!a!hypothetical!premise,!although!the!conclusion!is!
not!stated!hypothetically.!The!argument!would!be!sound!if!the!conclusion!were:!if!
everyone!in!circumstances!like!mine!were!to!give!$5,!I!would!have!no!obligation!to!
give!more!than!$5.!If!the!conclusion!were!so!stated,!however,!it!would!be!obvious!
that!the&argument&has&no&bearing&on&a&situation&in&which&it&is&not&the&case&that&
everyone&else&gives&$5.!This,!of!course,!is!the!actual!situation.!It&is&more&or&less&
certain&that&not&everyone&in&circumstances&like&mine&will&give&$5.!So!there!will!
not!be!enough!to!provide!the!needed!food,!shelter,!and!medical!care.!Therefore&by&
giving&more&than&$5&I&will&prevent&more&suffering&than&I&would&if&I&gave&just&$5.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
242&
AFF:&Rule&Util&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Hunger&is&a&serious&issue.&
Hiranandani,!Vanmala.!"Disability,!Poverty!And!Food!Sovereignty:Advancing!The!
Human!Security!Agenda."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal!
Volume!5,!Issue!3.!February!09,!2015.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.biasfree.org/operation.pdf#page=15!>.!
However,!several!decades!of!research!and!efforts!to!achieve!food!security!have!been!
unsuccessful!in!finding!sustainable!solutions!to!hunger!around!the!globe.Despite&the&
modernization&of&food&production&and&distribution,&the&politics&of&food&systems&
and&economic&restructuring&have&increased&hunger&and&malnutrition&that&
threaten&the&well`being&of&millions&of&people&worldwide.&Jean!Ziegler,!UN!
rapporteur!for!food,!reported!that!in&1990,&20%&of&the&world’s&population&suffered&
from&extreme&under`nutrition;&by&1999,&this&had&increased&by&19%!(Ziegler,!
2004).!In!2000Y2002,!the!Food!and!Agricultural!Organization!estimated!that!852&
million&people&worldwide&were&undernourished&(FAO,&2004a).&This&figure&
includes&815&million&in&“developing&countries,”&28&million&in&countries&in&
transition,&and&9&million&in&“developed&countries”.1!The&continuing&reality&of&
hunger,&exacerbated&by&the&rising&food&prices&of&2008!(see!Grebmer,!Fritschel,!
Nestorova,!Olofinbiyi,!PandyaYLorch,!&!Yohannes,!2008),!is&a&grave&threat&to&human&
security;&yet&this&aspect&has&been&overlooked&in&public&policies&of&many&
countries!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
243&
AFF:&Rule&Util&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Agricultural&growth&needs&to&be&matched&with&social&
guarantees&against&hunger.&
FAO.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World."!Rome,!FAO.!February!09,!2015.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.!
Integrated&actions&are&key&to&fight&hunger.&Interventions&to&boost&agricultural&
productivity&growth&are&most&effective&in&promoting&food&security&when&
complemented&by&social&protection&measures.!For!example,!school&meal&
programmes&can&be&designed&to&procure&food&from&smallholder&farmer&
organizations!and!cooperatives.!This,!in!turn,&raises&producer&incomes&while&
stimulating&the&local&supply&of&more&nutritious,&diverse&and&safe&foods&by&small&
family&farmers.!Cash&transfer&programmes&are&an&important&tool&for&social&
protection&and&poverty&reduction&strategies.!While!their!focus!is!on!food!security,!
health,!nutrition!and!education,!particularly!of!children,!they!can!also!enhance!the!
productive!capacities!of!beneficiary!households!who!typically!have!few!assets!and!
limited!access!to!financial!services.!The&provision&of&predictable&regular&cash&
transfers&to&poor&households&can&both&promote&investment&and&mitigate&risk,&
thus&stimulating&production&and&productivity&increases,&both&on`&and&off`farm.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
244&
AFF:&Rule&Util&AC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&promotes&economic&egalitarianism.&
Tweeten,!Luther.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security."!Review!of!Agricultural!
Economics.!February!09,!1999.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/1349892>.!
Economic&outcomes&will&be&more&egalitarian&and&food&security&greater&if&the&
standard&model&is&applied&to&countries&with&more&equal&initial&distributions&of&
asset&ownership.!Barraclough!(p.!130),!after!reviewing!substantial!land!reform!
literature,!notes!that&in&countries&where&rural&poverty&is&widespread&and&closely&
associated&with&the&power&of&the&landowning&class,&"Land&reform&becomes&the&
only&option&for&improving&rural&livelihoods&rapidly&and&substantially."!Yet!he!
cautions!that!land!reform!"cannot!normally!be!a!policy!option!for!governments"!(p.!
130).!Other!redistributional!options!offer!greater!promise.!With!economic!growth,!opY!
portunities!for!redistribution!through!human!resource!investments!dwarf!those!from!
land!redistribution!and!are!likely!to!induce!less!violence.!For!example,!of&the&$16&
trillion&in&U.S.&wealth&in&1990,&up&to&85%&was&human&capital&and&only&4%&was&
farm&real&estate!(Tweeten!1997).!In&the&poorest&regions&of&Africa&and&Asia&in&
1994,&human&resources&comprised&60%&of&all&assets&and&"natural"&capital,&
including&ag`&ricultural&land,&comprised&only&10%`20%!(Dixon!and!Hamilton,!p.!
16).!Property!taxes!are!not!widely!used!in!developing!countries,!but!property!taxes!
have!been!used!for!a!century!or!more!in!developed!countries!and,!if!rates!are!
graduated,!could!be!a!force!for!more!equitable!asset!distributions.!A&sense&of&
community&is&required,!however,!for&asset&redistribution.&As&such,&devolution&of&
authority&to&local&communities&is&long&overdue&in&many&countries.&People&in&
smaller&political&entities&more&easily&see&the&connection&between&taxes&and&
services,&and&that&civil&cohesive`&ness&can&enhance&their&capacity&to&tax&property&
to&fund&local&schools&and&roads!
Champion)Briefs)
245&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
&
March/April&2015&
The&Democratic&Republic&of&the&Congo&can&bargain&with&the&
West&over&food&resources.&
Kyalangilwa,!Joseph!M.!"The!Democratic!Republic!Of!The!Congo!Can!Feed!All!Africa!
And!The!Countries!Of!The!European!Union."!Current!Concerns.!August!11,!2008.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<!
http://www.currentconcerns.ch/index.php?id=628>.!
The&Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!today!has!80,000,000!ha!and/or!800,000&
square&km&of&farmland&at&her&disposal&ranking&directly&after&Brazil.!It&would&be&
able&to&feed&two&billion&people&which&is&about&the&number&of&people&living&in&
Africa!(918,014,166!inhabitants)!and&America&(902,157,549!inhabitants)!or!Africa!
and!Europe!(734,129,205!inhabitants)!and!Oceania!(33,594,581!inhabitants).!!The!
Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!is!one!of!the!Central&African&countries.!According!
to!the!resolution!CM/Res.!464!(XXXVI),!which!was!ratified!on!23!February!and!on!1!
March!1976!by!the!African!Union,!the!region!of!Central!Africa!consists!of!the!following!
countries:!1)!Cameroon,!2)!Central!African!Republic,!3)!Congo!Brazzaville,!4)!
Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo,!5)!Gabon,!6)!Equatorial!Guinea,!7)!Sao!Tomé!and!
Principe!and!8)!Chad.!These!countries!have&enormous&forests!at!their!disposal,!
which!grow!along!the!Congo!basin!and!are!under!special&world!protection.!The!
following!table!gives!some!information!on!the!surface!of!the!eight!countries!and!the!
percentage!of!farmland!under!cultivation!(see!table!1).!From!table!1!we!can!clearly!see!
that,!with!exception!of!Cameroon,!the!share!of!farmland!under!cultivation!in!all!other!
countries!of!Central!Africa,!which!is!predominantly!covered!by!tropical!rain!forest,!is!
nominal!in!relation!to!their!total!area.!Considering!the!population!growth!(the!
population!of!Central!Africa!doubles!every!twenty!years!and!is!made!up!mainly!by!
underY18YyearYolds!(67%),!it!is!urgently!necessary!that!each!country!of!this!region!
turns!15%!of!its!land!into!farmland!for!cultivation.!The!following!table!shows!the!
surfaces!of!the!farmland!that!is!under!cultivation!at!present!and!the!amount!of!land!
that!could!be!used!for!agriculture!in!the!near!future.!With!respect!to!the!Democratic!
Champion)Briefs)
246&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
&
March/April&2015&
Republic!of!the!Congo,!the!farmland!is!80,000,000!hectares!or!800,000!square!km,!
thus!34.115%!of!the!total!area!of!the!country.!(cf.!table!2)!With&the&land&prepared&
for&cultivation&until&2018,&Central&Africa&would&be&able&to&guarantee&food&
sovereignty&for&its&population!–!by!then!about!150,000,000!inhabitants!Y!and&to&
nourish&an&additional&2&billion&people.!During!this!period,!the&Democratic!Republic!
of!the!Congo!will&have&used&only&35.2&million&of&its&80&million&ha&of&
farmland.!Countries&of&the&west,!concerned!about!the!gradual!decrease!of!oil!
production,&plan&to&intensify!the!production&of&bio&fuels.!The!countries,!envisaged!
for!that!purpose!on!the!ground!of!their!cultivation!capacities,!are!Brazil!and!the&
Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo.!!The&government!of!the!Democratic!Republic!of!
the!Congo!must&immediately&be&watchful&and&by&all&means&avoid&being&dazzled&by&
the&enticing&offers&of&billions&of&US&Dollars.!This&money&will!be!promised!by!the!
investors!in!order!to!acquire!licenses!for!the!use!of!millions!of!hectares!of!farmland,!so!
that!they!can!produce!palm!oil!there,!which!will!then!be!converted!into!bio!fuel.!Such!
investments!must!not&categorically&be&rejected,!but!it!is!out!of!the!question!that!
areas!in!the!tropical!rain!forest!will!be!deforested!to!that!end.!The!country!already!
possesses!enormous!areas!of!arable!farmland,!which!lie!fallow!at!present.!Dictator!
Mobutu!!made!sure!that!politicians!of!his!clan!were!able!to!seize!it!when!some!land!
was!nationalized!in!1974.!However,!due!to!a!lack!of!experience,!they!neglected!and!
finally!abandoned!it.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
247&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
&
March/April&2015&
The&DRC&can&increase&its&bargaining&power&by&providing&food&
security&for&its&people.&
Kyalangilwa,!JosephM.!"The!Democratic!Republic!Of!The!Congo!Can!Feed!All!Africa!
And!The!Countries!Of!The!European!Union."!Current!Concerns.!August!11,!2008.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.currentconcerns.ch/index.php?id=628>.!
You!may!agree!that!the&Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!does&not&fail&to&feed&its&
population.!The!farmers!active!in!agricultural!production!continue!toproduce&food,&
but!in!1984,!for!example,!their!products!rotted!because!connecting!roads!were!
missing,!on!which!the!food!could!have!been!transported!to!the!consumer!centers.!
This!isolated&location!of!cultivation&areas&increased&the&population’s&&economic&
insecurity!!and!led!to!the!migration!of!the!rural!population!away!from!the!country!
into!the!cities.!In!1980,!more!than!80%!of!the!Congolese!in!rural!areas!were!living!on!
welfare.!The&federal!state!government&must!now!particularly!invest&into&the&
national&infrastructure&and&do&its&utmost&to&make&the&agricultural&routes&of&
transportation,!usually!dirt!roads!which!can!be!repaired!within!a!sensible!period!of!
time,!passable&in&all&seasons.!Then!the!people!will!certainly!return!from!the!cities!
and!move!back!into!the!country.!The!reYestablishment!of!the!transport!axis!Bukavu!
Kasongo!via!Mwenga!Kamituga!is!mentioned!as!an!example.!Unfortunately,!these!
roads!are!still!waiting!to!be!completed!about!150!km!before!Bukavu.!However,!many!
inhabitants!of!Bukavu!already!acquire!plots!of!farmland!along!this!road.!They!build!
houses!there,!shops!and!soon!also!factories!for!the!processing!of!agricultural!products!
(oil,!rice,!grain);!in!addition,!hotels!and!restaurants!with!rural!cuisine!etc.!The!same!is!
true!for!the!recently!opened!traffic!axis!in!the!equator!province.!However,!the!
inhabitants!of!Lubumbashi!(Katanga)!deplore!a!lack!of!corn,!while&thousands&of&tons&
of&corn&are&rotting&&in&the&district&of&Tanganyila.&The&reason!is!always!the!
same:!missing!routes!of!transportation!for!the!agricultural!products.!The!Ministers!
for!Agriculture,!Traffic!and!Infrastructure,!Civil!Engineering!and!Reconstruction!must!
do!something!about!it,!so!that!the!farmers!will!not!be!discouraged!and!give!up.!The&
Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!must&not&be&regarded&as&a&country&not&capable&
of&feeding&its&population.!&!
Champion)Briefs)
248&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
&
March/April&2015&
Just&states&ought&to&participate&in&an&international&treaty&to&
guarantee&food&security&through&domestic&legislation&
and&ratification&of&a&treaty.&
International!Food!Security!Treaty,!Campaign.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!
International!Food!Security!Treaty."!International!Human!Rights!Clinic!at!
Willamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!Food!Security!Treaty!
Campaign.!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&number&of&people&who&suffer&from&inadequate&food&is&higher&than&it&has&ever&
been&in&history,&even&though&there&is&enough&food&to&feed&every&person&on&the&
planet.&There!have!been!numerous!efforts!over!the!years!to!greatly!reduce!and!even!
end!hunger,!including!various!resolutions,!declarations,!and!World!Conferences.!But!
the!problem!remains.!The&International&Food&Security&Treaty&Campaign&believes&
the&surest&way&to&end&hunger&throughout&the&world&is&through&the&International&
Food&Security&Treaty&to&establish&enforceable&international&law&guaranteeing&
the&right&to&be&free&from&hunger,&and&to&oblige&countries&to&establish&their&own&
related&national&laws.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
249&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
&
March/April&2015&
The&campaign&clarifies&what&accessibility&means.&
International!Food!Security!Treaty,!Campaign.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!
International!Food!Security!Treaty."!International!Human!Rights!Clinic!at!
Willamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!Food!Security!Treaty!
Campaign.!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&question&of&what&constitutes&adequate&food&has&been&widely&debated,&and&
universal&agreement&to&the&term&has&remained&elusive.!The!Rome!Declaration!and!
Plan!of!Action!of!1996!stated!that!the!“right!to!adequate!food!is!realized!when!every!
man,!woman!and!child,!alone!or!in!community!with!others,!has!physical!and!economic!
access!at!all!times!to!adequate!food!or!means!for!its!procurement.”12!A!comment!
within!the!Declaration!defined!the!term!“adequate!food”!as:!![QUOTE]!The&
availability&of&food&in&a&quantity&and&quality&sufficient&to&satisfy&the&dietary&
needs&of&individuals,&free&from&adverse&substances,&and&acceptable&within&a&
given&culture;&the&accessibility&of&such&food&in&ways&that&are&sustainable&and&that&
do&not&interfere&with&the&enjoyment&of&other&human&rights.13![QUOTE]!This&
means&that&the&right&to&food&entails&not&just&physical&access&to&food&or&the&ability&
to&grow&food&in&a&sustainable&way,&but&economic&accessibility&as&well.!The!
monetary!costs!required!to!obtain!adequate!food!should!be!at!a!level!that!doing!so!
would!not!compromise!other!basic!fundamental!human!rights!or!needs.14!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
250&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
&
March/April&2015&
A&countries&obligation&would&be&three`fold.&
International!Food!Security!Treaty,!Campaign.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!
International!Food!Security!Treaty."!International!Human!Rights!Clinic!at!
Willamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!Food!Security!Treaty!
Campaign.!2010.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y
10.pdf>.!
The&question&of&what&constitutes&adequate&food&has&been&widely&debated,&and&
universal&agreement&to&the&term&has&remained&elusive.!The!Rome!Declaration!and!
Plan!of!Action!of!1996!stated!that!the!“right!to!adequate!food!is!realized!when!every!
man,!woman!and!child,!alone!or!in!community!with!others,!has!physical!and!economic!
access!at!all!times!to!adequate!food!or!means!for!its!procurement.”12!A!comment!
within!the!Declaration!defined!the!term!“adequate!food”!as:!![QUOTE]!The&
availability&of&food&in&a&quantity&and&quality&sufficient&to&satisfy&the&dietary&
needs&of&individuals,&free&from&adverse&substances,&and&acceptable&within&a&
given&culture;&the&accessibility&of&such&food&in&ways&that&are&sustainable&and&that&
do&not&interfere&with&the&enjoyment&of&other&human&rights.13![QUOTE]!This&
means&that&the&right&to&food&entails&not&just&physical&access&to&food&or&the&ability&
to&grow&food&in&a&sustainable&way,&but&economic&accessibility&as&well.!The!
monetary!costs!required!to!obtain!adequate!food!should!be!at!a!level!that!doing!so!
would!not!compromise!other!basic!fundamental!human!rights!or!needs.14!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
251&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
GMO&Crops&Plan:&Demographic&pressures&will&rise&in&the&
future.&Science&has&helped&us&in&the&past.&
Huang,!Jikun.!"Enhancing!The!Crops!To!Feed!The!Poor."!Nature,!Vol.!418.!August!08,!
2002.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/pdf/nature01015.pdf>.!
With!the!exception!of!several!short!periods!(for!example,!the!midY1970s),!world&food&
production&has&expanded&continuously&since&the&1960s.!And,!while!the!
industrialized!countries!have!contributed!significantly!to!the!world’s!food!supply,!the!
developing!world!also!has!played!an!important!role!and!has!been!a!major!beneficiary.!
From!a!world!facing!the!prospects!of!severe!global!famine,!the!inputYresponsive!plant!
varieties!of!the&Green&Revolution,!together!with!subsequent!investments!in!water!
control,!intensification!of!chemical!input!use!and!further!genetic!discoveries,&raised&
food&production&to&levels&that&no&one&would&have&dared&predict.&Global&yields&
rose&by&2.42%&annually&between&1961&and&1966!(Fig.!1).!With!the!exception!of!
Africa,!farmers!in!developing!and!developed!countries!nearly!doubled!their!perY
hectare!output!of!cereal!production,!increasing!yields!during!this!time!by!3.16%!
annually.!Sown&area,!although!actually!trending!down!slightly!worldwide!(–0.04%!
per!year),!still!expanded&annually&by&about&0.25%&in&developing&countries.!With!
more!food!available,!falling!food!prices,!increased!food!trade!and!rising!consumption!
led!the!way!to!lower!malnutrition!and!falling!poverty!rates!in!many!parts!of!the!
world.!Past&success,!however,!does&not&guarantee&a&food&abundant&world&in&the&
coming&decades.!Growth&rates!of!yields&have&slowed!during!the!period!between&
1987&and&2001(Fig.!1).!Moreover,!the!demographic!pressures!in!the!twentyYfirst!
century!will!be!unprecedented.!The&world’s&population&will&reach&8&billion&by&
2025.&By&2020,!increasingly!wealthy!and!urbanized!consumers!and!the!2!billion!new!
mouths!will&demand&40%&more&food.!Rosegrant!et!al.!estimate!that!food&and&feed&
production&must&continue&to&rise&annually&by&1.2%&to&satisfy&the&demand&of&the&
world’s&population&by&2020!(ref.!6).!!!
Champion)Briefs)
252&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
GMO&Crops&Plan:&Today's&environment&requires&genetic&
engineering&to&raise&global&crop&yields.&
Huang,!Jikun.!"Enhancing!The!Crops!To!Feed!The!Poor."!Nature,!Vol.!418.!August!08,!
2002.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/pdf/nature01015.pdf>.!
Because!much!of!the&exploitable&yield&gap&between&the&farm&and&experimental&
station&has&been&eliminated&in&many&of&the&world’s&favourable&areas,!new&
technologies&for&these&regions&almost!certainly!will&depend&on!increased!
investment!in!research!on!advanced&breeding&techniques,&crop&physiology&and&
molecular&biology7.!Virmani!et!al.!believe!extension&of&hybrid`variety&
development&to&rice,&wheat&and&other&crops&can&increase&yields&by&20%!(ref.!26).!
The!spread!of!hybrid!rice!in!China!and!the!associated!rise!in!yields!demonstrates&the&
validity&of&this&approach27.!China’s!plant!breeders!have!been!working!on!a!new!
approach!to!producing!hybrid!rice,!which!will!allow!easier!and!cheaper!seed!
production28.!Plant!physiologists!have!also!created!a!model!for!a&new&plant&
type!that!could!potentially&increase&rice&yields!by&30%!(to!nearly!15!tonnes!per!
hectare,!if!it!is!combined!with!hybrid!variety!development)!by!increasing!the!plant’s!
inherent!production!efficiency29.!IRRI!scientists!report!that!farmers!in!China’s!
subtropical!provinces!are!already!using!the!first!generation!of!this!new!technology!—!
after!several!years!of!testing!on!experimental!stations!in!the!Philippines!and!
Indonesia,!new&plant`type&lines&that&yield&20%&more&than&traditional&varieties&in&
tropical&areas&have&moved&into&seed&board&trials!(Fig.!2).!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
253&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
GMO&Crops&Plan:&China's&agricultural&plan&solves&the&future's&
global&famine.&
Huang,!Jikun.!"Enhancing!The!Crops!To!Feed!The!Poor."!Nature,!Vol.!418.!August!08,!
2002.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/pdf/nature01015.pdf>.!
Based&on!the!responses!of!scientists!from!25!research!institutes!and!university!
departments!in&China,!all!but!one!scientist!(97%)!predicted&important&discoveries&
in!the!areas!of!both!conventional!crop&breeding&and&genetic&engineering!(Table!1,!
rows!1!and!2).!China’s&scientists,!who!were!the!first!to!create!and!commercially!
extend!hybrid!rice,!believe&they&can&improve&the&quality&of&hybrid&rice&varieties&to&
enable!them!to!tap!the!hybrid!vigour!that!can!provide!up!to!15–20%&higher&
yields.!Breeders&are!also!developing&hybrids&for&wheat,&soya&beans,&rapeseed&and&
other&crops.!Plant&biotechnologists,!who!already!have!created!an!impressive!array!
of!GM!technologies,!believe&that&they&have&the&potential&for&
using!transformation,!marker`assisted&selection&and&tissue&culture&to&produce&a&
new&generation&of&technology!(Box!1).!Although!China’s!GM!crops!include!those!that!
are!insect!resistant,!scientists!work!on!a!much!broader!range!of!products,!in!part!
because!they!are!nearly!all!employed!in!the!public!sector.!As!such,!they!can&
undertake&research&on&crop&technologies&that&may&be&difficult&to&protect&from&
the&perspective&of&intellectual&property&rights.!Interestingly,!whereas!scientists!
predict!that!the!main!effect!of!future!technologies!from!traditional!crop!breeding!and!
genetic!engineering!will!be!increasing!yields,!the!second!largest!effect!will!be!to!
increase!the!nutritional!value!of!cereals!and!reduce!the!use!of!inputs!that!are!causing!
environmental!and!health!concerns.!The&complementarity&between&biotechnology&
and&traditional&crop&breeding,!at!least!in&a&developing&country&such&as&China,!
also!means&that&the&nation&needs&to&invest&in&both&types&of&programme.!Nearly!all!
of!the!scientists!surveyed!(97%)!also!believed!that!waterYsaving!technologies!will!
affect!agricultural!production!in!the!coming!20!years!(Table!1,!row!5).!Breeders!and!
Champion)Briefs)
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molecular!biologists!forecast!that!droughtYtolerant!varieties!would!become!
increasingly!available.!Identification&of&genes!that!can!combat!abiotic!stresses,!such!
as!shortYterm!drought,!should!enable!scientists!to!create!varieties!that!can!
greatly!improve&yields!in!the!favourable!rainYfed!areas.!Agronomists!foresee!new!
types!of!plastics!that!can!be!used!in!a!profitable!and!sustainable!way!for!capturing!soil!
moisture!and!irrigating!crops!more!efficiently.!Genetic&and&agronomic&approaches&
to&saving&water&may&also&be&able&to&slow&or&halt&the&long`term&trend&of&China’s&
falling&sown&area.!Because!many!of!the!new!marginal!areas!are!in!relatively!poor!
regions!of!the!country,!the!new!technologies!will!have!positive,!indirect!effects!on!
efforts!to!alleviate!poverty.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
255&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
GMO&Crops&Plan:&the&Chinese&Plan&requires&government&
investment.&
Huang,!Jikun.!"Enhancing!The!Crops!To!Feed!The!Poor."!Nature,!Vol.!418.!August!08,!
2002.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/pdf/nature01015.pdf>.!
Because!many!agricultural&research&investments&are&public&goods,!governments&
are&responsible&for&making&them.!Public!investment!will!almost!certainly!continue!
to!be!one!of!the!main!sources!of!funding!in!the!coming!years.&Governments&
accounted&for&about&two`thirds&of&agricultural&research&spending&in&the&mid`
1990s!(about!US$22!billion)43.!But!despite!this!large!total,!and!the!high!returns!to!
their!investments,!agricultural&research!in!many!countries!is!in!crisis.!Funding&
levels&are&insufficient&to&generate&a&steady&flow&of&technology.!Poor!incentives!in!
large!public!bureaucracies!often!dampen!the!effectiveness!of!public!research!
organizations45.!In&developing&countries,!the!public!sector!dominates!research!
expenditures!in!traditional!agricultural!research!fields!and!in!biotechnology.!Although!
funding!of!traditional!fields!has!waned,!the&promises&of&basic&biology&and&
biotechnology&have&induced&leaders&to&increase&public&spending&on&agricultural&
research.!For!example,!the!governments!of!China34,!Brazil,!India46!and!South!
Africa38!have!each!made!major!investments!in!agricultural!biotechnology!research!in!
the!past!decade.!Because&of&these&investments,&many&basic&scientists&from&
research&institutes&and&universities&outside&the&traditional&agricultural&research&
system&have&begun&working&on&agriculture&related&topics.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
256&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
Food&stamps&are&necessary&to&break&individuals&from&the&
cycle&of&food&insecurity.&
News,!Buffalo.!"Ease!Childhood!Hunger!Improvements!In!Food!Stamp!Program!And!
Other!Efforts!Could!Boost!Nutrition."!Buffalo!News.!August!08,!2002.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!<http://www.buffalonews.com/!149/story/507058.html>.!
The&Agriculture&Department&presented&an&alarming&report&charting&those&
hungry&children,&and&highlighting&the&fact&that&close&to&one&in&eight&Americans&
struggles&for&adequate&food.!To!make!matters!worse,!that&was&before&the&economic&
downturn.As!groceries!and!gas!prices!rose,!so!did!the!number!of!empty!stomachs.!
Overall,!36.2!million!adults!and!children!struggled!with!hunger!last!year,!which!was!a!
slight!increase!from!35.5!million!in!2006.!The&problem&boils&down&to&a&lack&of&
money&or&assistance&to&get&enough&food,&and&especially&to&get&enough&nutritious&
food.&Little,&including&learning,&gets&done&on&an&empty&stomach.&Educational&
initiatives,&vital&to&breaking&the&cycle&of&poverty,&are&harder&to&implement&with&a&
classroom&of&hungry&children.Obama!pledged!to!expand!food!aid!in!an!effort!to!
alleviate!childhood!hunger!by!2015,!an!ambitious!goal.!Any!new!initiative!needs!to!be!
launched!immediately,!as!suggested!by!the!Food!Research!and!Action!Center,!an!antiY
hunger!group.!The&group&recently&called&for&a&boost&in&food&stamp&benefits.&The&
food&stamp&program&is&a&strong&one,&but&inadequate&to&provide&a&healthy&diet&for&
a&month.&As&a&person’s&income&increases,&he&or&she&receives&fewer&benefits.!The!
average!is!$3!to!$4!in!food!stamps!a!day!per!person.!Even!at!the!maximum,!the!benefit!
is!just!not!enough.!Particularly!in!big!cities,!it!costs!25!percent!to!30!percent!more!
than!food!stamp!benefits!to!purchase!a!minimally!adequate!diet.Journalists!and!
members!of!Congress!who!have!taken!the!“food!stamp!challenge”!and!attempted!to!
live!on!the!benefit!for!a!week!have!shared!their!experiences!YY!the!difficulties!in!
planning,!mood!swings!and!general!fatigue.!Imagine!a!child!going!through!the!same!
thing,!except!it’s!not!a!“challenge.”!It’s!a!way!of!life.In!the!context!of!the!
recession,!economists&from&both&the&left&and&right&agree&that&the&single&best&
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
stimulus&is&food&stamps&because&people&spend&them&so&quickly.!Extended!
unemployment!benefits!are!also!necessary,!but!food!stamps!tend!to!be!more!helpful!
than!tax!rebates.!The!Food!Research!and!Action!Center!is!pushing!hard!for!a!
temporary!boost,!six!to!18!months,!to!be!put!in!the!next!stimulus!package.!!
Champion)Briefs)
258&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
Food&stamps&create&an&economic&demand&for&more&stores.&
Rogers,!Beatrice.!"FoodYBased!Safety!Nets!And!Related!Programs."!World!Bank.!
September!2002!.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!!
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/Resources/SPY
DiscussionYpapers/SafetyYNetsYDP/0225.pdf!
Another&rationale&for&providing&food&stamps&is&that&it&strengthens&the&private&
sector&food&market.&Direct&distribution&of&food&commodities&establishes&a&
parallel&marketing&system&that&draws&some&demand&away&from&the&private&
sector.&Food&stamps&give&purchasing&power&to&poor&consumers&that&they&can&use&
in&private&sector&food&stores,!adding!to!overall!demand.!However,!if&the&private&
food&retailing&system&is&inaccessible!or!thin!in!certain!areas,!a&food&stamp&
program&may&provide&the&demand&needed&to&strengthen&and&improve&the&
system,!but!until!this!happens,!beneficiaries!will!need!to!incur!the!costs!of!traveling!to!
places!where!stores!are!available.!Direct!distribution!of!food!can!cause!problems!for!
the!beneficiaries!in!transporting!the!bulky!foodstuffs!home.!This!problem!is!avoided!
with!food!stamps.!Beneficiaries!can!purchase!manageable!quantities!as!needed!
(assuming!the!stamps!are!in!small!denominations)!in!conveniently!located!stores!
rather!than!at!centralized!distribution!points.!!!
!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
259&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
Food&safety&nets&are&a&good&idea.&
FAO.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food."!Right!to!Food.!2011.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public
ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.pdf!>.!
Food&safety&nets&can&be&an&effective&way&to&provide&food&security.&!!Social!and!food!
safety!nets![they]&serve&as&a&method&by&which&States&may&fulfill&their&obligation&to&
provide&for&the&implementation&of&the&right&to&food&for&those&who,&for&reasons&
beyond&their&control,&cannot&provide&for&themselves.!Social!and!food!safety!nets&
play&a&key&role&in&fighting&transitory&and&chronic&hunger,&including&reducing&the&
gravity&of&food&emergencies,&and&thus&in&assuring&the&right&to&food.&As&all&human&
rights&are&interdependent&and&interrelated,&safety&nets&must&be&designed&and&
implemented&with&regard&to&other&human&rights,!in!particular!other!economic,!
social!and!cultural!as!well!as!political!rights,!and!to!the!principle!of!nonY
discrimination.!In!fact,!if&adequately&designed,&safety&nets&can&make&an&important&
contribution&to&poverty&reduction&and&development&through&linkages&and&
synergies&with&family&agriculture,&health&and&education&
programs.!Therefore!food&safety&nets&could&play&a&relevant&role&in&increasing&
productivity&and&thus&economic&growth&and&should&be&considered&an&investment&
and&a&contribution&to&long`term&development,&not&just&welfare!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
260&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
Food&stocks&could&make&intervention&easier,&help&vulnerable&
populations,&and&prevent&speculation&causing&price&
volatility.&
FAO.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food."!Right!to!Food.!2011.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public
ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.pdf>.!
The&availability&and&use&of&strategic&food&stocks!at!regional,!national!and!local!
levels!is&one&of&the&most&proposed&measures!recently.!It&is&argued&by&many&actors&
that&this&measure&would&facilitate&the&intervention&in&the&food&supply&when&
extremely&high&food&volatility&situations&attempt&the&adequate&right&to&food&of&
the&most&vulnerable&groups.!By!contrast,!other!relevant!groups!defend!that!these!
kind!of!measures!are!not!only!extremely!costly!but!also!have!a!limited!success!in!
reducing!the!volatility!of!prices.!In!any!case!if&the&option&to&stabilize&prices,&using&
buffer&stocks,&is&taken&the&challenge&consists&in&stipulating&a&stocks&mechanism&
which&is&less&expensive&and&more&efficient&than&in&the&past&and&that&its’&
management&reaches&the&most&vulnerable&population&avoiding&disruption&of&the&
normal&market&operation.!It!would!be!also!important!to!work!at!the!scale!required!
to!promote!food!stocks!managed!by!individual!or!community!farmers!(under!a!
cooperative!modality!whenever!would!be!possible).!An&ambitious&post&harvest&
program!(there!is!already!a!vast!experience!in!this!field)!would&significantly&
increase&the&offer&at&national&and&subnational&level,&reducing&volatility&risk&at&
domestic&market&and&allowing&precisely&a&direct&effect&on&the&income&and&food&
availability&of&the&most&vulnerable&groups.!A&rights&approach&also&needs&to&
promote&measures&to&provide&more&reliable&information&about&stocks&
management&in&the&international&food&commodities&markets.&It&would&offer&
better&knowledge&regarding&the&stocks!level!availability,!transparency!and!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
accountability!in!their!management.&All&those&measures&would&render&potential&
speculative&movements&more&difficult.!
Market&regulation&and&transparency&would&reduce&price&
volatility.&
FAO.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food."!Right!to!Food.!2011.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public
ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.pdf>.!
Although!controversy!already!exists!around!the!possible!impact!on!food!prices!due!to!
speculative!activities!in!future!markets,!many&initiatives&are&being&promoted&to&
increase&control&over&[food]!these!markets.!Regulatory&initiatives&could&be&
considered&as&an&effective&tool&to&protect&the&right&to&adequate&food.&An&attentive&
design&should&be&done,&focusing&on&the&protection&of&the&most&vulnerable&groups&
against&short&term&movements!which!produce!an!excessive!food!price!volatility.&
Until&those&changes&are&ready,&one&of&the&main&structural&measures&proposed&to&
avoid&potential&speculative&movements,&is&to&provide&more&transparency&and&
increased&information&on&food&commodities&markets.!Information!which!is!
reliable!and!easily!available,!related!to!the!real!situation!of!production,!stocks!and!
sales!and!its!perspectives!would&be&very&helpful&to&limit&speculative&initiatives&as&
well&as&for&the&more&correct&market&functioning.&The&experience&of&the&soaring&
food&prices&in&the&second&semester&of&2010&shows&that&more&and&specific&
information&related&to&possible&shocks!(climatic!mainly)!would&help&to&reduce&the&
food&price&volatility&phenomenon.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
262&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
Fish&Plan:&Increased&fishing&can&help&curb&food&insecurity&in&
Africa.&
Bene,!Christophe.!"Fish!And!Food!Security!In!Africa."!NAGA,!WorldFish!Center!
Quarterly,!Vol.!28.!November!30,!2004.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/handle/10535/2485>.!
FAO!estimates!that!fish&provides&22%!of!the!protein&intake&in&sub`Saharan&Africa.!
This!share,!however,!can!exceed!50%&in&the&poorest&countries(especially!where!
other!sources!of!animal!protein!are!scarce!or!expensive).!In!West!African!coastal!
countries,!for!instance,!where!fish!has!been!a!central!element!in!local!economies!for!
many!centuries,!the!proportion!of!dietary!protein!that!comes!from!fish!is!extremely!
high:!47%&in&Senegal,&62%,&in&Gambia,&and&63%&in&Sierra&Leone&and&Ghana!(Table!
1).!Equally!important!is!the!fish’s!contribution!to!calorie!supply.!Where&there&is&a&
lack&of&alternative&locally&produced&protein&and/or&where&a&preference&for&fish&
has&been&developed&and&maintained,&fish&can&provide&up&to&180&calories&per&
capita&per&day.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
263&
AFF:&Specific&Plans&
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March/April&2015&
Fish&Plan:&Fish&provide&subsistence&and&economic&growth&to&
villagers.&
Bene,!Christophe.!"Fish!And!Food!Security!In!Africa."!NAGA,!WorldFish!Center!
Quarterly,!Vol.!28.!November!30,!2004.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/handle/10535/2485>.!
Over!large!parts!of!sub`Saharan&Africa,&fishing&for&subsistence&plays&a&central&role&
in&sustaining&human&well`being.&For!those!who!cannot!afford!to!buy!food!–!
especially!not!meat!–!fish&obtained!through!the!household’s!own!fishing!
efforts!(subsistence)!is!essential;!it!can&make&the&difference&between!good!and!bad!
nutrition,!between!recovered!health!and!prolonged!illness,!or!between!food&security&
and&starvation.!These!subsistence!catches!are!not!simply!the!fish!brought!back!home!
by!fullYtime!fishers!as!part!of!their!remuneration!share!or!their!daily!catch.!These!fish!
are!also,!even!mainly,!those!big!or!small!ones!caught!by!the!youngest!son!on!the!edge!
of!the!river!after!school!hours,!or!speared!in!seasonal!ponds!by!the!wives!or!the!
daughters!during!collective!fishing!festivals,!or!caught!by!the!men!in!the!floodplain!
during!the!flood!recession!season.!For!these!fish,!the&commercial&value!(a!few!
dollars)!does&not&reflect&the&invaluable&contribution&in&terms&of&proteins,&
calories&and&micronutrient&intake&for&the&entire&family.!Studies!have!shown!that!in!
many!regions,!fish&–!unlike!many!other!high!protein!foods!–!is&consumed&more&
equally&among&household&members,&including&women&and&children.!Additionally,!
the!fact!that!women&may&not&systematically&need&men&to&acquire&these&fish!on!a!
subsistence!basis!reinforces!the!fundamental!role!that!fish!can!play!in!food!and!
nutritional!security!in!Africa.!While!fish!as!a!subsistence!product!is!an!important!
source!of!direct!food!security!for!fishing!households,!the!generation!of!incomes&
derived&from!wages!in!the!fisheries!sector!or!from!fish&trade&is&often!even!more!
important!as!an&indirect&contribution&to&food&security.!Inland!and!
coastal!fisheries!and!related!fish!processing!and!trading!provide!full!or!partY
time!employment&to&between&6&and&9&million&people&in&sub`Saharan&Africa1.!
Using!a!(conservative)!ratio!of!1!to!5!for!household!size,!a!total!of!some!30!to!45!
Champion)Briefs)
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million!people!(men,!women!and!children)!in!Africa!therefore!depend!indirectly!on!
fish!for!their!livelihoods.!
Fish&Plan:&Africa&must&support&increased&aquaculture&to&
provide&for&citizens.&
Bene,!Christophe.!"Fish!And!Food!Security!In!Africa."!NAGA,!WorldFish!Center!
Quarterly,!Vol.!28.!November!30,!2004.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/handle/10535/2485>.!
Capture&fisheries&will&continue&to&provide&the&bulk&of&fish&food&in&Africa&for&many&
decades.!Sustained&efforts&are!therefore!needed&to&support,&promote&and&protect&
small`scale&labor`intensive!(both!coastal!and!inland)!fisheries.!Investments&in&
applied&research&and&capacity&building&will&be&required&to&improve&and&
strengthen&the&socio`institutional&mechanisms&underpinning&the&fisheries&
management&process.!But!investments&to&improve&environmental&management&
are&also&required&to&sustain!fisheries,!especially!in!inland&
fisheries!where&increasing!pressure!on!land!and!water!(through!e.g.,!irrigated!
agriculture,!hydroYpower!dams)!is&leading&to&high&environmental&
degradation.!These&inland&fisheries!provide!the!basis!of!the!livelihoods!–!and!
therefore!the&indirect&support&to&food&security&–&for&millions&of&people,!usually!
amongst!the!less!educated!and!unskilled!labor!in!Africa.!Aquaculture!will!play!an!
increasing!role!in!food!security!in!Africa.!Small`scale&integrated&fishing`farming&
systems&will&provide!alternative!and/or!additional!employment&opportunities&
forgrowing!rural!populations!in!remote&areas.!Closer!to!the!urban!centers,!in!periY
urban!areas,!opportunist&micro&or&small`scale&enterprises&will&mushroom,&driven&
by&the&increasing&demand&of&the&urban&population&for&higher`quality&fish&
products.!Finding!the&appropriate&institutional&settings!(either!public,!private!or!
public!private!partnerships)&that&ensure&the&creation&and&maintenance&of&efficient&
extension&services&to&support&these&new&rural&and&peri`urban&micro`enterprises,&
will&require&substantial&investment&and&capacity&building.!
Champion)Briefs)
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Must&have&clear&goals&in&order&to&overcome&food&injustices.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
In!the!above!two!sections!I!have!made!the!argument!that!two!of!the!central!
problems—poor!working!conditions!for!farm!workers!and!food!deserts—for!the!food!
justice!movement!and!food!justice!scholarship!are!ones!that!are!the!result!of!
participative!disparities.!Further,!it!is!widely!acknowledged!that!the!solutions!of!both!
problems!would!involve!remediation!of!those!participative!disparities.!This!I!suggest!
demonstrates!the!need!for!a!redefining!of!the!concept!of!food!justice!to!better!capture!
the!importance!of!participative!equity!in!addition!to!the!importance!of!distributive!
equity.!To!again!paraphrase!Allen!(2010),!those&who&are&interested&in&promoting&
food&justice&must&have&clear&goals&to&contextualize&their&efforts.&This&requires&a&
comprehensive&understanding&of&food&injustices&and&an&understanding&of&forces&
that&result&in&those&injustices.&This&further&requires&reflection&and&consideration&
of&the&economic,&political,&and&cultural&forces&and&other&participative&inequities&
that&result&in&the&material&and&distributive&inequities&that&are&of&
concern.!Further,&framing&food&justice&in&participative&as&well&as&distributive&
terms&does&more&than&simply&recognize&the&fact&that&many&problems&of&
distribution&can&be&understood&in&terms&of&participation.&Thinking&about&food&
justice&in&terms&of&participation&also&can&be&useful&for&thinking&about&specific&
practical&steps&that&can&be&taken&to&address&unfair&distributions.!Given!that!
participation!at!least!minimally!requires!consent,7!defining!food!justice!in!more!
participative!terms!highlights!potential!roles!for!improving!education,!disclosure,!
outreach!programs,!and!other!programs!aimed!to!strengthen!the!ability!of!individuals!
and!communities!to!contribute!to!governing!food!systems!as!steps!to!achieve!food!
justice.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Education&is&key&to&promoting&food&security&in&these&regions.&
Tweeten,!Luther.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security."!Review!of!Agricultural!
Economics.!February!09,!1999.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/1349892>.!
A&principal&advantage&of&economic&growth&is&that&it&provides&resources&to&fund&
critical&services&such&as&education&and&research,&infrastructure&such&as&all`
weather&roads&and&irrigation&facilities,&and&well`paid&civil&servants&to&protect&
common&prop`&erty&such&as&tropical&forests&from&destruction!(Southgate!and!
Whitaker).!Indiscrim`&inate&logging&of&tropical&forests&rich&in&biodiversity&but&
with&fragile&soils&often&occurs&because&poorly&paid&members&of&government&are&
"bought&off"&by&logging&companies,!which!in!turn!do!not!replant!or!otherwise!
practice!good!environmental!stewardship.!Loggers&are&followed&by&hungry&
peasants&who&convert&the&land&to&farming.&Economic&growth&funds&science&and&
technology&essential&to&improve&agricultural&and&national&productivity.!An!
economic!base!to!fund!research!in!developing!counY!tries!is!essential!to!adapt!
agricultural!technology!from!elsewhere!to!local!circumY!stances!and!to!develop!
environmentally!friendly!farming!systems.!Greater&produc`&tivity&on&"safe"&
cropland&reduces&pressure&for&peasants&to&expand&cropping&to&tropical&rain&
forests&and&other&fragile&lands&rich&in&biological&diversity.&Improved&science&and&
education&also&can&address&problems&of&disease,&pestilence,&ignorance,&and&
tribalism&that&threaten&food&security.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Multifaceted&laws&are&key.&
Rosegrant,!MarkW.!"Global!Food!Security:!Challenges!And!Policies."!American!
Association!for!the!Advancement!of!Science.!December!12,!2003.!Web.!February!
09,!2015.!<http://www.sciencemag.org/content/302/5652/1917>.!
Achieving&food&security&needs&policy&and&investment&reforms&on&multiple&fronts,&
including&human&resources,&agricultural&research,&rural&infrastructure,&water&
resources,&and&farm`&and&community`based&agricultural&and&natural&resources&
management.!Progressive&policy&action&must&not&only&increase&agricultural&
production,&but&also&boost&incomes&and&reduce&poverty&in&rural&areas&where&
most&of&the&poor&live.!If!we!take!such!an!approach,&we&can&expect&production&
between&1997&and&2050&to&increase&by&71%&for&cereals&and&by&13&1%&for&meats.&
A&reduction&in&childhood&malnutrition&wouldfollow;!the&number&of&
malnourished&children&would&decline&from&33&million&in&1997&to&16&million&in&
2050&in&sub`Saharan&Africa,&and&from&85&million&to&19&million&in&South&Asia!(Fig.!
1).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Must&take&multifaceted&approach&to&change&agriculture.&
Rosegrant,!MarkW.!"Global!Food!Security:!Challenges!And!Policies."!American!
Association!for!the!Advancement!of!Science.!December!12,!2003.!Web.!February!
09,!2015.!<http://www.sciencemag.org/content/302/5652/1917>.!
!
To&implement&agricultural&innovation,&we&need&collective&action&at&the&local&
level,&as&well&as&the&participation&of&government&and&nongovernmental&
organizations&that&work&at&the&community&level.!There!have!been!several!
successful!programs,!including!those!that!use!water!harvesting!and!conservation!
techniques!(42,!43).!Another&priority&is&participatory&plant&breeding&for&yield&
increases&in&rainfed&agrosystems,&particularly&in&dry&and&remote&areas.&Farmer&
participation&can&be&used&in&the&very&early&stages&of&breed&selection&to&help&find&
crops&suited&to&a&multitude&of&environments&and&farmer&preferences.&It&may&be&
the&only&feasible&route&for&crop&breeding&in&remote&regions,&where&a&high&level&of&
crop&diversity&is&required&within&the&same&farm,&or&for&minor&crops&that&are&
neglected&by&formal&breeding&programs!(44,!45).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
269&
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Food&security&justifies&food&stamps.&
Wilde,!Parke.!"The!Effect!Of!Food!Stamps!On!Food!Security:!A!Panel!Data!Approach."!
Review!of!Agricultural!Economics.!January!01,!2005.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<intlYaepp.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/3/425.full>.!
This&research&seeks&to&estimate&the&effect&of&Food&Stamp&
Program!(FSP)!participation&on&food&security.&The&FSP&is&the&U.S.&Federal&
Government's&largest&intervention&against&hunger&and&food&insecurity.!In!fiscal!
year!2002,!the!program!provided!more!benefits!($18!billion)!and!served!more!people!
on!average!each!month!(19.1!million)!than!the!federal!cash!assistance!program,!
Temporary!Assistance!for!Needy!Families.!The&federal&government&classifies&a&
household&as&"food&secure"&if&all&household&members&have,&at&all&times,&access&to&
enough&food&for&an&active,&healthy&life.&Official&food&security&estimates&are&based&
on&eighteen&survey&items&about&symptoms&of&food&hardship&in&the&past&twelve&
months.!Increasing&food&security&is&an&official&FSP&goal&and&a&centerpiece&of&food&
stamp&policy&debate.!Yet,!measuring!the!program's!impact!on!food!security!has!
proven!difficult.!Unobserved!factors!may!influence!measured!food!security!and!the!
FSP!participation!decision.!The!potential!problem!of!selection!bias!is!stark!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Policy&makers&should&increase&access&to&food&assistance&
programs&to&people&who&are&not.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Results&have&a&number&of&implications&for&policymakers&and&planners.&The&
finding&that&theoretically&plausible&contextual&characteristics,&many&of&which&are&
at&least&to&some&degree&subject&to&policy&influence,&are&linked&to&food&insecurity,&
suggests&that&food&insecurity&need&not&be&viewed&as&an&intractable&problem.!
Rather,!it&may&be&a&problem&that&can&be&at&least&partially&ameliorated&through&
systematic&policy&initiatives,&both&in&and&out&of&the&food&assistance&arena.&
Focusing&on&food&assistance&programs,&the&evidence&that&more&accessible&Food&
Stamp&and&Summer&Nutrition&programs&may&be&linked&to&lower&food&insecurity&
suggests&that&policymakers&may&wish&to&explore&strategies&for&increasing&the&
availability&and&utilization&of&these&programs.!Research!has!begun!documenting!
the!importance!of!local!program!characteristics!in!increasing!food!stamp!utilization!
among!eligible!persons,!and!that!research!identifies!a!number!of!strategiesYincluding!
less!frequent!recertification!requirements,!more!application!sites,!extended!hours!at!
application!sites,!greater!outreach!efforts,!and!fewer!vehicle!restrictions!and!job!
search!requirements!(see,!for!example,!Gabor!et!al.,!2003)Ythat!states!and!localities!
may!wish!to!pursue.!Our&findings&suggest&such&efforts&may&be&particularly&
beneficial&to&families&who&are&economically&vulnerable&yet&not&poor.&This&is&
consistent&with&research&showing&less&extensive&food&stamp&coverage&among&
those&who&are&eligible&at&higher&income&levels&(see,!for!example,!Bartlett!&!
Burstein,!2004).!The!wide!variation!in!availability!of!Summer!Nutrition!programs,!
both!within!and!among!states,!makes!the!expansion!of!these!programs!a!promising!
target!for!intervention!as!well.!Availability!and!participation!in!Summer!Nutrition!
programs!continues!to!lag!considerably!behind!that!for!meal!programs!during!the!
school!year,!and!nationwide,!participation!has!declined!over!the!past!several!years.!
&
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271&
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We&must&tailor&policy&to&the&specific&problems&of&insecurity.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Overall,!results!presented!here!make!important!inroads!in!explaining!the!wide!
disparity!in!food!insecurity!rates!found!among!states.!Indeed,!our&results&suggest&
that&almost&all&of&the&between`state&variance&in&food&insecurity&can&be&explained&
by&the&household&and&contextual&variables&included&in&the&model,&with&both&sets&
of&variables&playing&important&roles.!An&important&next&step&is&to&consider&how&
states&with&high&food&insecurity&differ&in&the&relative&importance&of&high`risk&
populations&versus&less&favorable&contextual&characteristics.&States&
characterized&by&the&latter&may&be&particularly&promising&targets&for&reducing&
food&insecurity&via&tailored&policy&initiatives.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
272&
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We&must&act&now&for&food&security.&
Gottlieb,!Robert.!"Community!Food!Security:!Policies!For!A!More!Sustainable!Food!
System!In!The!Context!Of!The!1995!Farm!Bill!And!Beyond."!The!Ralph!and!
Goldy!Lewis!Center!for!Regional!Policy!Studies!UCLA.!January!05,!1995.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!<http://works.bepress.com/rgottlieb/36/>.!
The&policy&proposals&and&overall&policy&analysis&outlined&above&represent&an&
effort&to&broaden&and&integrate&the&distinctive&sustainable&agriculture,&
environmental,&community&development,&and&urban&food/anti`hunger&
discourses.!It!has!sought!to!do!this!in!part!by!identifying!the!links!between!
constituencies,!issues,!and!policies!through!a!common!framework!based!on!food!
security!concepts.!In!doing!so,!it!also!identifies!the!potential!for!a!new!type!of!political!
force!linking!urban!and!rural,!environmental!justice!and!resource!conservation,!
populist!and!social!justice!agendas.!The&time&is&ripe,&if&not&for&adoption&of&these&
policies&in&the&immediate&term,&at&least&for&initiating&a&longer&term&process&for&
establishing&a&sustainable&food&system&based&on&the&principles&of&community&
food&security&and&the&regional&planning&and&community&empowerment&
principles&associated&with&them.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
273&
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Malnutrition&causes&drastic&physical&and&social&effects&within&
weeks.&
Leyton,!G.B.!"The!Effects!Of!Slow!Starvation."!The!Lancet,!Vol.!248,!Issue!6412.!January!
05,!1995.!Web.!February!04,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673646900438#>.!
The!reactions!to!the!reduction&of&diet!from!that!of!a!frontYline!soldier!to!that!in!table!
II!can&be&divided&into&many&stages.&First,!there!was!the&loss&of&the&natural&feeling&
of&well`being.!A!growing!feeling!of!hunger!followed!and!gradually!increased!in!
intensity!until,!after&about&three&weeks,&the&whole&thought!of!the!prisonerYofY
war!was&concentrated&on&his&food.!His!chief!concern!was!how!long!it!was!to!the!next!
meal,!and!by!what!means!he!could!supplement!the!meagre!rations.!This&insistent&
feeling&of&hunger&remained&even&after&years&of&a&low&diet.&It&appeared&even&to&
increase&with&time,&with!the!result!that&the&half`starved&man&would&go&to&the&
greatest&lengths&of&ingenuity&and&dishonesty&to&obtain&small&amounts&of&extra&
nourishment.!Only!when!death!was!imminent!did!the!desire!for!food!slowly!vanish!
and!the!grossly!emaciated!prisoner!become!resigned!to!his!fate,!of!which!he!seemed!to!
be!aware!some!weeks!before!it!happened.!The!next!notable!abnormality!was!a!
progressive!mental!and!physical!lethargy.!The&desire&for&sleep!would!increase!;!the!
number!of!hours!that!an!adult!male!would!wish!to!remain!in!bed,!partly!dozing!but!for!
the!most!part!in!genuine!deep!sleep,!steadily&rose&from&the&normal&eight&hours&to&
sixteen&or&more&out&of&the&twenty`four.!Finally!the&only&way&to&rouse&a&man&from&
his&bed&was&by&the&mention&of&food.!Shortly!after&this&came&rapid&fatigue&in&
mental&and&physical&effort.!The!experienced!cardYplayer,!for!instance,!would!forget!
the!cards!that!had!been!played.!Part!of!this!was!certainly!lack!of!power!of!
concentration,!but!the!major!portion!was!a!lack!of!memory!for!recent!events,!though!
the!memory!for!distant!ones!was!still!normal.!The!young!athlete!trying!to!keep!fit!
found!that!he!could!no!longer!run;!even!walking!left!him!exhausted!and!faint.!Loss!of!
consciousness!from!this!cause,!however,!was!never!observed.!The!ability!to!make!and!
maintain!even!severe!physical!exertion,!when!life!depended!on!it,!was!still!present.!!!!
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Among&comparative&studies,&malnourished&patients&become&
more&susceptible&to&tuberculosis.&
Leyton,!G.B.!"The!Effects!Of!Slow!Starvation."!The!Lancet,!Vol.!248,!Issue!6412.!January!
05,!1995.!Web.!February!04,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673646900438#>.!
The!incidence!of!acute!diseaseYe.g.,!malaria!and!dysenteryYin!British!and!Russian!
patients!was!very!similar.!Chronic!diseaseYe.g.,!nephritis,!diabetes,!carcinoma,!and!
syphilis!was!as!rare!as!would!be!expected!in!the!type!of!patient!examined.!A!most!
remarkable!difference!was!shown,!however,!in&the&incidence&of&pulmonary&
tuberculosis.!Among&the![nourished]!British!the&figure&was!similar!to!that!at!home,!
radiography!of!about!500!patients!showing!an!incidence!oflung&lesions&in&about&1`
2%.!Among!2000![malnourished]&Russians!radiography&detected&tuberculous&
infiltration&in&15%,&and&a&further&4%&had&pleural&effusions&which&were&almost&
certainly&tuberculous.!Of!the!2000!Russians!examined,!184!had!Myc.!tuberculosis!in!
the!sputum,!and!this!in!a!hospital!that!did!not!receive!patients!already!diagnosed!as!
tuberculous.!The&types&of&this&disease&were&somewhat&different&from&those&
generally&seen!in!England.!The&onset&was&more&rapid,&and&the&commonest&type&
almost&bronchopneumonic.!Very!seldom!was!chronic!fibroid!phthisis!seen.!The&
course&was&extraordinarily&rapid,&the&patient&often&dying&in&less&than&six&months&
after&radiography&had&shown&no&sign&of&disease.!The!reaction!to!the!infection!was!
very!poor.!The!pulseYrate!remained!within!normal!limits!until!shortly!before!death,!
and!the!classical!evening!temperature!was!only!found!in!the!most!advanced!cases.!
Clinical!edema,!was!no!commoner!in!the!tuberculous!than!among!the!rest!of!the!
patients.!Necropsy!revealed!that!the&final&cause&of&death&was!not!often!generalised!
miliary!tuberculosis,!the!disease!being!usually!confined&to&the&lungs,&where&large&
cavities&and&massive&tissue&breakdown&were&most!typical.!Tuberculous!ulceration!
of!the!gut!was!occasionally!present.!Only!one!case!of!Addison’s!disease!was!seen,!and!
this!was!found!to!be!due!to!tuberculous!infection!of!the!suprarenal!glands.!!
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Malnourished&individuals&cannot&function&in&society,&leading&
to&a&vicious&cycle&of&hunger.&
Leyton,!G.B.!"The!Effects!Of!Slow!Starvation."!The!Lancet,!Vol.!248,!Issue!6412.!January!
05,!1995.!Web.!February!04,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673646900438#>.!
The!changes&in&the&nervous&system&were&constant&and&uniform.!The!loss&of&
memory,!the!confused&and&uncooperative&state,!the!slowness&of&mental&reactions,!
the!lack&of!power!of!concentration,!the!rapid&fatigue&of!the!mind,!the!slowed!
movement,!and!the!sluggish!reflexes,!can!all!be&explained&by!a!depression!of!the!vital!
activity!of!the!nerveYcell.!Similar!effects!have!been!observed!in!severe!anemia!(Wolff!
1936)!and!among!people!exposed!to!a!reduced!oxygen!tension!at!high!altitudes.!It!has!
been!proved!that!in!these!conditions!the!cause!is!poor&oxygenation&of&the&
tissues!(Leedham!1938).!Though!some!of!the!effects!of!starvation!on!the!nervous!
system!can!be!explained!in!this!way!(the!slower!heartYrate!would!not!improve!
matters),!neither!cyanosis!nor!dyspnea!is!present!in!undernourishment.!May!it!not!be!
that!the!reduction&in!the!plasma`protein&level!only!indicates!that!all!the!body&
tissues&are&suffering&from&part&of&a&general&protein`starvation,!and!that!this!is!the!
underlying!cause!of!the!depression!of!the!nervous!system.!This!depression!cannot!be!
explained!by!an!abnormal!bloodYcalcium!level,!since!this!is!normal!or!reduced!in!
starvation!and!not!increased.!The!effect!of!starvation!on!the!mental!outlook!of!the!
patient!can!roughly!be!assessed!according!to!his!outlook!before!starvation.!His!power!
of!selfYcontrol!and!his!conduct!as!a!civilized!being!last!just!so!long!as!he!can!maintain!
the!veneer!he!has!developed!in!society.!None!of!the!other&hardships!suffered!by!
fighting!men!observed!by!me!brought&about&such&a&rapid&or&complete&
degeneration&of&character&as&chronic&starvation,&and&it&seems&that&the&silent&
areas&of&the&brain&which&control&the&character&suffer&very&early&from&deficient&
nutrition.!Besides!this!it!must!be!remembered!that!the!instinct!of!selfYpreservation!is!
one!of!the!most!powerful!in!animal!life,!and!modern!civilized!man’s!existence!is!
seldom!threatened!by!lack!of!food;!hence!it!is!not!surprising!that!the&half`starved&
man&will&go&to&any&lengths,&even&stealing&from&his&friends,&to&obtain&food&when&
his&life&is&endangered&by&starvation.&Once&the&first&barriers&are&broken&down,&
deterioration&proceeds&rapidly,&especially&when&he&sees&others&behave&like&him.!
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US&relief&programs&targeting&food&security&help&create&
healthy&households.&
Cook,!JohnT.!"Food!Insecurity!Is!Associated!With!Adverse!Health!Outcomes!Among!
Human!Infants!And!Toddlers."!The!Journal!of!Nutrition,!Vol.!134,!No.!6.!January!
06,!2004.!Web.!February!04,!2015.!
<http://jn.nutrition.org/content/134/6/1432.full>.!
Separate!sets!of!models!with!interaction!terms!were!estimated!to!test!whether!
receiving!Food!Stamps!or!TANF!benefits!modified!the!associations!between!food!
insecurity!and!health!status!or!hospitalization!(results!not!shown!in!tables).!For&the&
analysis&of&risk&factors&for&fair/poor&health,&a&significant&interaction&was&found&
between!currently!receiving!Food&Stamps&and&food&insecurity.!This!interaction!
indicated!that!receiving&Food&Stamps&attenuated!(but!did!not!eliminate)!the&
association&between&food&insecurity&and&fair/poor&health.!For!children!in&
households&not&receiving&Food&Stamps,&being&food&insecure&increased&the&odds&
of&fair/poor&health&by&2.11&times,!controlling!for!the!other!covariates!in!the!
model,!whereas&for&those&receiving&Food&Stamps,&being&food&insecure&increased&
the&odds&of&fair/poor&health&by&1.52&times.!A&similar&pattern&was&seen&for&TANF,&
although&the&interaction&was&not&significant.!In!the!analysis!of!hospitalization!since!
birth,!there!was!no!significant!interaction!between!receiving!Food!Stamps!or!TANF!
and!food!insecurity.!!
!
!
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Models&show&that&households&that&lack&food&are&more&likely&
to&be&unhealthy.&
Cook,!JohnT.!"Food!Insecurity!Is!Associated!With!Adverse!Health!Outcomes!Among!
Human!Infants!And!Toddlers."!The!Journal!of!Nutrition,!Vol.!134,!No.!6.!January!
06,!2004.!Web.!February!04,!2015.!
<http://jn.nutrition.org/content/134/6/1432.full>.!
In!models!using!a&dichotomous!(foodYsecure!vs.!foodYinsecure)!food&security&status&
predictor!(Table!3),!children&in&the!CYSNAP!sample!living!in&food`insecure&
households&had&nearly&twice&as&great&odds&of&having&their&health&status&reported&
as&“fair/poor”&as&those&for!similar!children!in&food`secure&households![adjusted!
odds!ratio!(AOR)!1.90;!95%!CI!1.66–2.18]!after!adjusting!for!study!site,!child’s!
race/ethnicity,!health!insurance!and!daycare!status,!mother!born!in!the!U.S,!
caregiver’s!age,!employment,!marital!and!education!status,!household!receipt!of!SSI,!
WIC,!Food!Stamps,!or!TANF.!Children!in!foodYinsecure!households!had!approximately!
a!third!again!as!great!odds!of!being!hospitalized!since!birth!as!foodYsecure!children!
(AOR!1.31;!95%!CI!1.16–1.48)!after!adjusting!for!potential!confounders.!In!models!
using!a&3`category!(food!secure,!food!insecure!without!hunger,!food!insecure!with!
hunger)!food!security!status!predictor(Table!4),!children&in&households&
categorized&as&food&insecure&without&hunger&had&odds&of&health&being&reported&
fair/poor&nearly&three`quarters&again&as&great&as&those&in&food`secure&
households!(AOR!1.73;!95%!CI!1.48–2.02),!whereas!children&in&households&that&
were&food&insecure&with&hunger&had&almost&two&and&one`third&times&as&great&
odds!of!their!health!being!reported!as!fair/poor!as!children!in!food!secure!households!
(AOR!2.31;!95%CI!1.89–2.82).Children!in&both&food`insecure&groups!(without!and!
with!hunger)!had!nearly!a&third&greater&odds&of&being&hospitalized&than!children!in!
foodYsecure!households,!after!controlling!for!potential!confounders!(AOR!1.32;!95%!CI!
1.15–1.52!and!AOR!1.29;!95%!CI!1.06–1.56,!respectively).!!!
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Food&insecurity&lowers&levels&of&child&development.&
Cook,!JohnT.!"Food!Insecurity!Is!Associated!With!Adverse!Health!Outcomes!Among!
Human!Infants!And!Toddlers."!The!Journal!of!Nutrition,!Vol.!134,!No.!6.!January!
06,!2004.!Web.!February!04,!2015.!
<http://jn.nutrition.org/content/134/6/1432.full>.!
Household!food!insecurity!is!a!concern!to!pediatricians!because!it!has!implications!for!
child!health!in!several!ways.!Earlier!versions!of!food&security&measuressimilar!to!the!
18Y!item!U.S.!Food!Security!Scale!were&associated&with&inadequate&intakes&of&
several&important&nutrients!(10–15),!cognitive&developmental&deficits!(16–
23),!behavioral&and&psychosocial&dysfunction&in&children&and&adults!(16,24–
27),!and&poor&health&in&children&and&adults!(11,12,28–30).!The&association&
of!micronutrient!and!proteinYenergy!deficits&with&impaired&immunity&and&wound&
healing!and!thus!with!increased!risk!of!serious!illness!is!alsowell&established!(29–
37).!Recent!research!also!suggests!that!affective&or&psychologic&stresses!such!as!
those!accompanying!resourceYconstrained!food!insecuritycan&influence&child&health&
and&well`being&adversely,&independent&of&associated&nutritional&deficits!(23–
25,29).!Not!being!able!to!purchase!enough!nutritious!food,!and!the!
resultant!emotional&or&psychologic&stresses&arising&in&the&
household,!can&contribute!to!adverse!health!effects!or!exacerbate&poor&health&
caused&by!other!factors,!including!malnutrition!(38–43).!Young,&low`income&
children!in!households!utilizing!urban!medical!centers!represent&a&sentinel&
population&at&high&risk&of&adverse&health&outcomes,&and&may&exhibit&health&
effects&of&food&insecurity&at&levels&of&clinical&severity&or&at&prevalence&rates&that&
are&not&noted&among&children&in&the&general&population!(44–51).!This!study!
evaluates!whether!in!innerYcity!settings,!young!children!in!households!exposed!to!
food!insecurity!have!significantly!different!odds!of!experiencing!negative!health!
outcomes!than!similar!children!in!foodYsecure!families.!
!
!
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We&should&look&at&comparative&moral&costs&and&benefits&of&
any&policy.&
Singer,!Peter.!"Famine,!Affluence,!And!Morality."!Philosophy!&!Public!Affairs,!Vol.!1,!
No.!3.!November!30,!1971.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2265052.pdf?acceptTC=true>.!
My!next!point!is!this:!if&it&is&in&our&power&to&prevent&something&bad&from&
happening,&without&thereby&sacrificing&anything&of&comparable&moral&
importance,&we&ought,!morally,!to&do&it.!By!"without!sacrificing!anything!of!
comparable!moral!importance"!I&mean&without&causing&anything&else&comparably&
bad&to&happen,&or&doing&something&that&is&wrong&in&itself,&or&failing&to&promote&
some&moral&good,&comparable&in&significance&to&the&bad&thing&that&we&can&
prevent.!This!principle!seems!almost!as!uncontroversial!as!the!last!one.!It!requires!us!
only!to!prevent!what!is!bad,!and!not!to!promote!what!is!good,!and!it!requires!this!of!us!
only!when!we!can!do!it!without!sacrificing!anything!that!is,!from!the!moral!point!of!
view,!comparably!important.!I!could!even,!as!far!as!the!application!of!my!argument!to!
the!Bengal!emergency!is!concerned,!qualify!the!point!so!as!to!make!it:!if!it!is!in!our!
power!to!prevent!something!very!bad!from!happening,!without!thereby!sacrificing!
anything!morally!significant,!we!ought,!morally,!to!do!it.!An&application&of&this&
principle&would&be&as&follows:&if&I&am&walking&past&a&shallow&pond&and&see&a&child&
drowning&in&it,&I&ought&to&wade&in&and&pull&the&child&out.&This&will&mean&getting&
my&clothes&muddy,&but&this&is&insignificant,&while&the&death&of&the&child&would&
presumably&be&a&very&bad&thing.!
!!
!!!
!
!
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36&million&Americans&are&food&insecure.&
Berg,!Joel.!"!Introduction!Y!Hunger!Amidst!Plenty:!A!Problem!As!American!As!Apple!
Pie."!All!You!Can!Excerpt.!January!11,!2008.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://joelberg.net/book/allY!youYcanYexcerpt/>.!
When&people&look&at&the&facts!for!themselves,!they&discover&the&shocking&reality:&
hunger&amidst&a&sea&of&plenty&is&a&phenomenon&as&American&as&baseball,&jazz,&
and&apple&pie.&Today&in&the&United&StatesYbecause!tens!of!millions!of!people!live!
below!the!meager!federal!poverty!line!and!because!tens!of!millions!of!others!hover!
just!above!it!Y!35.5&million&Americans,!including!12.6!million!children,!live&in&a&
condition&described&by&the&federal&government&as&“food&insecurity,”&which&
means&their&households&either&suffer&from&hunger&or&struggle&at&the&brink&of&
hunger.!Primarily!because!federal!antiYhunger!safety!net!programs!have!worked,!
American!children!are!no!longer!dying!in!significant!numbers!as!an!immediate!result!
of!famineYlike!conditions!Y!though!children!did!die!of!malnutrition!here!as!recently!as!
the!late!1960s.!Still,!despite&living&in&a&nation&with&so&many&luxury&homes!that!the!
term!“McMansion”!has!come!into!popular!usage,!millions&of&American&adults&and&
children&have&so&little&ability&to&afford&food&that&they&do&go&hungry&at&different&
points&throughout&the&year`and&are&otherwise&forced&to&spend&money&on&food&
that&should&have&been&spent&on&other&necessities,&like&heat,&health&care,&or&
proper&child&care.!Most!alarmingly,!the&problem&has&only&gotten&worse&in&recent&
years.!!
Champion)Briefs)
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281&
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Price&volatility&can&trigger&large&scale&harms&to&the&poor,&
producers,&and&the&state.&
FAO.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food."!Right!to!Food.!2011.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public
ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.pdf!>.!
Volatility,!in&terms&of&significant&and&frequent&changes&in&the&direction&and&
magnitude&of&food&prices,&results&in&harmful&effects&to&producers,&consumers&and&
states.!This&phenomenon&puts&at&risk&decisions&made&by&producers&about&what&
and&how&much&to&produce.!In!the!case!of!events&provoking&soaring&prices,&people&
with&low&incomes&have&significantly&reduced&purchase&capacity&and&the&
inequalities&are&expanded.!During!2006!and!2008!period!for!example!the!increased!
prices!were!a!major!factor!in!the!increase!in!the!number!of!hungry!people!to!more!
than!one!billion.!This&situation&may&be&a&threat&for&the&states&also&because&they&
may&confront&high&inflationary&situations&with&unexpected&fiscal&and&budgetary&
repercussions,&thus&generating&considerable&social&tension!
!
!
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When&prices&are&low&states&often&stop&preparing&for&food&
volatility.&
FAO.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food."!Right!to!Food.!2011.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public
ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.pdf!>.!
!FAO&studied&&the&different&policy’s&tools&applied&in&81&countries&in&the&past&food&
prices&crisis&during&2006&and&2008.&Analyzing&the&measures&used&we&realize&that&
the&main&part&were&initiatives&addressed&to&mitigate&the&high&level&prices&to&the&
consumer.!Governments!turned!mainly!to!measures!which!could!be!implemented!in!a!
fast!and!simple!way.!However,!partly!due&to&the&low&food&prices&which&existed&
during&the&past&decade&(in!real!terms),!there&were&no&incentives&to&invest&in&the&
agricultural&sector&and&the&public&capacity&to&operate&in&the&rural&area&was&
dismantled.!Consequently&the&different&measures&implemented&were&not&only&
insufficient,&but&also&failed&to&achieve&the&expected&results.!The!decrease!in!food!
prices!which!occurred!in!the!second!semester!of!2008!provoked!many!governments!to!
deactivate!those!measures!thereby!obtaining!only!short!term!results.!!!
Champion)Briefs)
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283&
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There&needs&to&be&strong&political&commitment&to&food&
security&to&solve&hunger.&
FAO.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World."!Rome,!FAO.!2011.!Web.!February!
06,!2015.!<http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.!
Sustained&political&commitment&at&the&highest&level&is&a&prerequisite&for&hunger&
eradication.&It&entails&placing&food&security!and!nutrition!at&the&top&of&the&
political&agenda&and&creating&an&enabling&environment&for&improving&food&
security!and!nutrition!through&adequate&investments,&better&policies,&legal&
frameworks,&stakeholder&participation&and&a&strong&evidence&base.!Institutional!
reforms!are!also!needed!to!promote!and!sustain!progress.!Regions!as!well!as!countries!
have!strengthened!their!political!commitment!to!food!security!and!nutrition!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
284&
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Solving&hunger&is&possible;&history&proves.&
FAO.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World."!Rome,!FAO.!2011.!Web.!February!
06,!2015.!<http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.!
Since&1990–92,&the&number&of&hungry&people&has&fallen&by&over&200&million.&This&
is&proof&that&we&can&win&the&war&against&hunger&and&should&inspire&countries&to&
move&forward,!with!the!assistance!of!the!international!community!as!needed,!by&
finding&individual&sets&of&action&that&respond&to&their&national&needs&and&
specificities.!This!is!the!first!step!to!achieving!the!other!MDGs!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Solving&hunger&is&possible;&we’re&making&good&progress.&
FAO.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World."!Rome,!FAO2011.!Web.!February!06,!
2015.!<http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.!
The&decline&in&the&share&of&hungry&people&has&been&more&impressive&than&the&
reduction&in&absolute&numbers.!Between&1990–92&and&2012–14,&the&prevalence&
of&undernourishment&has&fallen&from&18.7&percent&to&11.3&percent&at&the&global&
level,&and&from&23.4&percent&to&13.5&percent&in&developing&countries.!This!means!
that!the!MDG!1c!hunger!target!of!halving!the!proportion!of!undernourished!people!by!
2015!is!within!reach.!If&the&current&trend&of&a&reduction&of&about&0.5&percent&per&
year&since&1990–92&continues,&the&prevalence&of&undernourishment&in&
developing&regions&would&reach&12.8&percent&in&2015!–!1.1!percentage!points!
above!the!MDG!target!of!11.7!percent!(Figure!1).!With&greater&efforts,&particularly&
in&sub`Saharan&Africa&and&Southern&and&Western&Asia,&the&trend&in&hunger&
reduction&can&be&accelerated!to!meet!the!MDG!hunger!target.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Even&though&progress&has&been&made&across&the&globe&there&
are&still&regions&where&more&effort&needs&to&be&made.&
FAO.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World."!Rome,!FAO.!2011.!Web.!February!
06,!2015.!<http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.!
Many&developing&countries&have&made&significant&progress&in&improving&food&
security&and&nutrition,&but&this&progress&has&been&uneven&across&both&regions&
and&dimensions&of&food&security.!Large!challenges!remain!in!the!area!of!food!
utilization.&Despite&considerable&improvements&over&the&last&two&
decades,!stunting,!underweight!and!micronutrient!deficiencies&remain&stubbornly&
high,6&&even&where&availability&and&access&no&longer&pose&problems.&At&the&same&
time,&access&to&food&remains&an&important&challenge&for&many&developing&
countries,!even!if!significant!progress!has!been!made!over!the!last!two!decades,&due!
to!income!growth!and!poverty!reduction!in!many!countries!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Growth&alone&can’t&solve.&States&need&to&ensure&security.&
Latin&America&proves.&
FAO.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World."!Rome,!FAO!2011.!Web.!February!06,!
2015.!<http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.!
Latin&America!as!a!subregion,!particularly!South!America,!overcame&its&food&
availability&problems&decades&ago,&with&food&production&now&well&in&excess&of&
consumption.&Latin&America&has&established&itself&as&a&major&agricultural&
exporter,&with!the!agriculture!sector!becoming!an!engine!of!domestic!economic!and!
employment!growth!for!countries!in!the!region.!However,&such&growth&has&not&been&
sufficiently&inclusive&to&ensure&access&to&food&for&all,&underscoring&that&
economic&growth&alone&is&not&enough&to&ensure&sustainable&food&security&and&
nutrition.&Several&countries&in&the&region&have&successfully&addressed&this&
challenge&with&targeted&social&protection&measures,!which!have!significantly!
improved!access.!Without&these&measures,&progress&towards&food&security&in&the&
region&would&have&been&limited&or&possibly&even&reversed.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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India&needs&food&security&now.&
Kannan,!K.P.!"Concerns!On!Food!Security."!Economic!and!Political!Weekly.!October!11,!
2000.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4409916>.!
Going!by!the!experience!in!such!international!fora!as!the!World!Food!Summit!and!the!
WTO!where!every&country,&rich&or&poor,&considers&food&security&as&closely&
related&to&its&national&interest&and&security,!it!is!likely!to!remain!a!matter!of!
national!concern!with!or!without!economic!liberalisation.!The&total&production&of&
foodgrains&in&India&equals&the&world&trade&in&foodgrains.&The&total&number&of&
malnourished&people&in&India!(around!300!million)!is&equal&to&the&total&
population&of&the&US&or&the&population&of&Latin&America&and&Africa&put&together.!
The!lessons!of!these!critical!factors!should!not!be!lost!sight!of!in!our!continuing!
process!of!economic!liberalisation.!Trade&may&be&encouraged&to&manage&food&
supply&taking&into&account&the&contingencies&from&time&to&time.&Given&the&size&of&
the&country,&both&in&terms&of&population&and&geography,&and&the&diversities&in&
agro`climatic&conditions,&food&preferences&and&other&regional&factors,&India&will&
have&to&adopt&a&cautious&policy&with&regard&to&trade&in&food.&There&is&no&
alternative&to&continued&domestic&policy&support&for&foodgrains&and&oil&seeds.&
World&prices&are&generally&volatile&and&world&supply&is&controlled&by&a&few&
countries&and&their&multinational&corporations&and&as&such&excessive&
dependence&on&world&trade&may&threaten&the&country's&food&security.!However,!
there!are!also!some!advantages!for!India!for!improving!food!security!due!to!WTO!and!
intellectual!property!rights.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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AFF:&Util&AC&
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March/April&2015&
We&must&look&at&availability&and&utilization&when&examining&
food&security.&
Tweeten,!Luther.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security."!Review!of!Agricultural!
Economics.,!1999.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/1349892>.!
The&widespread&practice&of&defining&food&security&as&access&to&food&does&not&
recognize&two&other&important&dimensions&of&food&security`availability&and&
utilization.&Availability&of&food&refers&to&the&supply&of&food&from&production,&
imports,&or&stocks&and&is&not&now&of&overriding&interest,&given&the&rising&per&
capita&global&supply&apparent&in&table&2.!Amartya!Sen!observed!that!even!in!the!
severe!Bengal!famine!of!1943!food!was!available.!However,!many&people&did&not&
have&access&to&food&because&(a)&they&lacked&buying&power`a&situation&that&higher&
economic&productivity&would&have&diminished,&(b)&price&was&excessive`a&
situation&that&freer&trade&or&larger&stocks&might&have&diminished,&or&(c)&they&did&
not&have&access&to&transfers`a&situation&that&a&greater&sense&of&community&would&
have&diminished.&Given!the!high!likelihood!that!food!will!be!available!in!world!
markets!for!anyone!with!buying!power!in!the!foreseeable!future,!perhaps!it!is!not!
surprising!that!accessibility!is!the!major!constraint!to!food!security.!The&very&young,&
the&elderly,&landless&peasants,&smallholders,&and&hired&agricultural&workers&
often&are&poor&and&lack&access&to&food&(Barraclough,!p.!42).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Access&is&key.&
Tweeten,!Luther.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security."!Review!of!Agricultural!
Economics,!1999.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/1349892>.!
Because&most&food`insecure&people&live&in&rural&areas&of&developing&countries,&
food&production!(availability)!is&also&buying&power!(accessibility)!for!many!
people.!It&is&important&to&emphasize&that&food&consumers&outnumber&producers&
in&every&country;&hence,&arbitrarily&raising&food&prices&above&market&levels&by&
government&programs&or&other&nonmarket&means&usually&diminishes&rather&
than&enhances&food&security&even&though&food&producers&gain.!
Nonetheless,!raising&access&to&food&by&increasing&productivity&and&real&incomes&
of&food`insecure&people&remains&the&principal&route&to&food&security.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
291&
AFF:&Util&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Infrastructure&is&key&to&food&security.&
Tweeten,!Luther.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And!
Combined!Dependency."!Review!of!Agricultural!Economics.!1999.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!<http://www.jstor.org/stable/1349892>.!
Despite&per&capita&world&food&supplies&being&more&than&adequate&to&provide&
food&security&to&all,&food&or&income&transfers&among&nations&cannot&be&the&
principal&instrument&to&end&food&insecurity.!One!reason!is!because!altruism!is!too!
limited!and!fickle!to!provide!sufficient,!reliable!transfers.&Heavy&dependence&on&
transfers&could&discourage&local&production&and&create&an&unhealthy&
dependency&of&poor&nations&and&individuals&on&rich&nations,&agencies,&and&
individuals.&Massive&food&transfers&would&destroy&incentives&for&local&food&
producers.!A!nation!must!have!a!"pie"!of!purchasing!power!to!divide!and!share!
among!its!foodYinsecure!people.!Because&it&is&the&poor&who&lack&access&to&food,&
alleviating&food&insecurity&means&alleviating&poverty.&Most&of&the&world's&poor,&
the&1.3&billion&people&with&incomes&of&less&than&$1&per&day!(updated!from!World!
Bank!1990,!p.!29),!will&have&to&escape&poverty&and&food&insecurity&through&
economic&growth.&Economic&growth&largely&was&responsible&for&the&158&million&
reduction&in&numbers&of&undernourished&people&in&East,&South,&and&Southeast&
Asia!from!1979Y1981!to!1990Y1992!(table!1).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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Climate&change&and&food&security&are&intrinsically&linked.&
Gregory,!P.J.!"Food!Crops!In!A!Changing!Climate."!The!Royal!Society.!11Y29Y05.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569578/>.!
The&links&between&climate&change&and&food&security&have,!to!date,!largely!been&
explored&in&relation&to&impacts&on&crop&productivity!and!hence,!food!production.!
For!instance,!Gregory!et!al.!(1999)!summarized!experimental!findings!on!wheat!and!
rice!that!indicated!decreased!crop!duration!(and!hence!yield)!of!wheat!as!a!
consequence!of!warming!and!reductions!in!yields!of!rice!of!about!5%!0CY1!rise!above!
32!0C.!These!effects!of!temperature!were!considered!sufficiently!detrimental!that!they!
would!largely!offset!any!increase!in!yield!as!a!consequence!of!increased!atmospheric!
carbon!dioxide!(CO2)!concentration.Several&reviews&(e.g.!Amthor!2001;!Fuhrer!
2003)!have&further&assessed&the&potential&consequences&of&changes&in&climate&on&
the&growth&and&yield&of&crop&plants,&concluding&that&the&earlier`anticipated&
benefits&of&CO2&fertilization&would&be&largely&offset&by&nutrient&limitations,&
pollutants&and&further&interactions&with&climatic&factors&(see!also!Long!et!al.!
2005).!Similarly,!simulations!of!maize!production!in!Africa!and!Latin!America!using!
climate!data!from!the!HadCM2!model!to!generate!characteristic!daily!weather!data!for!
2055!predicted!an!overall!reduction!of!10%!(Jones!&!Thornton!2003).!This,!and!other!
similar!projections,!uses&a&process`based&crop&production&model&(such!as!the!crop!
environment!resource!synthesis!family)!to&link&climate&to&plant&physiological&
processes.&Yield&can&then&be&modelled&for&a&uniform&crop&and&upscaled&to&a&
larger&area&normally&within&some&form&of&geographic&information&
system&(GIS).!The&aggregate&result&of&Jones&&&Thornton&(2003),&though,&hides&
considerable&variability&within&and&between&countries,&and,&as&they&point&out,&
also&ignores&the&fact&that&maize&is&commonly&used&as&fodder&as&well&as&food&as&
part&of&a&complex&production&system.!
Champion)Briefs)
293&
AFF:&Util&AC&
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March/April&2015&
Climate&change&harms&food&security.&
Gregory,!P.J.!"Food!Crops!In!A!Changing!Climate."!The!Royal!Society.!11Y29Y05.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569578/>.!
The&spectre&of&climate&change,&together&with&other&global&environmental&
changes&such&as&changes&in&water&availability,&and&land&cover,&and&altered&
nitrogen&availability&and&cycling&(all!strongly!influenced!by!human!activities),!has&
increased&concerns&about&achieving&food&security&especially&for&poor&
people!(Gregory!&!Ingram!2000;!Parry!et!al.!2001;!Rosegrant!&!Cline!2003).!There&is&
also&concern&that&meeting&the&global&demand&for&food&resulting&from&higher&
population&and&changing&dietary&preferences&will&further&degrade&the&
environment&both&through&additional&destruction&of&native&vegetation&and&
increased&intensification&of&cropped&areas&(Tilman!et!al.!2001).!This&may,&in&turn,&
further&undermine&the&food&systems&upon&which&food&security&is&based.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&depends&on&availability,&access,&and&utilization.&
Gregory,!P.J.!"Food!Crops!In!A!Changing!Climate."!The!Royal!Society.!11Y29Y05.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569578/>.!
Recognition&that&food&security&depends&on&robust&food&systems&that&encompass&
issues&of&availability,&access&and&utilization!(not!merely!production!alone),and&
consequently&that&the&nature&of&key&research&issues&changes&as&questions&more&
related&to&food&security&are&formulated!(figure!1),!led&the&international&global&
change&research&community&to&establish&the&joint&project&global&environmental&
change&and&food&systems!(GECAFS)!in!2001.!GECAFS!is!an!interdisciplinary!research!
programme!that!aims!to!improve!understanding!of!the!relationship!between!food!
systems!and!the!earth!system!to!deliver!scienceYbased!tools!for!analysing!socioY
economic!and!environmental!consequences!of!strategies!seeking!to!adapt!to!climate!
and!other!environmental!changes.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
We&must&fight&climate&change&to&provide&food&security.&
Gregory,!P.J.!"Food!Crops!In!A!Changing!Climate."!The!Royal!Society.!11Y29Y05.!Web.!
February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569578/>.!
In&2000,&the&member&states&of&the&United&Nations&committed&themselves&to&eight&
Millennium&Development&Goals,&each&with&specific,&measurable&targets&that&
should&be&met&by&2015.&The&first&goal,&that&of&eradicating&extreme&hunger&and&
poverty&calls&for&halving&of&hunger&and&poverty&by&2015&in&relation&to&1990.!This!
goal!specifically!recognizes!the!agricultureYhungerYpoverty!nexus!and!the!limited!
coping!capability!that!poverty!induces.!While&increased&agricultural&productivity&is&
a&key&step&in&reducing&rural&poverty!(Von!Braun!et!al.!2004),!favourable!macroY
economic!and!trade!policies,!good!infrastructure,!and!access!to!credit,!land!and!
markets!are!also!required!for!fast!rates!of!growth.!Climate&change&will&add&a&further&
dimension&to&the&challenge&of&ensuring&food&security&for&all&with&the&poor&most&
vulnerable&because&of&their&restricted&options&for&coping.!This!paper!
demonstrates!that!climate!change!is!only!one!of!several!changes!affecting!food!
systems!and!that!its!relative!importance!varies!both!between!regions!and!between!
different!societal!groups!within!a!region.&Adaptations&of&food&systems&via&
interventions&in&availability,&access&and&utilization&are&possible&to&cope&with&
climate&change&at&different&scales&although&their&feedbacks&to&the&earth&system&
have&yet&to&be&fully&assessed.!
Champion)Briefs)
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Champion Briefs
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Lincoln-Douglas Brief
Evidence for the
Negative
NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC&
March/April&2015&
Collective&labor&is&liable&to&incentive&problems.&
YifuLin,!Justin.!"Collectivization!And!China's!Agricultural!Crisis!In!1959Y1961."!Journal!
of!Political!Economy,!Vol.!98,!No.!6.!December!12,!1989.!Web.!February!05,!
2015.!<http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2937756.pdf>.!
From!the!game!theory!point!of!view,!the&deprivation&of&the&right&to&withdraw&has&a&
significant&impact&on&the&incentive&structure&of&the&collective.!When&the&freedom&
to&quit&exists,!at!the!end!of!each!production!round,!the&members&of&a&collective&can&
decide&whether&they&want&to&participate&in&the&collective&in&the&next&round.!
Those!who!find!that!they!are!better!off!being!members!of!the!collective!will!retain!
their!membership.!Otherwise,!they!will!withdraw!from!the!collective.!Because!in&
China&a&household's&landholding&is&highly&fragmented&and&the&size&is&often&too&
small&for&that&household&to&raise&a&draft&animal&alone,&certain&gains&can&be&
obtained&by&pooling&the&land&and&farm&tools&of&several&households!(Chinn!
1980).!The&gain&from&the&economies&of&scale,!nevertheless,!is&overshadowed&by&
the&incentive&issue&arising&from&the&difficulties&of&supervision&in&agricultural&
production.!To!make!a!collective!an!efficient!institution,!some!effective!substitute!for!
supervision!is!required.!A!self`enforcing&agreement!among&collective&members!in!
which!each!one!promises!to!provide!as!much!effort!as!on!the!household!farm!is&
an&effective!alternative!when!supervision!is!too!costly.13!Certainly,!because!of!the!
heterogeneity!in!personal!preferences,!abilities,!and!endowments,!a!member!may!
determine!that!he!or!she!will!be!better!off!by!reneging!on!the!agreement.!That!is,!the!
member!breaks!the!promise!and!does!not!contribute!as!much!to!production!as!initially!
proposed.!When!this!is!the!case,!the!other!members!in!the!collective!have!to!decide!
whether!to!stay!in!the!collective!and!allow!this!member!to!be!continuously!derelict!
toward!the!agreement!or!to!withdraw!from!the!collective!and!resume!household!
farming.!If!they!find!that!the!losses!due!to!this!member's!default!are!larger!than!the!
gains!from!the!economies!of!scale,!the!collective!will!disintegrate.!However,!the&
possibility&of&the&collective's&collapse&obliges&the&would`be&shirker&to&rethink&
the&position:&Should&the&member&break&the&promise&and&let&the&collective&
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC&
March/April&2015&
collapse&or&honor&the&commitment&and&prevent&the&disintegration&of&the&
collective?&Shirking!in!the!current!round!definitely!leaves!the!member!better!off!at!
the!end!of!this!round.!But!if!the!collective!collapses,!the!gains!from!the!economies!of!
scale!are!lost!from!the!second!round!on.!If!the!discounted!present!value!of!future!
losses!is!larger!than!the!oneYtime!gains!in!this!round,!the!member!will!honor!the!
agreement.!Therefore,&it&is&the&threat&of&a&collective's&collapse&that&greatly&
reduces&the&incidence&of&shirking.&This!implicit!threat!also!guarantees!that!the!
production!in!a!voluntarily!formed!collective!will!be!at!least!as!good!as!the!sum!of!
production!of!a!group!of!households!working!separately.'4!At!the!worst,!even!if!the!
collective!collapses,!household!production!will!remain!at!the!same!level!reached!
before!the!formation!of!the!collective.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
299&
NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC&
March/April&2015&
Collectivized&food&production&is&uniquely&difficult.&
YifuLin,!Justin.!"Collectivization!And!China's!Agricultural!Crisis!In!1959Y1961."!Journal!
of!Political!Economy,!Vol.!98,!No.!6.!December!12,!1989.!Web.!February!05,!
2015.!<http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2937756.pdf>.!
However,!when&a&collective&is&imposed,!from!the!viewpoint!of!the!possibility!of!
withdrawal,!the&nature&of!the!collective!is&changed&to&that&of&a&one`time&game.!It&
becomes&impossible&to&use&withdrawal!either!as!a!way!to!protect!oneself!or!as!a!
means!to!check!the!possibility!of!shirking!by!the!other!members.!Consequently,!the&
self`enforcing&agreement&cannot&be&sustained!in!a!oneYtimeYgame!collective!
(Telser!1980).!Supervision&becomes&crucial!in!establishing!work!incentives!and!
productivity!levels!in!the!collective.!If!supervision!is!effective!and!rewards!are!closely!
related!to!each!individual's!effort!contribution!in!production,!work!incentives!will!be!
high.!Conversely,!if&supervision&is&ineffective!and!rewards!are!not!closely!related!to!
each!individual's!effort!contribution!in!production,!the!incentives&will&be&low.!Since&
supervision&in&agricultural&production&is&extremely&difficult&and&too&costly,&the&
incentives&to&work&in&a&compulsorily&formed&agricultural&collective&must&be&
low.!A&peasant&will&not&work&as&hard&as&on&the&household&farm&(Lin!
1988).!Therefore,&the&productivity&level&of&a&collective&will&be&lower&than&the&
level&reached&on&the&individual&household&farm.&The&collective&is&besieged&by&the&
"prisoner's&dilemma."'!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
300&
NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC&
March/April&2015&
Collectives&eventually&become&compulsory&–&which&destroys&
productivity&and&individual&rights.&
YifuLin,!Justin.!"Collectivization!And!China's!Agricultural!Crisis!In!1959Y1961."!Journal!
of!Political!Economy,!Vol.!98,!No.!6.!December!12,!1989.!Web.!February!05,!
2015.!<http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2937756.pdf>.!
In!the!developing!countries,!collectivization!has!been!promoted!as!a!strategy!for!the!
development!of!agriculture.!However,!the&pattern&of&collectivization&not&only&in&
China&but&also&in&the&Soviet&Union&and&other&countries&shows&that&the&initial&
success&of&this&movement&was!followed&by&severe&difficulties&and&a&long&period&of&
stagnation&in&agriculture.20!This!paper!attempts!to!explain!this!phenomenon!by!the!
following!arguments.!Since!effective!supervision!in!agricultural!production!is!too!
costly,!the!success!of!an!agricultural!collective!depends!inescapably!on!a!tacit!
agreement!of!selfYdiscipline!established!by!the!collective!members.!However,!a!selfY
enforcing!agreement!can!be!sustained!only!if!the!members!of!the!collective!have!the!
right!to!quit!the!collective!when!the!other!members!do!not!honor!their!agreement.!At!
the!initial!stage!of!a!collectivization!movement,!the!right!to!withdraw,!in!general,!is!
well!respected.!Consequently,!the!selfYenforcing!agreements!in!most!collectives!can!be!
sustained!and!the!overall!agricultural!performance!is!improved.!However,!there&is&a&
built`in&danger&in&the&initial&success&of&a&collectivization&movement.!Because!of!
the!differences!in!their!time!preferences,!abilities,!and!other!endowments,some&
members&of&a&collective&may&take&advantage&of&the&low&supervision&in&the&
collective&and&attempt&to&evade&the&responsibilities&stipulated&in&their&self`
enforcing&agreement.!Consequently,!the!disintegration!of!some!collectives!is!
inevitable,!even!though!the!overall!performance!of!the!movement!is!successful.!The!
collapse!of!some!collectives!is!like!a!safety!valve!for!the!collectivization!movement.!It!
makes!potential!violators!of!the!selfYenforcing!agreement!realize!that!honoring!the!
agreement!is!to!their!advantage.!Encouraged!by!the!initial!success,!however,!zealous&
political&leaders!of!a!collectivization!movementmay&interpret!differently!the&
Champion)Briefs)
301&
NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC&
March/April&2015&
withdrawal!of!some!individual!members!from!the!collectives.!These!individuals!are!
viewed!as&the&enemies&of&the&movement.!To!prevent!the!further!collapse!of!other!
collectives,!the!right!to!withdraw!is!deprived.!The&collectivization&is&thus&
changed!from!a!voluntary!to&a&compulsory&movement,!and!the!safety!valve!is!
removed.!If&this&change!in!the!nature!of!the!colleCollctivization!movement!happens&
gradually,&agricultural&performance&declines&gradually.!If&this&change&happens&
swiftly,&a&devastating&agricultural&crisis`like&the&one&in&the&Soviet&Union&between&
1929&and&1932&and&the&one&in&China&between&1959&and&1961&`follows&
immediately.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
302&
NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC&
March/April&2015&
Our&only&natural&right&is&the&opportunity&to&act.&
Rand,!Ayn.!"The!Objectivist!Ethics."!Ethics!in!Our!Time.!September!02,!1961.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!<http://www.nscp.org/uploaded_files/1/files/iaYlabY3Y
supplemental.pdf>.!
Consciousness—for!those!living!organisms!which!possess!it—is!the!basic!means!of!
survival.!For!man,!the!basic!means!of!survival!is!reason.!Man&cannot&survive,!as!
animals!do,!by&the&guidance&of&mere&percepts.&A&sensation&of&hunger&will&tell&him&
that&he&needs&food!(if!he!has!learned!to!identify!it!as!“hunger”),!but&it&will&not&tell&
him&how&to&obtain&his&food&and&it&will&not&tell&him&what&food&is&good&for&him&or&
poisonous.!He!cannot!provide!for!his!simplest!physical!needs!without!a!process!of!
thought.!He!needs!a!process!of!thought!to!discover!how!to!plant!and!grow!his!food!or!
how!to!make!weapons!for!hunting.!His!percepts!might!lead!him!to!a!cave,!if!one!is!
available—but!to!build!the!simplest!shelter,!he!needs!a!process!of!thought.!No&
percepts&and&no&“instincts”&will&tell&him&how&to&light&a&fire,!how!to!weave!cloth,!
how!to!forge!tools,!how!to!make!a!wheel,!how!to!make!an!airplane,!how!to!perform!an!
appendectomy,!how!to!produce!an!electric!light!bulb!or!an!electronic!tube!or!a!
cyclotron!or!a!box!of!matches.!Yet&his&life&depends&on&such&knowledge—and&only&
a!volitional!act!of!his!consciousness,!a!process&of&thought,&can&provide&it.!But!man’s!
responsibility!goes!still!further:!a&process&of&thought&is&not&automatic!nor!
“instinctive”!nor!involuntary—nor!infallible.&Man&has&to&initiate&it,&to&sustain&it&and&
to&bear&responsibility&for&its&results.!He&has&to&discover&how&to&tell&what&is&true&
or&false&and&how&to&correct&his&own&errors;!he!has!to!discover!how!to!validate!his!
concepts,!his!conclusions,!his!knowledge;!he!has!to!discover!the!rules!of!thought,!the!
laws!of!logic,!to!direct!his!thinking.!Nature&gives&him&no&automatic&guarantee&of&the&
efficacy&of&his&mental&effort.!
!
!
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Humans&naturally&act&to&deprive&themselves&of&basic&
necessities.&
Rand,!Ayn.!"The!Objectivist!Ethics."!Ethics!in!Our!Time.!September!02,!1961.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!<http://www.nscp.org/uploaded_files/1/files/iaYlabY3Y
supplemental.pdf>.!
Nothing&is&given&to&man&on&earth&except&a&potential&and&the&material&on&which&to&
actualize&it.&The&potential&is!a!superlative!machine:!his!consciousness;!but!it!is!a!
machine!without!a!spark!plug,!a!machine!of&which!his!own!will&has&to&be&the&spark&
plug,!the!selfYstarter!and!the!driver;!he!has!to!discover!how!to!use!it!and!he!has!to!
keep!it!in!constant!action.!The&material&is&the&whole&of&the&universe,!with!no!limits!
set!to!the!knowledge!he!can!acquire!and!to!the!enjoyment!of!life!he!can!achieve.!But&
everything&he&needs&or&desires&has&to&be&learned,&discovered&and&produced&
by!him—by!his!own!choice,!by&his&own&effort,!by!his!own!mind.!A!being!who!does!not!
know!automatically!what!is!true!or!false,!cannot!know!automatically!what!is!right!or!
wrong,!what!is!good!for!him!or!evil.!Yet!he!needs!that!knowledge!in!order!to!live.!He&is&
not&exempt&from&the&laws&of&reality,!he!is!a!specific!organism!of!a!specific!nature!
that!requires!specific!actions!to!sustain!his!life.!He!cannot!achieve!his!survival!by!
arbitrary!means!nor!by!random!motions!nor!by!blind!urges!nor!by!chance!nor!by!
whim.!That!which!his!survival!requires!is!set!by!his!nature!and!is!not!open!to!his!
choice.!What!is!open!to!his!choice!is!only!whether!he!will!discover!it!or!not,!whether!
he!will!choose!the!right!goals!and!values!or!not.!He&is&free&to&make&the&wrong&
choice,&but&not&free&to&succeed&with&it.!He!is!free!to!evade!reality,!he!is!free!to!
unfocus!his!mind!and!stumble!blindly!down!any!road!he!pleases,!but!not!free!to!avoid!
the!abyss!he!refuses!to!see.!Knowledge,!for!any!conscious!organism,!is!the!means!of!
survival;!to!a!living!consciousness,!every!“is”!implies!an!“ought.”!Man!is!free!to!choose!
not!to!be!conscious,!but!not!free!to!escape!the!penalty!of!unconsciousness:!
destruction.!Man&is&the&only&living&species&that&has&the&power&to&act&as&his&own&
destroyer—and&that&is&the&way&he&has&acted&through&most&of&his&history!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
In&the&US,&food&security&is&not&a&chronic&problem.&
ColemanYJensen,!Alisha.!"Household!Food!Security!In!The!United!States!In!2013."!
United!States!Department!of!Agriculture.!December!09,!2013.!Web.!February!
06,!2015.!<http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/183589/2/ERR173.pdf>.!
When&households&experience&very&low&food&security&in&the&United&States,!the!
resulting!instances!of!reduced&food&intake&and&disrupted&eating&patterns&are&
usually&occasional&or!episodic!but!are!not!usually!chronic.!The!food!security!
measurement!methods!used!in!this!report!are!designed!to!register!these!occasional!or!
episodic!occurrences.!The&questions&used&to&assess&households’&food&security&
status&ask&whether&a&condition,!experience,!or!behavior!occurred&at&any&time&in&
the&past&12&months,&and&households&can&be&classified&as&having&very&low&food&
security&based&on&a&single,!severe!episode&during&the&year.!It&is&important&to&keep&
this&aspect&of&the&measure&in&mind&when&interpreting&food&insecurity&statistics.!
Analyses!of!additional!information!collected!in!the!food!security!survey!on!how!
frequently!various!foodYinsecure!conditions!occurred!during!the!year,!whether!they!
occurred!during!the!30!days!prior!to!the!survey,!and,!if!so,!in!how!many!days,!provide!
insight!into!the!frequency!and!duration!of!food!insecurity!in!U.S.!households.!These!
analyses!reveal!that!in!2013:!
!
!
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Food&security&programs&are&econometrically&flawed.&
Gunderson,!Craig.!"The!Food!Stamp!Program!And!Food!Insufficiency."!American!
Journal!of!Agricultural!Economics,!Vol.!83,!No.!4.!December!11,!2003.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/1244700?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.!
This!small&impact&of&food&stamps&on&food&insufficiency&may&still&be&surprising&to&
policy&makers.!The!small&impact&could&perhaps&be&due&to!three!sources!of!bias!
discussed!in!this!article:!the&existence&of&unobserved&variables&effecting&both&the&
decision&to&receive&food&stamps&and&the&propensity&to&receive&food&stamps;&the&
possible&overreporting&of&food&insufficiency&by&food&stamp&participants;&and&the&
underreporting&of&food&stamp&participation&by&food`sufficient&households.!
Future!research!should!concentrate!on!lessening!these!sources!of!bias.!The!increased!
merging!of!administrative!records!with!surveys!may!be!especially!helpful!in!
addressing!the!final!source!of!bias.!The!small!impact!may!also!be!due!to!the!structure!
of!the!probit!model!and!the!small!number!of!households!reporting!food!insufficiency.!
(More!generally,!the!lack!of!statistical!significance!of!many!of!the!variables!may!also!
be!associated!with!the!small!sample!size.)!Alternative!estimation!procedures!may!lead!
to!somewhat!different!findings.!Finally,!the!impact!of!other!more!informal!food!
assistance!sources!like!soup!kitchens!and!food!banks!is!also!worth!researching!to!
assess!their!effects!on!food!insufficiency.!These!services!provide!short!term!relief!for!
households!with!few,!if!any,!eligibility!requirements.!More!generally,!when!facing!food!
insufficiency,!food!stamp!and!nonYfood!stamp!households!both!may!turn!to!soup!
kitchens!and!food!banks!for!assistance.!It!may!be!that,!at!the!margin,!these!programs!
constitute!an!important!overlooked!component!of!the!food!assistance!safety!net.!!
!
!
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The&top`down&bureaucratic&model&of&government&doesn’t&
work&anymore.&
Osborne,!David.!"Reinventing!Government."!Public!Productivity!and!Management!
Review,!Vol.!16,!No.!4,!Fiscal!Pressures!and!productive!Solutions:!Proceedings!
of!the!Fifth!National!Public!Sector!Productivity!Conference.!November!30,!1992.!
Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/3381012.pdf?acceptTC=true>.!
Society&is&being&transformed&not&only&by&technological&changes&but&by&social&
changes&as&well.!Consider!how!rapidly!two`income&families&and&single`parent&
families&became&the&pattern.!Only&27&percent&of&households&in&the&United&States&
today&still&fit&the&traditional&definition&of&a&family.!A!generation!ago!we!were!a!
mass!society.!People!watched!three!television!networks!and!read!three!news!
magazines.!They!looked!at!and!read!and!talked!about!the!same!things.!Today&we&have&
become&used&to&hundreds&and&hundreds&of&choices.&In&the&public&sector,&however,!
one!size!still!fits!all.!Choice!is!something!that!must!be!addressed!in!the!public!sector.!
In!this!environment!of!rapid!change,!the!old!topYdown&bureaucratic&monopolies&
delivering&standardized&services&are&not&effective.&To&be&effective&today,&an&
organization&must&be!lean,!fast!on!its!feet,!responsive!to!its!customers,!capable&of&
adjusting&to&constant&change,!able!to!improve!productivity!continually.!In!other!
words,&it&needs&to&be&entrepreneurial&rather&than&bureaucratic.!
!
!
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Food&stamp&had&a&negative&impact&on&food&security.&
Wilde,!Parke.!"The!Effect!Of!Food!Stamps!On!Food!Security:!A!Panel!Data!Approach."!
Review!of!Agricultural!Economics.!January!01,!2003.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<intlYaepp.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/3/425.full>.!
The&U.S.&Department&of&Agriculture&(USDA)&estimated&that&11.1%&of&American&
households&were&food&insecure&in&2002,!up!from!10.7%!in!2001!and!10.1%!in!
1999.!Among&low`income&food&stamp&participants,&the&rate&of&food&insecurity&was&
51.4%.!Among&low`income&nonparticipants,&the&rate&was&28.7%!(Nord,!Andrews,!
and!Carlson).!This!pattern!shows!that!program!benefits!are!targeted!to!a!population!
with!an!especially!high!rate!of!food!insecurity.!A&few&studies&have&sought&to&
measure&the&FSP's&effect&on&food&insufficiency&or&food&insecurity.!Gundersen!and!
Oliveira!used!data!from!the!1991Y2!Survey!of!Income!and!Program!Participation!
(SIPP)!to!estimate!the!effect!of!food!stamps!on!food!insufficiency,!which!is!an!older!
measure!of!foodYrelated!hardship.!In!their!model,!FSP!participation!may!influence!
food!sufficiency,!and!vice!versa.!While!the!SIPP!is!a!panel!survey,!their!statistical!
approach!was!crossYsectional,!using!a!maximum!likelihood!model!with!a!fairly!strong!
parametric!distributional!assumption!to!control!for!selection!bias.!Food&stamps&were&
negatively&associated&with&food&sufficiency&in&least&squares&regression&models,&
but&there&was&no&association&in&models&that&sought&to&correct&for&selection&bias.!
!
!
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FSP&leads&to&increased&insecurity.&
Rosegrant,!Mark!R.!"The!Effect!Of!Food!Stamps!On!Food!Security:!A!Panel!Data!
Approach."!Review!of!Agricultural!Economics.!January!01,!2003.!Web.!February!
09,!2015.!<intlYaepp.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/3/425.full>.!
To!a!large!degree,!food!security!status!was!persistent!(table!1).!Of&households&
classified&as&food&secure&in&2001,&95%&were&food&secure&in&2002.!By!contrast,!of!
households!classified!as!food!insecure!with!hunger!in!2001,!only!41%!were!food!
secure!in!2002.!Food&security&transitions&were&strongly&related!to&food&stamp&
transitions!(table!2).!As!one!might!expect!from!the!positive!crossYsectional!
association!between!food!stamps!and!food!insecurity,!almost&90%&of&households&
which&received&food&stamps&in&neither&year&were&food&secure&in&both&years.&
Conversely,&only&43%&of&households&which&received&food&stamps&in&both&years&
were&food&secure&in&both&years.!Transitions&into&FSP&participation&were&
associated&with&transitions&into&food&insecurity.!For&households&that&entered&
FSP&participation&between&2001&and&2002,&food&security&status&more&commonly&
deteriorated!(20.9%)!and&less&commonly&improved!(14.4%).!By!contrast,!for!
households!that!exited!FSP!participation!between!2001!and!2002,!food!security!status!
less!commonly!deteriorated!(9.9%)!and!more!commonly!improved!(27.7%).!
!
!
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Residential&stability&is&a&greater&indicator&of&security&than&
poverty.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
Because!the!model!controls!for!employment!and!income!at!the!household!level,!we!
interpret!these!variables!as!indicators!of!the!availability!and!quality!of!job!
opportunities!households!have!faced!over!the!past!12!months,!as!well!as!of!the!overall!
economic!strength!of!the!state,!rather!than!as!proxies!for!current!household!
circumstances.!The&poverty&rate&has&no&link&to&household&food&security.!Contrary!
to!expectations,!a&higher&share&of&residents&with&a&bachelor's&degree&is&associated&
with&a&greater&risk&of&food&insecurity.!Finally,!greater&residential&stability&in&the&
state&is&linked&to&lower&odds&of&food&insecurity.!As!noted,!we&interpret&residential&
stability&as&a&proxy&for&social&connectedness&among&community&members,&which&
may&be&linked&to&greater&access&to&information&about&community&resources&
and/or&to&increased&availability&of&support&from&others&in&the&community.!
!
!
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Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&admits&their&results&are&incomplete.&
Bartfeld,!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With!
Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management,!Vol.!25,!No.!4.!January!
08,!2006.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/pam.20214/asset/20214_ftp.p
df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!
We!note!that!readers!should!exercise!caution!in!their!interpretation!of!the!apparent!
relationship!between!summer!meals!and!food!security.!While&we&find&statistically&
significant&coefficients&on&both&summer&meal&variables,&two&aspects&of&our&
findings&suggest&caution.&First,&we&find&that&state`level&Summer&School&Lunch&
participation&(though!not!Summer!Food!Service!program!participation)!is&also&
linked&to&lower&odds&of&food&insecurity&among&childless&households,&a&result&
with&no&theoretical&justification,!suggesting!that!the!former!may!be!proxying!for!
other!unmeasured!state!attributes.!Second,&we&find&no&evidence&that&summer&meal&
programs&have&a&differential&impact&on&food&security&for&poor,&near`poor,&or&low`
income&households,&the&households&for&which&such&programs&are&most&relevant.!
This!differs!from!our!findings!for!stateYlevel!Food!Stamp!participation!and!for!the!lowY
income!tax!burden,!where!the!only!significant!relationships!to!food!security!are!
among!nearYpoor!and!lowYincome!households,!a!more!theoretically!sound!pattern.&
Further&analysis&of&the&relationship&between&summer&meal&programs&and&food&
insecurity&is&essential&to&understanding&the&potential&benefits&of&such&programs.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Beef&DA&
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March/April&2015&
Feeding&people&beef&just&makes&them&more&likely&to&die.&
Brown,!Eryn.!"All!Red!Meat!Is!Risky,!A!Study!Finds."!The!Los!Angeles!Times.!August!
03,!2012.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://articles.latimes.com/2012/mar/13/health/laYheYredYmeatY
20120313>.!
Any!amount!and!any!type!YY!appears!to!significantly!increase!the!risk!of!premature!
death,!according&to!a!longYrange!study&that&examined!the!eating&habits&and&health&
of!more!than!110,000&adults&for&more&than&20&years.!For!instance,!adding&just&one&
3`ounce&serving&of!unprocessed!red&meat!YY!picture!a!piece!of!steak!no!bigger!than!a!
deck!of!cards!YY!to&one's&daily&diet&was&associated&with&a&13%&greater&chance&of&
dying&during!the!course!of!the!study.!Even!worse,!adding!an!extra!daily!serving!
of!processed&red&meat,!such!as!a!hot!dog!or!two!slices!of!bacon,!was&linked&to&a&20%&
higher&risk&of&death!during!the!study.!"Any!red!meat!you!eat!contributes!to!the!risk,"!
said!An!Pan,!a!postdoctoral!fellow!at!the!Harvard!School!of!Public!Health!in!Boston!
and!lead!author!of!the!study,!published!online!Monday!in!the!Archives!of!Internal!
Medicine.!Crunching!data&from!thousands!of!questionnaires!that!asked&people&how&
frequently&they&ate&a&variety&of&foods,!the!researchers!also!discovered!that!
replacing!red!meat!with!other!foods!seemed!to!reduce!mortality!risk!for!study!
participants.!Eating!a!serving!of!nuts&instead&of&beef!or!pork!was&associated&with&a&
19%&lower&risk&of&dying&during!the!study.!The!team!said!choosing!poultry&or&whole&
grains!as!a!substitute!was&linked&with&a&14%&reduction&in&mortality&risk;!lowYfat!
dairy!or!legumes,!10%;!and!fish,!7%.!Previous!studies!had!associated!red!meat!
consumption!with!diabetes,!heart!disease!and!cancer,!all!of!which!can!be!fatal.!
Scientists!aren't!sure!exactly!what!makes!red!meat!so!dangerous,!but!the!suspects!
include!the!iron!and!saturated!fat!in!beef,!pork!and!lamb,!the!nitrates!used!to!preserve!
them,!and!the!chemicals!created!by!highYtemperature!cooking.!The!Harvard!
researchers!hypothesized!that!eating!red!meat!would!also!be!linked!to!an!overall!risk!
of!death!from!any!cause,!Pan!said.!And!the!results!suggest!they!were!right:!Among&the&
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37,698&men&and&83,644&women&who&were&tracked,&as&meat&consumption&
increased,&so&did&mortality&risk.&!
Beef&consumption&and&production&is&shrinking.&
Takada,!Ava.!"U.S.!May!Miss!Beef!Export!Target!On!Global!Recession."!Bloomberg!
News.!August!03,!2012.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aaJBmKr4Ywp8!
>.!
Beef&exports&from&the&U.S.,&the&world’s&largest&producer,&may&miss&a&7&percent&
growth&forecast&made&by&an&industry&group&for&this&year&as&the&global&recession&
spurs&consumers&to&cut&spending&on&expensive&foods.!!“We!saw!record!increases!in!
market!share!last!year!for!both!pork!and!beef,!but!with!recession!in!place!now,!it!will!
be!more!difficult!to!get!to!that!7!percent!growth,”!Mark!Jagels,!executive!committee!
member!of!the!U.S.!Meat!Export!Federation,!said!yesterday!in!an!interview!in!
Tokyo.!!Slower`than`forecast&exports&may&curb&cattle&prices&in&Chicago&and&erode&
earnings&of&producers&such&as&Tyson&Foods&Inc.&as&the&recession!saps&export&and&
domestic&demand.!The!World!Bank!said!this!week!the!global!economy!will!contract!
2.9!percent!this!year!compared!with!a!previous!forecast!for!a!1.7!percent!decline.!U.S.!
feedlot!managers!slashed!purchases!of!young!cattle!by!12!percent!last!month,!
according!to!a!Bloomberg!News!survey.!!“It’s&not&just&a&U.S.&problem&as&all&markets&
have&experienced&a&reduction&in&demand&for&beef,&particularly&the&prime&
cuts,”!said!Wendy!Voss,!a!MelbourneYbased!senior!analyst!at!food!and!agribusiness!
banking!specialist!Rabobank!Groep!NV.!!Cattle!futures!traded!at!82.525!cents!a!pound!
on!the!Chicago!Mercantile!Exchange!at!5:33!p.m.!Tokyo!time.!Prices!slumped!to!the!
lowest!since!June!2006!on!March!30!and!lost!21!percent!in!the!past!year.!!Taking!
Months!!“We&haven’t&seen&any&signs&yet”&of&recovery&in&U.S.&beef&
consumption,!Terri!Carstensen!at!the!Iowa!Beef!Industry!Council!said!yesterday!in!
the!same!interview!in!Tokyo.!“It!will!take!more!months.”!!The!federation!forecast!on!
March!5!that!U.S.!beef!exports,!including!offal,!may!climb!to!1!million!metric!tons!this!
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&
March/April&2015&
year!as!consumers!in!Japan!and!South!Korea!seek!cheaper!alternatives!to!domestic!
meat!and!as!the!dollar’s!drop!could!make!U.S.!supplies!more!affordable!to!foreign!
buyers.!!Mexico!and!Canada!were!the!largest!export!markets!for!U.S.!beef!last!year.!
Jagels!declined!to!say!which!markets!were!performing!below!expectations!so!far!this!
year.!!Tyson!Foods,!based!in!Springdale,!Arkansas,!said!May!4!its!net!loss!widened!to!
$104!million!in!its!fiscal!second!quarter!as!sales!of!beef!declined!11!percent.!!U.S.!
Wheat!Associates!Inc.!President!Alan!Tracy!said!June!15!that!world!wheat!
consumption!may!rise!as!some!consumers!shift!from!meat!to!cereals!amid!the!
economic!slowdown.!!Japan!Imports!!Japan!imported!150,709!tons!of!beef!in!the!four!
months!ended!April!30,!up!8.9!percent!from!138,362!tons!a!year!earlier,!according!to!
the!Ministry!of!Agriculture,!Forestry!and!Fisheries.!Imports!from!the!U.S.!rose!29!
percent!to!14,484!tons!in!the!period,!representing!9.6!percent!of!total!Japanese!
purchase.!Shipments!from!Australia,!the!biggest!supplier!to!Japan,!gained!6.4!percent!
to!119,815!tons.!!U.S.!beef!sales!to!Japan!would!increase!if!the!Asian!country!eased!a!
rule!that!restricts!imports!to!meat!from!cattle!aged!20Ymonths!or!younger,!Jagels!said.!
Changing!the!age!limit!to!30!months!would!be!“very!beneficial”!as!almost!90!percent!
of!U.S.!cattle!slaughtered!for!beef!are!under!that!age,!he!said.!!Japan!was!the!largest!
export!market!for!U.S.!beef!before!banning!the!product!in!December!2003,!because!of!
a!discovery!of!bovine!spongiform!encephalopathy,!known!as!mad!cow!disease,!in!
Washington!state.!The!government!replaced!the!ban!in!2005!with!the!age!restriction!
to!exclude!meat!from!older!cattle!that!it!said!were!at!greater!risk!of!the!brainYwasting!
disease.!!An!agreement!on!easing!the!limit!would!be!delayed!because!of!“some!issues!
with!the!new!administration!in!the!U.S.!and!maybe!an!election!in!Japan!in!August,”!
Jagels!said,!without!providing!further!details.!!“Our!perception!is!that!it!will!go!into!
next!year!before!anything!will!be!worked!out,”!he!said.!Japan’s!Prime!Minister!Taro!
Aso!must!decide!by!Sept.!10!when!he!will!dissolve!the!lower!house!of!parliament!and!
call!elections.!!U.S.&beef&shipments&to&South&Korea&had&fallen&short&of&“some&
expectations”&after&a&ban&on&imports&of&the&product&imposed&because&of&BSE&
concerns&was&lifted&last&year,!Rabobank’s!Voss!said.!!“They&thought&they’d&grab&
back&market&share&quickly&and&that&isn’t&happening,”!she!said!!
Champion)Briefs)
314&
NEG:&Beef&DA&
&
March/April&2015&
Higher&demand&will&greatly&increase&production&of&beef.&
Mintert,!James.!"U.S.!Beef!Demand!Drivers!And!Enhancement!Opportunities:!A!
Research!Summary."!Department!of!Agricultural!Economics.!January!01,!2009.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.agmanager.info/livestock/marketing/bulletins_2/industry/dema
nd/Beef_Demand_Drivers_January_2009.pdf>.!
Large&shifts&in&domestic&beef&demand&have&had&substantial&impacts&on&the&beef&
industry.&Before&the&late!1970s,&growth!in!the!U.S.!economy!and!rising&consumer&
incomes&contributed&to&beef&demand&increasing&for&a&sustained&period.&In&
response&to&growing&product&demand,&the&beef&industry&increased&in&
size.&However,&starting&about&1980,&domestic&retail&beef&demand&weakened&and&
subsequently&declined&every&year&through&1998.&The&long`run&decline&in&retail&
beef&demand&contributed&to&a&reduction&in&cattle&industry&size,!particularly!in!
relation!to!competing!meat!sectors!such!as!poultry!and!pork.!In!1999,!following!nearly!
20!consecutive!years!of!decline,!domestic!beef!demand!began!to!strengthen.!From!the!
late!1990s!through!2004,!the!all!fresh!domestic!retail!beef!demand!index!increased!
from!a!low!of!76!to!a!peak!of!92,!before!weakening!again!from!2005!through!2008.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
315&
NEG:&Beef&DA&
&
March/April&2015&
Increased&meat&production&causes&global&warming.&
Holm,!Jens.!"The!Livestock!Industry!And!Climate!Change."!Animal!Rights!Sweden.!
January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://ec.europa.eu/budget/reform/library/focus/meat_climate_report_en.pd
f!>.!
Climate&change&is!developing!into!the!greatest&threat&ever&to&our&world’s&
survival.!There!is!a!relatively!high!awareness!of!and!preparedness!for!some!of!the!
worst!emissions,!such!as!heavy!industry!and!the!transportation!sector.!But!one&of&the&
most&damaging&contributors&to&climate&change&is,!remarkably!enough,!conspicuous!
in!its!absence!from!the!debate:!the&food&industry.!What!we!eat!accounts!for!
approximately!a!third!of!the!average!Swedish!family’s!impact!on!climate.!The!figures!
for!the!rest!of!Europe!are!about!the!same.Certain&kinds&of&food&cause&many&times&
more&damage&than&others:&meat,&for&example.!Last!autumn,!the!UN’s!Food!and!
Agriculture!Organization!(FAO)!presented!Livestock’s!Long!Shadow,!a!400!page!report!
on!livestock!raising!and!climate!change.!The&meat&industry&and&livestock&raising&
contribute&18%&of&the&total&emissions&of&greenhouse&gases.!That&is&in&fact&a&
greater&impact&than&that&of&all&of&the&world’s&land&transportation,!reported!FAO.!
This!report!investigates!the!impact!of!the!continually!increasing!consumption!of!meat!
on!climate!change,!and!the!roll!the!EU!plays!in!it.!We!also!divulge!how!the!Swedish!
government,!on!its!home!turf,!gives!the!impression!of!working!to!abolish!the!hated!
export!refund!for!meat!products,!while!in!Brussels!giving!its!support!for!increases!in!
the!same.!Without!claiming!to!have!all!the!answers,!we!nevertheless!offer!our!views!in!
a!discussion!that,!along!with!the!greenhouse!effect,!is!one!of!the!most!important!
questions!for!our!future:!What!are!we!going!to!do!with!the!world’s!grain!and!what!is!
the!optimal!way!to!use!the!world’s!farmland?!Climate!change!is!expected!to!bring!
about!an!enormous!demand!for!wheat,!corn,!and!other!grains!for!biofuel!production.!
And!that!brings!us!right!back!to!meat!production.!Over!a!third!of!all!grain!harvested!
becomes!fodder.!Is!that!rational?!Why!not!produce!less!meat!and!raise!fewer!animals!
Champion)Briefs)
316&
NEG:&Beef&DA&
&
March/April&2015&
on!food!crops,!thereby!freeing!grain!for!feeding!more!people!and!even!have!a!surplus!
for!biofuel?!We!conclude!this!report!with!some!concrete!demands!that!can!be!pursued!
on!both!the!EU!and!national!levels:!Abolish!meat!subsidies,!let!meat!bear!its!own!
environmental!costs!and!work!to!make!modern!vegetarian!food!cheaper.!It!is!just!as!
the!researcher!Annika!CarlssonYKanyama!says!in!the!report,!“People!need!to!
understand!that!what!we!eat!is!an!important!environmental!issue.”!Exactly.!Today’s!
wasteful!meat!production!doesn’t!bear!its!own!environmental!costs.!Let!us,!therefore,!
build!the!foundation!of!an!environmentally!friendly!and!sustainable!food!
consumption.The&struggle&against&climate&change&begins&here!and!now,!at&the&
dinner&table!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
317&
NEG:&Beef&DA&
&
March/April&2015&
Cattle&produces&harmful&methane&which&contributes&to&
climate&change.&
Silverman,!Jacob.!"Do!Cows!Pollute!As!Much!As!Cars?."!HowStuffWorks.!January!05,!
2007.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://animals.howstuffworks.com/mammals/methaneYcow.htm>.!
Cows&emit&a&massive&amount&of&methane&through&belching,!with!a!lesser!amount!
through!flatulence.!Statistics!vary!regarding!how!much!methane!the!average!dairy!
cow!expels.!Some&experts&say&100&liters&to&200&liters&a&day&(or!about!26!gallons!to!
about!53!gallons),!while!others&say&it's&up&to&500&liters&(about!132!gallons)!a!day.!In!
any!case,!that's!a!lot!of!methane,!an!amount!comparable&to&the&pollution&produced&
by&a&car&in&a&day.!To!understand!why!cows!produce!methane,!it's!important!to!know!a!
bit!more!about!how!they!work.!Cows,!goats,!sheep!and!several!other!animals!belong!to!
a!class!of!animals!called!ruminants.!Ruminants!have&four&stomachs&and&digest&their&
food&in&their&stomachs&instead&of&in&their&intestines,!as!humans!do.!Ruminants!eat!
food,!regurgitate!it!as!cud!and!eat!it!again.!The&stomachs&are!filled!with!bacteria!that!
aid!in!digestion,!but!also!produce&methane.!With!millions!of!ruminants!in!Britain,!
including!10!million!cows,!a!strong!push!is!underway!to!curb!methane!emissions!
there.!Cows&contribute&3&percent&of&Britain's&overall&greenhouse&gas&
emissions!and!25!to!30!percent!of!its!methane.!In&New&Zealand,!where!cattle!and!
sheep!farming!are!major!industries,!34&percent&of&greenhouse&gases&come&from&
livestock.!A!threeYyear!study,!begun!in!April!2007!by!Welsh!scientists,!is!examining!if!
adding!garlic!to!cow!feed!can!reduce!their!methane!production.!The!study!is!ongoing,!
but!early!results!indicate!that!garlic!cuts!cow!flatulence!in!half!by!attacking!methaneY
producing!microbes!living!in!cows'!stomachs![Source:!BBC!News].!The!researchers!are!
also!looking!to!see!if!the!addition!of!garlic!affects!the!quality!of!the!meat!or!milk!
produced!and!even!if!the!animals!get!bad!breath.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
318&
NEG:&Beef&DA&
&
March/April&2015&
Beef&consumption&is&at&an&all&time&low.&
Newport,!Alan.!"“Beef!Consumption!May!Hit!Record!Declines!This!Year”."!Farm!
Progress.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://beefproducer.com/blogsYbeefYconsumptionYmayYhitYrecordYdeclinesY
yearY8402>.!
The!real!trends!and!the!ones!that!concern!me!are!twofold:!•!Consumers!overall!are!
moving!beef!purchasing!away!from!wholeYmuscle!cuts!and!toward!ground!beef.!
•!Even&more&so&the&US&is&posting&a&long,&almost&uninterrupted&decline&in&per&
capita&beef&consumption.!Private!economistYconsultant!Bill!Helming!says!this!has!
been!a!40!decline!over!38!years!from!1976!to!2013,!or!just!over!one!percentage!point!
loss!per!year.!By!comparison,!chicken!consumption!per!person!increased!99!over!that!
same!38Yyear!period,!which!is!a!gain!of!more!than!two!percentage!points!per!year.!
When!we!consider!pounds!of!consumption!per!person!instead!of!percentages,!the!
numbers!seem!even!more!revealing.!Beef&consumption&per&person&decreased&37.9&
pounds&and&chicken&consumption&per&person&increased&41.6&pounds.!This!is!
almost!a!poundYforYpound!tradeoff!as!consumers!have!fled!higherYpriced!beef!and!
migrated!to!the!chicken!section!of!the!meat!case!for!their!protein!shopping.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
319&
NEG:&Beef&DA&
&
March/April&2015&
Increased&access&to&food&causes&increase&in&beef&
consumption.&
Mintert,!James.!"Focus!On!Beef!Demand."!AgManager.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!
February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.agmanager.info/livestock/marketing/bulletins_2/todays_market
/Focusonbeefdemand.pdf>.!
Because!there!is!considerable!confusion !surrounding!demand,!it!is!useful!to!stipulate!
what!beef!demand!is!not.!Beef!demand!is!not!per!capita!beef!consumption.!Per!capita!
consumption!is!beef!production!(net!of!changes!in!cold!storage,!imports,!and!exports)!
divided!by!population.!Observing!per!capita!consumption!over!time!without!
consideration!of!price!provides!little!information!regarding!beef!demand.!Beef!demand!
is!not!beef’s!relative!share!of!total!meat!consumption.!This!share!concept!
simply!reflects!production!of!beef!relative!to!production!of!competing!meats!and!does!
not!include!information!regarding!prices.!Finally,!beef!demand!is!not!the!share!of!
consumer!income!spent!on!beef.!Consumer!income!level!affects!beef!demand,!but!
changes!in!the!share!of!consumer!income!spent!on!beef!do!not!provide!a!measure!of!
whether!beef!demand!is!increasing!or!decreasing&since&changes&in&income&alone&can&
cause&changes&in&the&share&of&consumer&income&spent&on&beef,&even&if&beef&
demand&remains&unchanged.!Since!many!beef!demand!determinants,!as!well!as!beef!
production,!change!at!the!same!time,!it!is!impossible!to!accurately!assign!relative!
demand!shifts!to!individual!demand!determinants!through!casual!observation!of!
trends!and!beef!demand!shifts.!As!a!result,!a!meat!demand!system!was!estimated!
using!quarterly!time!series!data!over!the!1982!to!1998!period.!The!system!included!
factors!accounting!for!prices!of!competing!meats!and!total!consumer!expenditures,!
changing!consumer!demographics,!food!safety!problems,!health!information,!
and!seasonality.!The!impacts!of!individual!demand!determinants!on!beef!demand!were!
calculated!each!year!from!1992!through!1998.!Model!results!indicate!beef!demand!is!
inelastic!with!respect!to!beef!price!and!that!pork!and!poultry!are!weak!substitutes!for!
Champion)Briefs)
320&
NEG:&Beef&DA&
&
March/April&2015&
beef.!Over!1982!to!1998,!on!average,!beef!quantity!demanded!declined!0.61!percent!
given!a!1!percent!increase!in!beef!price.!Responses!to!competing!meat!price!changes!
were!much!smaller!as!beef!quantity!demanded!increased!0.04!percent!and!0.02!
percent,!given!a!1!percent!increase!in!retail!pork!and!poultry!prices,!respectively.!
These!elasticity!estimates!indicate!relative!prices!matter,!however,!per!capita!
beef!consumption!was!not!highly!responsive!to!changes!in!pork!and!poultry!prices.!
Moreover,!beef!expenditures!represent!a!progressively!smaller!proportion!of!
total!consumer!expenditures.!This!implies!beef!demand!will!become!even!more!
inelastic!(i.e.,!quantity!demanded!will!be!less!responsive!to!price!changes)!in!the!
future.!This!result,!taken!together!with!findings!from!other!consumer!research!
indicates!many!consumers!are!willing!to!pay!for!a!high!quality!product!(i.e.,!price!is!
less!of!an!issue!if!quality!is!high).!As!a!result,!consideration!should!be!given!to!devoting!
resources!to!research!focusing!on!quality(especially!tenderness)!measurement.!
Making!it!easier!for!consumers!to!select!the!quality!product!they!desire!will!encourage!
consumers!to!buy!beef.!Beef&demand&was&highly&responsive&to&changes&in&total&per&
capita&expenditures&on&all&goods.&Changes&in&total&per&capita&expenditures&occur&
when&personaldisposable&income&increases,!consumer!willingness!to!spend!income!
increases,!or!a!combination!of!the!two.!Consumer!willingness!to!spend!a!larger!
proportion!of!total!income!has!been!an!important!source!of!economic!growth!for!the!
U.S.!economy!in!recent!years.!For!example,!consumer!expenditures!rose!from!less!than!
90!percent!of!disposable!income!in!the!early!1980s!to!near!98!percent!by!1999.!
Demand!model!results!indicate!beef!demand!increases!0.90!percent!for!a!1!percent!
increase!in!total!per!capita!expenditures.!This!means!beef!demand!was!a!
major!beneficiary!of!increasing!consumer!expenditures,!but !if!consumers!choose!to!
increase!savings!in!the!future!(in!lieu!of!consumption),!or!if&disposable&
income&declines,&it&will&have&a&negative&impact&on&beef&demand.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
321&
NEG:&Beef&DA&
&
March/April&2015&
Beef&consumption&ensures&global&hunger.&
Nash,!JM.!"The!Beef!Against."!Time!Magazine.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!07,!
2015.!
<http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975344,00.html>.!
Grain& fed& to& cattle& could& feed& the& hungry.& "Hunger& isn't& about& actual& scarcity,"&
declares& Stephanie& Rosenfeld,& a& researcher& for& San& Francisco`based& Food& First.&
"It's& about& the& maldistribution& of& resources.& People& are& hungry& for& different&
reasons&at&different&times,&but&quite&often&the&reasons&have&to&do&with&beef."&The&
link& is& often& very& subtle:& in& countries& like& Egypt& and& Mexico,& for& instance,&
farmland& that& formerly& grew& staples& for& human& consumption& is& being& switched&
to& grow& grain& for& beef& that& only& the& wealthy& can& afford.& Indirectly,& then,& a&
growing& cattle& population& threatens& humans& on& the& low& end& of& the& economic&
scale&with&hunger.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
322&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&politics&are&really&a&means&of&neoliberal&
developmentalism&to&scale&and&reproduce&capitalist&
relations.&
Essex,!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia."!
Human!Geography.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.hugeog.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!
Regionalizing!food!policy.In&terms&of&scale,&the&political&and&economic&
commitments&of&neoliberalization&reshape&the&strategic&and&policymaking&
environment&through&which&food&security&networks&and&institutions&operate,&
particularly&tothe&extent&that&the&state&becomes&a&market&facilitator&rather&than&
a&guarantor&of&social&welfare,&there&by&challenging&the&ability&of&individuals,&
households,&and&communities&to&exercise&social&entitlements&that&should&
produce&food&security.&As&a&primary&component&of&social&reproduction,&food&
security&is&also&a&means&throughwhich&scale&is&produced&both&discursively&and&
materially.&Thus&the&geographical&imagination&that&identifies&food&insecurity&as&
a&linchpin&of&geopolitical&insecurity&forms&a&key&aspect&of&constituting&and&
reinforcing&processes&of&neoliberalization&and&militarization.!Examining&food&
security&as&a&facet&and&expression&of&social&reproduction&undergoing&intensive&
rescaling&highlights&the&contradictory&impacts&of&neoliberal&geopolitics&on&daily&
life,&and&thus&on&the&experience&of&space&and&scale,&and&people’s&abilities&to&
shape&these.&As&Tsing(2005:58)&argues&in&examining&the&contradictions&of&
universalist&claims&underpinning&contemporary&imperial&and&neoliberal&
practices,&“[i]n&a&world&of&multiple,&divergent&claims&about&scales&…&those&global&
worlds&that&most&affect&us&are&those&that&manage&tentatively&productive&linkages&
with&other&scale`making&projects.”&Again,&food&security&comprises&not&just&an&
objective&of&developmentalisms&of&all&stripes,&but&also&a&contentious&object&in&
Champion)Briefs)
323&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
constituting&and&challenging&the&production&of&scale&through&neoliberal&
geopolitics.!
Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&harming&the&
ones&it&intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy&
for&spreading&neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&
populations.&
Essex,!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia."!
Human!Geography.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.hugeog.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!
While!this!political!balance!remains!incomplete!and!highly!contested,!even!in!the!US,!
it!neverthelesshas!provided!the!context!and!impetus!for!reshaping!longstanding!
institutions!and!norms!associated!with!more!restrained!versions!of!both!
neoliberalism!and!neoconservatism.!The&post`9/11&US&stance&toward&development&
and&developing&states,&especially&“fragile&states,”&offers&a&clear&example&of&how&
the&amalgam&of&neoliberal&doctrine&and&neoconservative&militarism&has&
produced&a&new&geopolitical&imaginary&reliant&on&particularly&brutal&
conceptualizations&of&risk,&danger,&and&insecurity.&The&institutionalization&of&
this&imaginary&enforces&a&neoliberal&state&form&devoted&to&facilitating&free&trade&
and&narrow,&capital`centric&understandings&of&security!(Essex,!2008),&and&
deploys&new&spatial&categories&for&determining&the&appropriate&allocation&of&
foreign&aid!(Essex,!in!press).!Within&this&new&imaginary,&food&security&becomes&a&
proxy&for&measuring&governance&and&state&fragility.&The&US&Agency&for&
International&Development&cites&food&insecurity&as&one&among&many&“symptoms&
of&the&failure&of&governance&in&fragile&states”!(USAID,!2005a:4);!conversely,&food&
security&is&a&product&of&good&governance,&defined&in&terms&of&the&appropriate&
management&of&risks&that&undermine&food&availability&and&vulnerable&
populations’&ability&to&access&and&utilize&it!(USAID,!2005b:19Y23).This&raises&
Champion)Briefs)
324&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
questions&about&what&good&governance&in&developing&states&means&under&
conditions&of&neoliberalization,&how&this&has&shaped&the&translation&of&theories&
of&food&security&into&tangible&policies&and&programs,&and&how&this&differs&from&
past&approaches&Historically,&development&institutions&have&typically&sought&to&
improve&food&security&through&foodaid,&and&the&US&has&long&been&the&largest&
donor,&using&aid&as&both&geopolitical&carrot&and&stick.!During!theCold!
War,!mechanisms&to&dispose&of&growing&agricultural&surpluses&were&seen&as&key&
to&expanding&agro`foodexports,&achieving&industrialization&and&food&security&in&
developing&states,&and&combating&the&spread&of&international&Communism.&Most&
food&aid&went&to&strategic&allies,&even&those&that&were&not&food&insecure(Kodras,!
1993).!In&those&states&where&food&insecurity&did&exist,&US&food&aid&often&failed&to&
alleviate&hunger&because&of&its&many&contradictory&objectives&and&the&way&it&
deepened&relations&of&dependency!(Edkins,2000;!Garst!and!Barry,!1990;!Shepherd,!
1985).!Since!the!Cold!War’s!end,!scholars!have!paid!increasing!attention!to!the!
problems!of!food!aid.!As&the&US&provides&about&two`thirds&of&global&food&aid,&its&
programs&have&received&the&most&attention,&and&are&powerful&forces&shaping&the&
global&food&system.&Barrett&and&Maxwell&(2005:3)&demonstrate&how&food&aid&
policy&“only&sometimes&helps&the&poor&and&hungry&…&[and]&on&occasion&it&can&
worsen&their&plight”&because&of&its&“dependence&on&multiple&masters,&who&often&
cause&food&tobe&overused&or&misused&as&a&resource&in&order&to&serve&donors’&
parochial&interests.”&The&tangled&domestic&politics!of!food!aid,!divided!across!six!
programs!directed!by!two!agencies!(USAID!and!the!US!Department!of!
Agriculture),!illustrate&food&aid’s&competing&objectives&and&resultant&
“administrative&confusion”!(Murphy!andMcAfee,!2005:13).!The!US!government!itself!
has!identified!such!problems!several!times!(GAO!1995a,!b,2002,!2007a,!b,!c),!though!
proposed!solutions!have!focused!narrowly!on!improving!internal!
management,reviewing!food!aid’s!legislative!basis,!and!reforming!USAID.A&full&
analysis&of&US&food&aid&policies&and&their&link&to&food&security,&neoliberalization,&
and&militarism&must,&however,&also&take&into&account&their&international&and&
multilateral&context&and&determinants.&Institutions&operating&at&local,&national,&
and&international&scales,&including&both&state&and&non`state&entities,&are&
important&food&policy&actors,&key&to&both&implementation&of&existing&programs&
Champion)Briefs)
325&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
and&to&advancing&neoliberalized&approaches&to&food&security,&especially&those&
that&rely&on&the&backing&or&overt&use&of&military&force.&The&ideological&and&
material&resources&of&the&neoliberal&state,&including&its&ability&to&construct&and&
steer&forms&of&governance&that&include&capitalist&interests&and&NGOs,&provide&the&
necessary&basis&for&making&the&abstract&universal&ideals&of&neoliberalism&and&
neoconservatism&a&practical&reality.!!
Champion)Briefs)
326&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&is&used&by&wealthier&states&as&a&means&of&
playing&state&building&with&“weaker&nations”&in&order&to&
control&and&condition&local&population&breeding&
militarism&and&coopting&them&into&the&neoliberal&system&
that&ultimately&exploits&them.&
Essex,!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia."!
Human!Geography.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.hugeog.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!
Yet&even&amid&the&extension&of&militarism,&as&both&cause&and&effect&of&
neoliberalization,&violent&force&must&have&a&selective&and&legitimate&basis&for&
use,&lest&it&undermine&the&bedrock&of&neoliberalism&–&the&faith&that&free&markets&
are&the&ultimate&arbiters&of&social&good.&Thus&part&of&this&scale`making&project&is&
the&identification&of&food&insecure&populations&and&their&placement&in&relation&
to&the&scales&at&which&US&militarism,!Indonesian!state!building,!and!
internationalizing!capitalism!operate.&Food`for`work&programs&in&Jakarta&and&the&
militarized&delivery&of&aid&in&Aceh&offer&instructive&cases&because&they&exhibit&
the&contradictory&but&effective&disciplining&of&the&food&insecure&–&populations&
that&are&unable&or&unwilling&to&fully&and&adequately&participate&in&
neoliberalization&on&its&own&terms&–&through&the&neoliberalization&of&food&aid.&In&
the&context&of&post`9/11&neoliberal&geopolitics&and&the&global&war&on&terror,&
food&insecurity&comprises&a&fundamental&part&of&the&underdevelopment&that&
“breeds”&terrorism,&and&to&which&the&US&must&provide&a&shrewd&strategic&answer&
made&up&of&equal&measures&“soft”&and&“hard”&power.&Thus&a&militarized&response&
to&oppositional&projects&and&forces&is&warranted&to&accompany&and&enforce&the&
neoliberal&economic&project.!Crucially,!however,!the!basis!of!what!is!understood!as!
“oppositional”!has!broadened!to!include!places!and!populations!that!are!outside!
Champion)Briefs)
327&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
neoliberalization!due!to!choice!or!structure!(though!these!are!often!intertwined!in!
complex!fashion).Those&who&pose&a&risk&must&have&aid&forcibly&administered,&and&
so&the&enhancement&of&food&security&through&militarized&food&aid&programs&
becomes&part&and&parcel&of&the&scale`making&project&of&neoliberalization.&These&
programs&rely&on&the&repressive&state&apparatus!(i.e.,!the!US!and!Indonesian!
militaries)&working&with&state&institutions,&especially&those&concerned&with&
development,&internationalizing&capital,&and&the&developmentalist&and&
humanitarian&wing&of&international&civil&society.&The&bodies&of&the&hungry&are&
marked,&and&indeed&produced,&as&potential&sites&of&both&accumulation&and&
revolt(Harvey,!1998;!Orzeck,!2007),&demanding&and&deserving&discipline&through&
the&market’s&invisible&hand&and,&as&Friedman&(1999)&so&crassly&puts&it,&the&
military’s&invisible&fist.!The!next!section!briefly!discusses!these!working!
relationships!as!they!have!taken!shape!in!the!subYimperial!relationship!between!the!
US!and!Indonesia,!with!particular!attention!to!food!policy!in!Indonesia.!This!is!
followed!by!a!closer!examination!of!the!Jakarta!and!Aceh!case!studies!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
328&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&harming&the&
ones&it&intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy&
for&spreading&neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&
populations.&
Essex,!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia."!
Human!Geography.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.hugeog.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!
While!this!political!balance!remains!incomplete!and!highly!contested,!even!in!the!US,!
it!neverthelesshas!provided!the!context!and!impetus!for!reshaping!longstanding!
institutions!and!norms!associated!with!more!restrained!versions!of!both!
neoliberalism!and!neoconservatism.!The&post`9/11&US&stance&toward&development&
and&developing&states,&especially&“fragile&states,”&offers&a&clear&example&of&how&
the&amalgam&of&neoliberal&doctrine&and&neoconservative&militarism&has&
produced&a&new&geopolitical&imaginary&reliant&on&particularly&brutal&
conceptualizations&of&risk,&danger,&and&insecurity.&The&institutionalization&of&
this&imaginary&enforces&a&neoliberal&state&form&devoted&to&facilitating&free&trade&
and&narrow,&capital`centric&understandings&of&security!(Essex,!2008),&and&
deploys&new&spatial&categories&for&determining&the&appropriate&allocation&of&
foreign&aid!(Essex,!in!press).!Within&this&new&imaginary,&food&security&becomes&a&
proxy&for&measuring&governance&and&state&fragility.&The&US&Agency&for&
International&Development&cites&food&insecurity&as&one&among&many&“symptoms&
of&the&failure&of&governance&in&fragile&states”!(USAID,!2005a:4);!conversely,&food&
security&is&a&product&of&good&governance,&defined&in&terms&of&the&appropriate&
management&of&risks&that&undermine&food&availability&and&vulnerable&
populations’&ability&to&access&and&utilize&it!(USAID,!2005b:19Y23).This&raises&
questions&about&what&good&governance&in&developing&states&means&under&
Champion)Briefs)
329&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
conditions&of&neoliberalization,&how&this&has&shaped&the&translation&of&theories&
of&food&security&into&tangible&policies&and&programs,&and&how&this&differs&from&
past&approaches&Historically,&development&institutions&have&typically&sought&to&
improve&food&security&through&foodaid,&and&the&US&has&long&been&the&largest&
donor,&using&aid&as&both&geopolitical&carrot&and&stick.!During!theCold!
War,!mechanisms&to&dispose&of&growing&agricultural&surpluses&were&seen&as&key&
to&expanding&agro`foodexports,&achieving&industrialization&and&food&security&in&
developing&states,&and&combating&the&spread&of&international&Communism.&Most&
food&aid&went&to&strategic&allies,&even&those&that&were&not&food&insecure(Kodras,!
1993).!In&those&states&where&food&insecurity&did&exist,&US&food&aid&often&failed&to&
alleviate&hunger&because&of&its&many&contradictory&objectives&and&the&way&it&
deepened&relations&of&dependency!(Edkins,2000;!Garst!and!Barry,!1990;!Shepherd,!
1985).!Since!the!Cold!War’s!end,!scholars!have!paid!increasing!attention!to!the!
problems!of!food!aid.!As&the&US&provides&about&two`thirds&of&global&food&aid,&its&
programs&have&received&the&most&attention,&and&are&powerful&forces&shaping&the&
global&food&system.&Barrett&and&Maxwell&(2005:3)&demonstrate&how&food&aid&
policy&“only&sometimes&helps&the&poor&and&hungry&…&[and]&on&occasion&it&can&
worsen&their&plight”&because&of&its&“dependence&on&multiple&masters,&who&often&
cause&food&tobe&overused&or&misused&as&a&resource&in&order&to&serve&donors’&
parochial&interests.”&The&tangled&domestic&politics!of!food!aid,!divided!across!six!
programs!directed!by!two!agencies!(USAID!and!the!US!Department!of!
Agriculture),!illustrate&food&aid’s&competing&objectives&and&resultant&
“administrative&confusion”!(Murphy!andMcAfee,!2005:13).!The!US!government!itself!
has!identified!such!problems!several!times!(GAO!1995a,!b,2002,!2007a,!b,!c),!though!
proposed!solutions!have!focused!narrowly!on!improving!internal!
management,reviewing!food!aid’s!legislative!basis,!and!reforming!USAID.A&full&
analysis&of&US&food&aid&policies&and&their&link&to&food&security,&neoliberalization,&
and&militarism&must,&however,&also&take&into&account&their&international&and&
multilateral&context&and&determinants.&Institutions&operating&at&local,&national,&
and&international&scales,&including&both&state&and&non`state&entities,&are&
important&food&policy&actors,&key&to&both&implementation&of&existing&programs&
Champion)Briefs)
330&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
and&to&advancing&neoliberalized&approaches&to&food&security,&especially&those&
that&rely&on&the&backing&or&overt&use&of&military&force.&The&ideological&and&
material&resources&of&the&neoliberal&state,&including&its&ability&to&construct&and&
steer&forms&of&governance&that&include&capitalist&interests&and&NGOs,&provide&the&
necessary&basis&for&making&the&abstract&universal&ideals&of&neoliberalism&and&
neoconservatism&a&practical&reality.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
331&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&is&tied&to&the&spread&of&imperialism&and&
neoliberal&markets&systems&that&harm&anyone&outside&of&
the&market&nexus:.&
Essex,!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia."!
Human!Geography.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.hugeog.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!
Food&policy&plays&a&central&role&in&this&articulation,&given&the&importance&of&US&
food&and&other&aid&to&Indonesia,&the&restructuring&of&the&state&food&monopoly&
BULOG!(!Badan!Urusan!Logistik!!,!the!Bureau!of!Logistics)!as&a&principal&component&
of&Indonesia’s&neoliberalization,&and&the&general&centrality&of&food&security&for&
social&reproduction.&In&scalar&terms,&food&security!in!Indonesia!should&be&
understood&in&the&context&of&the&rescaling&of&governance,&which&has&emphasized&
decentralization!following!the!collapse!of!Suharto’s!New!Order,!and&the&influx&of&
internationalizing&capital&and&market&relations&associated&with&economic&
liberalization.&This&has&opened&food&security&and&social&reproduction&in!
Indonesia!to&the&forces&of&international&finance&and&reinvigorated&imperial&
ambitions,&expressed&as&a&contradictory&combination&of&centralizing&and&
decentralizing&processes.!The!latter!is!emphasized!as!a!response!to!the!culture!of!
collusion,!corruption,!and!nepotism!that!dominates!economic!and!political!decision!
making!in!Indonesia!(Vickers,2005:205),!and!is!seen!in!development!efforts!to!build!
local!political!and!economic!capacities!and!rights.!Much!postYcrisis!US!development!
aid!in!Indonesia!has!focused!on!decentralization,!and!USAID’s!2004Y08strategic!plan!
for!Indonesia!underscored!the!necessity!of!decentralization!for!improving!democracy!
and!basic!education!and!human!services!(USAID,!2004;!see!also!USAID,!2006b).&New&
forms&of&centralization&have&also&occurred,&however,&as&the&maintenance&of&sub`
imperialism&has&meant&strengthening&the&repressive&state&apparatus&in&response&
to&localized&ethnic&insurgencies&and&Islamist&groups,&and&a&polarization&of&
Champion)Briefs)
332&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
economic&power&associated&with&capitalist&internationalization.&With&respect&to&
food&security,&these&processes&have&led&to&the&restructuring&of&BULOG,&from&
apolitically`oriented&state&import&monopoly&focused&on&stabilizing&food&prices&
and&supplies&through&subsidies&and&political&fiat,&to&a&public&corporation&
stripped&of&monopoly&powers&and&subject&to&private&business&competition&and&
institutional&principles!(Yonekura,!2005).!The!restructuring!of!BULOG,!long!the!state!
organ!responsible!for&ensuring&food&security&in&Indonesia&through&manipulation&
of&food&prices&and&direct&control&over&food&imports&and&distribution,&occurred&in&
conjunction&with&wider&reforms&tied&to&Indonesia’s&WTO&commitments&and&
specific&post`crisis&agreements&with&the&IMF.!It!remains!to!be!seen!if!BULOG!can!
meet!the!demands!now!placed!upon!it,!even!as!initial!evidence!suggests!that!the!
transition!to!a!liberalized!food!economy!holds!potential!for!improved!aggregate!food!
security!(Bappenas!et!al!!,!2004;!Yonekura,!2005).!It!is!important!to!note!here!that,!in!
this!context!and!according!to!most!economic!and!food!security!indicators,!Indonesia!
has!been!relatively!successful!at!promoting!economic!growth!and!improving!food!
security.!US!government!food!security!assessments!point!out!that!Indonesia!(along!
with!Vietnam)!has!the!highest!per!capita!calorie!intake!in!Southeast!Asia,!and!that!
even!though!polarized!income!distribution!may!complicate!the!situation,!“food!
supplies!are!projected!to!be!more!than!sufficient!to!meet!the!nutritional!requirement!
cross!all!income!groups!through!2016,!despite!a!projected!slowdown!in!grain!output!
growth”!(USDA,2007:10).!FAO’s!assessment!likewise!emphasizes!Indonesia’s!progress!
toward!the!World!Food!Summit!goal!of!halving!the!number!of!chronically!hungry!
people!by!2015.!Though!not!yet!meeting!WFS!targets,!Indonesia!reduced!its!
proportion!of!undernourished!from!9!to!6!percent!of!the!population!between!1990!
and!2003!FAO,!2006:32).Such&long`term&measures&demonstrate&macro`trends&and&
ostensibly&paint&a&picture&of&successful&liberalization&and&post`crisis&adjustment,&
but&they&gloss&over&the&precariousness&of&food&security&for&marginal&populations.&
Aggregate&food&security&may&improve,&though&income&polarization,&rural&
displacement,&and&unpredictable&fluctuations&in&volatile&international&food&
markets&means&that&the&danger&of&food&insecurity&is&heightened&for&those&that&
remain&outside&the&market&nexus.!The!two!cases!examined!below!demonstrate!how!
Champion)Briefs)
333&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
marginal!populations!are!forcibly!subjugated!to!the!scaleYmaking!projects!of!
neoliberalization,!subYimperialism,!and!the!global!war!on!terror!through!the!
disciplining!effects!of!food!aid!programs!that!require!e!labor!on!infrastructural!
projects!(in!Jakarta)!and!submission!to!military!oversight!(in!Aceh).!As&a&key&element&
of&social&reproduction,&the&failure&of&such&food&aid&programs&to&provide&lasting&
respite&from&food&insecurity&represents&an&acute&repudiation&of&the&vagaries&of&
capitalist&markets&and&the&governance&of&the&neoliberal&state.!Contradictorily,!it!
thus!also!provides!grounds!for!the!enforcement!of!militarized!disciplinary!measures!
under!neoliberal!globalization!and!its!corollary!of!USYsupported!Indonesian!subY
imperialism.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
334&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&up&harming&
the&ones&it&intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&
proxy&for&spreading&neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&
populations.&
Essex,!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia."!
Human!Geography.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.hugeog.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!
While!this!political!balance!remains!incomplete!and!highly!contested,!even!in!the!US,!
it!neverthelesshas!provided!the!context!and!impetus!for!reshaping!longstanding!
institutions!and!norms!associated!with!more!restrained!versions!of!both!
neoliberalism!and!neoconservatism.!The&post`9/11&US&stance&toward&development&
and&developing&states,&especially&“fragile&states,”&offers&a&clear&example&of&how&
the&amalgam&of&neoliberal&doctrine&and&neoconservative&militarism&has&
produced&a&new&geopolitical&imaginary&reliant&on&particularly&brutal&
conceptualizations&of&risk,&danger,&and&insecurity.&The&institutionalization&of&
this&imaginary&enforces&a&neoliberal&state&form&devoted&to&facilitating&free&trade&
and&narrow,&capital`centric&understandings&of&security!(Essex,!2008),&and&
deploys&new&spatial&categories&for&determining&the&appropriate&allocation&of&
foreign&aid!(Essex,!in!press).!Within&this&new&imaginary,&food&security&becomes&a&
proxy&for&measuring&governance&and&state&fragility.&The&US&Agency&for&
International&Development&cites&food&insecurity&as&one&among&many&“symptoms&
of&the&failure&of&governance&in&fragile&states”!(USAID,!2005a:4);!conversely,&food&
security&is&a&product&of&good&governance,&defined&in&terms&of&the&appropriate&
management&of&risks&that&undermine&food&availability&and&vulnerable&
populations’&ability&to&access&and&utilize&it!(USAID,!2005b:19Y23).This&raises&
questions&about&what&good&governance&in&developing&states&means&under&
conditions&of&neoliberalization,&how&this&has&shaped&the&translation&of&theories&
of&food&security&into&tangible&policies&and&programs,&and&how&this&differs&from&
Champion)Briefs)
335&
NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
past&approaches&Historically,&development&institutions&have&typically&sought&to&
improve&food&security&through&foodaid,&and&the&US&has&long&been&the&largest&
donor,&using&aid&as&both&geopolitical&carrot&and&stick.!During!theCold!
War,!mechanisms&to&dispose&of&growing&agricultural&surpluses&were&seen&as&key&
to&expanding&agro`foodexports,&achieving&industrialization&and&food&security&in&
developing&states,&and&combating&the&spread&of&international&Communism.&Most&
food&aid&went&to&strategic&allies,&even&those&that&were&not&food&insecure(Kodras,!
1993).!In&those&states&where&food&insecurity&did&exist,&US&food&aid&often&failed&to&
alleviate&hunger&because&of&its&many&contradictory&objectives&and&the&way&it&
deepened&relations&of&dependency!(Edkins,2000;!Garst!and!Barry,!1990;!Shepherd,!
1985).!Since!the!Cold!War’s!end,!scholars!have!paid!increasing!attention!to!the!
problems!of!food!aid.!As&the&US&provides&about&two`thirds&of&global&food&aid,&its&
programs&have&received&the&most&attention,&and&are&powerful&forces&shaping&the&
global&food&system.&Barrett&and&Maxwell&(2005:3)&demonstrate&how&food&aid&
policy&“only&sometimes&helps&the&poor&and&hungry&…&[and]&on&occasion&it&can&
worsen&their&plight”&because&of&its&“dependence&on&multiple&masters,&who&often&
cause&food&tobe&overused&or&misused&as&a&resource&in&order&to&serve&donors’&
parochial&interests.”&The&tangled&domestic&politics!of!food!aid,!divided!across!six!
programs!directed!by!two!agencies!(USAID!and!the!US!Department!of!
Agriculture),!illustrate&food&aid’s&competing&objectives&and&resultant&
“administrative&confusion”!(Murphy!andMcAfee,!2005:13).!The!US!government!itself!
has!identified!such!problems!several!times!(GAO!1995a,!b,2002,!2007a,!b,!c),!though!
proposed!solutions!have!focused!narrowly!on!improving!internal!
management,reviewing!food!aid’s!legislative!basis,!and!reforming!USAID.A&full&
analysis&of&US&food&aid&policies&and&their&link&to&food&security,&neoliberalization,&
and&militarism&must,&however,&also&take&into&account&their&international&and&
multilateral&context&and&determinants.&Institutions&operating&at&local,&national,&
and&international&scales,&including&both&state&and&non`state&entities,&are&
important&food&policy&actors,&key&to&both&implementation&of&existing&programs&
and&to&advancing&neoliberalized&approaches&to&food&security,&especially&those&
that&rely&on&the&backing&or&overt&use&of&military&force.&The&ideological&and&
material&resources&of&the&neoliberal&state,&including&its&ability&to&construct&and&
steer&forms&of&governance&that&include&capitalist&interests&and&NGOs,&provide&the&
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necessary&basis&for&making&the&abstract&universal&ideals&of&neoliberalism&and&
neoconservatism&a&practical&reality.!!
Food&Security&is&tied&to&infrastructural&development&and&
furtherance&of&US`centered&neoliberalism&
Essex,!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia."!
Human!Geography.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.hugeog.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!
In!this!context,!the&food&insecure&are&seen&as&a&threat,&potential&terrorists&prone&
to&the&recruitment&strategies&of&radical&Islamists,&and&therefore&in&need&of&
development.&The&first&step&toward&this&is&to&provide&incentives&that&outweigh&
those&offered&by&terrorist&groups,&indicating&an&assumption&that&even&the&
impoverished&and&marginal&hungry&are&economically&rational.&Such&market&
rationality&must&be&fostered&through&food&aid,&though&FFW&also&insists&that&only&
those&who&work&will&obtain&food.&A&distrust&of&universal&economic&rationality&
lies&at&the&center&of&this&formulation,&insofar&as&local&labor&markets,&to&the&extent&
to&which&they&exist,&are&seen&to&fail&and&must&be&enforced&through&the&discipline&
of&hunger&and&food&aid&availability.&FFW&articulates&such&local&labor&discipline&in&
conjunction&with&both&the&threat&of&violence&if&other&opportunities&are&
pursued!(i.e.,!joining!Islamist!groups!and/or!remaining!unemployed)!and!the!
ideological!and!material!power!of!international!civil!society!funded!by!the!US!state.!
The!important!mediating!and!implementing!role!NGOs!play!is!crucial,!as!the!US!and!
Indonesian!states!do!not!themselves!run!such!programs,!but!merely!fund!or!provide!
logistical!support!to!them.!This&is&the&thrust&of&neoliberal&and&sub`imperial&
governance&–&the&poor&and&the&hungry,&most&vulnerable&in&periods&of&crisis,&are&
to&be&managed&through&mechanisms&which&script&their&hunger&as&an&asset&and&a&
liability.&They&both&deserve&aid&and&are&a&threat&without&it.!UnderY!and!
malnourished!bodies!in!the!unruly!urban!core!of!the!Indonesian!state!are!thus!recast!
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as!a!ready!pool!of!cheap!labor!for!infrastructural!development,!paid!in!food!and!
connected!to!the!wider!set!of!capitalist!and!internationalizing!relations!that!provides,!
delivers,!and!manages!such!aid.!The!requirement!of!labor!force!participation!
incorporates!the!scales!of!the!hungry!urban!Javanese!body!and!the!economically!
ravaged!urban!village!into!the!wider!scaleYmaking!projects!of!subYimperialism!and!
neoliberalization!by!scripting!them!as!potential!threats!to!the!neoliberal!project!as!a!
whole.&This&is&not&to&suggest&that&the&hungry&poor&in&Jakarta’s&FFW&programs&did&
not&benefit&from&the&food&thus&distributed;&rather,&the&point&is&that&to&do&so,&they&
had&to&cede&a&large&measure&of&their&autonomy&over&the&conditions&of&their&own&
social&reproduction&to&the&agents&of&international&civil&society&and&the&
geostrategic&social&and&political&categorizations&of&the&USand!Indonesian!states.!
Likewise,!NGOs!such!as!Mercy!Corps!are!not!themselves!imperialist!or!militaristic,!but!
are!part!of!much!larger!projects!that!3.!Urban!agriculture,!unregulated!and!unplanned,!
also!increased!throughout!Jakarta!immediately!following!the!crisis,!as!the!poor!took!
up!food!production!on!vacant!land,!along!roadsides,!and!along!canals!and!riverbanks!
to!provide!some!basic!subsistence!in!the!absence!of!cash!to!pay!spiraling!food!prices!
(Purnomohadi,!1999).!are.!The!scale&of&the&poor,!hungry,!urban!body!in!postYcrisis!
Jakarta!was!thus!nested!in!the!larger!scales!of!Jakarta,!Java,!Indonesia,!and&US`
centered&global&neoliberalism&as&food&security&became&tied&to&processes&of&
infrastructural&development&and&geopolitical&securitization&through&the&
reconstitution&of&local&labor&markets&under&the&rubric&of&food`for`work.!
!
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Food&security&is&central&to&the&reproduction&of&capitalist&
social&relations&and&imperialism&we&must&undertake&a&
genealogical&examination&is&key&to&resist&such&
structures.&
Essex,!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia."!
Human!Geography.!January!05,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.hugeog.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!
Food&security&is&central&to&social&reproduction,&and&thus&also&to&the&forcible&
connection&of&marginal&and&resistant&places&and&populations&to&networks&of&
internationalizing&capital&as&demanded&by&neoliberal&geo&politics.!I!began!this!
paper!by!building!from!McMichael’s!(2003:172)!definition!of!food!security!as!
“apolitical!relationship”!increasingly!articulated!at!a!global!scale!and!through!market!
mechanisms,!including!food!aid.!Coupled&with&the&understanding&that&such&market&
mechanisms,&and&neoliberalization&more&generally,&are&not&natural&but&rather&
the&often&violent&constitution&or&expansion&of&specific&scale`making&projects,!I!
have!examined!the!neoliberal!geopolitics!of!food!aid!with!reference!to!subY
imperialism!in!Indonesia.!The!accounts!of!food!aid!and!security!in!Jakarta!and!Aceh!
presented!here!are!partial!and!incomplete,!but!demonstrate!the&ways&in&which&
global&market&relations,&(sub`)imperial&hegemony,&and&national&security&are&
enforced&through&the&manipulation&of&food&security&and&social&reproduction&for&
vulnerable&populations.&The&violence&visited&upon&these&populations&is&not&an&
afterthought&in&global&flows&of&food,&aid,&and&arms,&but&a&desired&objective&within&
the&construction&of&a&neoliberal&hegemony.!The!Jakarta!example!illustrates!how!
food!aid,!distributed!through!foodYforYwork!programs!that!require!labor!force!
participation!for!access,!becomes!the!basis!for!managing!marginal!people!and!places!
that!are!deemed!threats!precisely!because!they!are!marginal.!The!Aceh!case!presents!a!
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more!directly!militaristic!example!of!neoliberal!geopolitics!in!action,!indicating!the!
limits!of!market!relations!as!a!platform!for!social!reproduction!and!neoliberal!
hegemony;!instead,!the!Indonesian!military!was!relied!upon!to!play!a!more!coercive!
role!in!the!distribution!and!control!of!food!aid.!It!is!troubling,!if!not!surprising,!that!
within!this!matrix,!even!international!civil!society,!considered!by!many!a!repository!of!
hopeful!action!and!social!justice,!becomes!enmeshed!(even!if!not!wholeheartedly!or!by!
choice)!in!the!militarized!and!coercive!practices!and!institutions!associated!with!the!
US!war!on!terror!and!the!subYimperial!domination!of!the!Indonesian!state!over!its!
peripheries.!I!would!like!to!conclude!by!considering!Sparke’s!(2004)!discussion!of!
hegemony!and!domination,!which!offers!a!useful!path!for!further!analysis!and!
expansion!of!this!research,!and!Hart’s!(2004)!call!for!critical!ethnographic!research!on!
neoliberal!geographies!of!development.!Beginning!with!the!latter,!Hart(2004:98)!
argues!that!critical!ethnographic!approaches!can!“illuminat[e]!processes!of!
constitution!and!interconnection,”!and!can!therefore!prevent!analytical!categories!and!
forms!of!praxis!from!ossifying,!while!also!giving!a!clearer!view!into!the!ways!actors!
articulate!divergent!and!seemingly!incommensurate!projects!with!one!another.!Such!
ethnographic!research!is!difficult!because!of!the!need!to!negotiate!access!to!the!
powerful!institutions!and!actors!that!shape!development!strategies,!including!US!state!
agencies,!NGOs,!banks,!and!private!charitable!foundations,!but!it!is!not!impossible.!But!
what!questions!must!be!asked!in!pursuing!and!using!such!access?!Following!Stuart!
Hall,!Hart&(2004)&argues&in&favor&of&critical&attention&to&the&constant&and&
contested&articulation&of&categories&upon&and&through&which&power&is&
constituted&and&exercised.&This&means&interrogating&the&place&of&food&aid,&food&
security,&and&humanitarianism&in&neoliberal&geopolitics,&and&the&way&hunger,&
and&more&importantly,&the&hungry,&are&understood&as&political,&economic,&and&
social&threats&to&be&managed&or&silenced.&Understanding&food&aid&and&food&
security&in&light&of&their&dominating&functions&is&useful&in&this&context,!and!
Sparke’s!(2004)!analysis!of!geographical!theorizations!of!domination!is!instructive!for!
posing!closing!questions!here.!Also!drawing!from!Hall!and!Gramsci,!Sparke!
(2004:779)!argues!for!a!situated!understanding!of!domination!“as!a!particular!form!of!
hegemony!articulated!(and!thus!both!experienced!and!consolidated)!more!through!
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coercion!than!through!consent.”!Rather!than!falling!into!the!trap!of!scalar!bifurcation!
that!too!often!places!coercion!at!the!global!scale!and!consent!at!the!national!scale,!
Sparke(2004:780)!suggests!that!we!should!“investigate!how!the!dominance!that!is!
sometimes!coactive!with!consent!in!a!particular!personal!sphere!of!social!
reproduction!is!interarticulated!with!dominance!at!other!scales.”!This!points!to!a!
number!of!questions!this!research!touches!on,!but!which!are!beyond!the!limited!scope!
of!this!paper.!How!does!food!aid!delivered!with!a!labor!requirement!or!at!the!end!of!a!
gun!constitute!and!complicate!relations!of!dominance!and!hegemony?!What&becomes&
of&impoverished&and&vulnerable&populations’&long`term&social&reproductive&
capacities&if&food&security&is&made&a&core&object&of&imperial&domination&and&
neoliberal&violence?!What!are!the!limits!of!humanitarian!action!and!civil!society!in!
the!tangled!politics!of!neoliberalization!supported!by!outright!militarism?!Such&
questions&can&only&be&answered&through&critical&engagement&with&the&
geographical&and&historical&specificity&of&scale`making&projects&like&those&
described&here,&and&building&grounded,&relational,&and&reflexive&theorizations&of&
food&security!
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Agriculture&to&create&food&contributes&heavily&to&climate&
emissions.&
United!States!Department!of!State.!"US!Climate!Action!Report!2010."!Fifth!National!
Communication!of!the!United!States!of!America!Under!the!United!Nations!
Framework!Convention!on!Climate!Change.!December!06,!2009.!Web.!February!
04,!2015.!<http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/usa_nc5.pdf>.!
The!Agriculture!chapter!of!the!Inventory!of!U.S.!Greenhouse!Gas!Emissions!and!Sinks!
contains!anthropogenic!emissions!from!agricultural!activities!(except!fuel!combustion,!
which!is!addressed!in!the!Energy!chapter,!and!agricultural!CO2!fluxes,!which!are!
addressed!in!the!Land!Use,!LandYUse!Change,!and!Forestry!chapter).!Agricultural&
activities&contribute&directly&to&emissions&of&GHGs&through&a!variety!of!processes,!
including!the!following!source!categories:!enteric&fermentation!in!domestic!
livestock,&livestock&manure&management,&rice&cultivation,&agricultural&soil&
management,&and&field&burning&of&agricultural&residues.!CH4!and!N2O!were!the!
primary!GHGs!emitted!by!agricultural!activities.!In&2007,&CH4&emissions&from&
enteric&fermentation&and&manure&management&represented&about&24&percent&
and&8&percent&of&total&CH4&emissions!from!anthropogenic!activities,!respectively.!
Agricultural!soil!management!activities,!such!as!fertilizer&application&and&other&
cropping&practices,&were&the&largest&source&of!U.S.!N2O&emissions&in&2007,&
accounting&for&67&percent.!In!2007,!emission!sources!accounted!for!in!the!
Agriculture!chapter!were!responsible!for!6!percent!of!total!U.S.!GHG!emissions.!!
!
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Greenhouse&gas&emissions&from&agriculture&are&set&to&
increase&by&2020.&
United!States!Department!of!State.!"US!Climate!Action!Report!2010."!Fifth!National!
Communication!of!the!United!States!of!America!Under!the!United!Nations!
Framework!Convention!on!Climate!Change.!December!06,!2009.!Web.!February!
04,!2015.!<http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/usa_nc5.pdf>.!
For!example,!CH4!emissions!from!landfills!result!from!waste!deposited!over!a!long!
period!of!time.!Between!2005!and!2020,!total!CH4!emissions&are&estimated&to&
increase&by&about&8&percent&as&underlying&economic&activity&increases&over&the&
projection&period,!with!fugitive!emissions!from!increased!natural!gas!production!the!
largest!influence.!However,!these!increases!are!expected!to!be!mitigated!by!greater!
control!of!CH4!emissions!from!landfills,!coal!mines,!and!manure!through!increased!
flaring,!recovery,!and!use.!CH4!captureYandYuse!projects!are!driven!in!part!by!the!
prices!of!electricity!and!natural!gas,!which!increase!over!the!projection!period.!N2O&
emissions&are&estimated&to&rise&from&316&Tg&CO2!Eq.!in!2005!to&332&Tg&CO2&Eq.!in&
2020—an&increase&of&5&percent.&Emissions&from&agriculture,!the!largest!source!of!
N2O!emissions,!are&estimated&to&increase&from&225!Tg!CO2!Eq.!in!2005!to&237!Tg!
CO2!Eq.!in!2020.!In!contrast,!N2O!emissions!from!transportation!are!estimated!to!
decrease!over!the!same!time!period!due!to!improvements!in!vehicle!emission!control!
technologies.!
!
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Nitrous&oxide&from&agriculture&is&one&of&the&deadliest&
greenhouse&gases.&
British!Broadcasting!Company.!"Climate!Change!Y!Nitrous!Oxide."!BBC!Weather!Center.!
December!06,!2009.!Web.!February!04,!2015.!
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/climate/evidence/nitrous_oxide.shtml>.!
Nitrous&oxide!makes!up!an!extremely!small!amount!of!the!atmosphere!Y!it!is!less!than!
oneYthousandth!as!abundant!as!carbon!dioxide.!However,!it!is&200&to&300&times&more&
effective&in&trapping&heat&than&carbon&dioxide.!Nitrogen!is!removed!from!the!
atmosphere!by!plants!and!converted!into!forms!such!as!ammonia,!which!can!then!be!
used!by!the!plants.!This!is!called!nitrogen!fixation.!At!the!same!time,!microYorganisms!
remove!nitrogen!from!the!soil!and!put!it!back!into!the!atmosphere!Y!denitrification!Y!
and!this!process!produces!nitrous!oxide.!Nitrous!oxide!also!enters!the!atmosphere!
from!the!ocean.!Nitrous&oxide&has&one&of&the&longest&atmosphere&lifetimes&of&the&
greenhouse&gases,&lasting&for&up&to&150&years.!Burning!fossil!fuels!and!wood!is!one!
source!of!the!increase!in!atmospheric!nitrous!oxide,!however!the&main&contributor&is&
believed&to&be&the&widespread&use&of&nitrogen`base&fertilisers.!Sewage!treatment!
plants!may!also!be!a!major!source!of!this!gas.!Since&the&Industrial&Revolution,&the&
level&of&nitrous&oxide&in&the&atmosphere&has&increased&by&16%.&Due&to&the&long&
time&it&spends&in&the&atmosphere,&the&nitrous&oxide&that&we&release&today&will&
still&be&trapping&heat&well&into&the&next&century.&!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
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Food&aid&sometimes&goes&to&terrorist&and&militant&groups.&
Somalia&is&a&good&example.&
Franks,!Suzanne.!"Public!Perception!And!Policy:!Famine!And!Food!Securitization!In!
The!Horn!Of!Africa."!Chatham!House.!December!06,!2009.!Web.!February!03,!
2015.!
<http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/home/chatham/pu
blic_html/sites/default/files/20131118PublicPerceptionPolicyFamine.pdf>.!
With!regards!to!an!acceptable!level!of!diversion,&the&World&Food&Programme&was&
left&with&little&decision&but&to&withdraw&from&Somalia&in&2011.&Much&of&its&food&
aid&was&being&lost&to&al&Shabaab.&This&left&a&lot&more&people&vulnerable&to&famine&
but&there&are&very&significant&risks&regarding&where&food&aid&will&ultimately&end&
up!
!
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Food&assistance&isn't&going&to&the&people&who&need&it.&
Fong,!PhyllisK.!"Statement!Of!The!Honorable!Phyllis!K.!Fong,!Inspector!General,!Before!
The!Committee!On!Oversight!And!Government!Reform,!U.S.!House!OF!
Representatives."!United!States!Department!of!Agriculture,!Office!of!Inspector!
General.!August!03,!2012.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.usda.gov/oig/webdocs/IGtestimony120308.pdf>.!
OIG!also!has!been!looking!at!recipients!who!misrepresent&themselves&to&receive&
benefits.&Recently,!OIG!has!conducted!a&series&of&audits&of&10&States&to&assess!how!
they!used!participant!databases!to!identify!potentially&fraudulent&recipients,!and!
we!have!completed!work!in!5!States.6!!Our!analysis!of!the!databases!that!States!check!
as!part!of!their!role!in!ensuring!recipient!eligibility!revealed&that&a&total&of&8,594&
recipients!in!the!5!States!were&receiving&potential&improper&payments.!Some!of!
these!recipients!were&using&the&social&security&numbers&of!deceased&individuals,!
or!otherwise!invalid!social!security!numbers,!while!others!were!receiving!benefits!in!
more!than!one!State.!In!total,!we!estimate!that!these&recipients&could&be&receiving&
about&$1.1&million&a&month&!
!
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Food&stamps&are&abused&by&the&population.&People&use&them&
to&buy&drugs&and&weapons.&
Fong,!PhyllisK.!"Statement!Of!The!Honorable!Phyllis!K.!Fong,!Inspector!General,!Before!
The!Committee!On!Oversight!And!Government!Reform,!U.S.!House!OF!
Representatives."!United!States!Department!of!Agriculture,!Office!of!Inspector!
General.!August!03,!2012.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.usda.gov/oig/webdocs/IGtestimony120308.pdf>.!
!OIG!has!focused!significant!work!on!disqualified!retailers!who!reenter!the!program!
and!continue!to!exploit!it.!We!are,!however,!responsible!for!providing!broad!oversight!
for!the!entire!program,!and!we!have!found&fraud&and&program!inefficiencies&in!other!
aspects!of!SNAP!as!well.!In!terms!of!fraud,!we!have!seen!many&types&of&trafficking&in&
SNAP&benefits.&By&giving&a&recipient&$50&in&cash&for&$100&in&benefits,!an!
unscrupulous!retailer!can!make!a!significant!profit;recipients,!of!course,!are&then&
able&to&spend&the&cash&however&they&like.!In!some!cases,!recipients&have&
exchanged&benefits&for&drugs,&weapons,&and&other&contraband.&When&trafficking&
occurs&unchecked,&families&do&not&receive&the&intended&nutritional&assistance,&
and&unscrupulous&retailers&profit&at&the&expense&of&the&American&public.!
!
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The&USDA&willingly&allows&corruption&in&the&food&stamp&
program.&
Fong,!PhyllisK.!"Statement!Of!The!Honorable!Phyllis!K.!Fong,!Inspector!General,!Before!
The!Committee!On!Oversight!And!Government!Reform,!U.S.!House!OF!
Representatives."!United!States!Department!of!Agriculture,!Office!of!Inspector!
General.!August!03,!2012.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.usda.gov/oig/webdocs/IGtestimony120308.pdf>.!
In!2008,!for!example,!we&found&that&FNS&does&not&verify&SNAP&retailers’&criminal&
records&and&therefore&cannot&comply&with&its&own&requirement&to&deny&
SNAP!authorization!to&any&retailer&with&a&criminal&history!(i.e.,!embezzlement,!
theft,!forgery,!etc.)!reflecting!on!the!business!integrity!of!the!owner.4!!We!
recommended!that!FNS!begin!reviewing!retailers’!criminal!records,!but!FNS&
concluded&that&our&recommendation&would&need&a&regulatory&change&and&may&
not&be&cost&beneficial.!We!accepted!this!decision!on!the!condition!that!FNS!continue!
to!seek!other!options!to!better!ensure!the!integrity!of!retailers!applying!to!participate!
in!the!program.!In!response!to!our!second!recommendation!for!FNS!to!improve!the!
retailer!authorization!process!so!that!it!would!enable!the!successful!prosecution!of!
SNAP!traffickers,!FNS!generally!agreed.!FNS!is!also!not!making!use!of!one!of!the!most!
powerful!tools!available!to!keep!bad!actors!away,!not!only!from!SNAP,!but!from!other!
Federal!programs!they!might!exploit.!“Suspension!and!debarment”!is!a!legal!tool!that!
Federal!agencies!can!use!to!protect!programs!from!repeat!abusers!and!ensure!that!the!
Government!does!business!only!with!responsible!parties.!If!FNS!took!steps!to!debar!
retailers!with!a!proven!record!of!dishonesty,!those!individuals!would!be!prevented!
from!abusing!other!Federal!programs.!However,!in!a!recent!audit,!we&determined&
that&FNS&did&not&debar&any&of&the&615&wholesalers&and&retailers&convicted!in!
relation!to!208!OIG!cases,!even&though&a&conviction&is&adequate&grounds&for&
debarment.!5!!While!we!contend!that!FNS!should!consider!disqualified!SNAP!retailers!
for!suspension!or!debarment,!it&is&not&FNS’&policy&to&do&so.!FNS!asserts!that!it!can!
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exclude!retailers!under!the!Food!Stamp!Act,!that!disqualified!retailers!are!unlikely!to!
pursue!other!business!with!the!Federal!Government,!and!that!debarring!these!
individuals!is!costly.!Rather!than!issuing!a!blanket!rule!that!would!exclude!
disqualified!retailers!from!being!suspended!or!debarred,!FNS!should!consider!
suspension!and!debarment!on!a!caseYbyYcase!basis.!By!doing!so,!FNS!can!help!protect!
the!entire!Government!by!preventing!convicted!program!abusers!from!entering!into!
transactions!with!other!agencies.!!
!
!
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March/April&2015&
Food&service&retailers&regularly&defraud&the&United&States&
Government.&
Fong,!PhyllisK.!"Statement!Of!The!Honorable!Phyllis!K.!Fong,!Inspector!General,!Before!
The!Committee!On!Oversight!And!Government!Reform,!U.S.!House!OF!
Representatives."!United!States!Department!of!Agriculture,!Office!of!Inspector!
General.!August!03,!2012.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!
<http://www.usda.gov/oig/webdocs/IGtestimony120308.pdf>.!
When&FNS&determines&that&a&retailer&is&abusing&the&program,&the&agency&places&it&
on&the&disqualified&vendor&list!which,!in!theory,!should!prevent!that!retailer!from!
reentering!the!program.!While!FNS!is!active!in!disqualifying!abusive!retailers!from!the!
program,!some&disqualified&retailers&have&found&ways&around&this&particular&
control.!Our!investigations!have!shown!that!one!of!the!most!common!ways!a&
disqualified&retailer&can!circumvent!FNS’!efforts!to!keep!them!out!of!the!program!is!
by!enlisting!a&“straw&owner,”!often!a!family!member,!acquaintance,!or!employee,!as!
the!alleged!owner.!By&reapplying&to&the&program&using&the&name&of&this&“straw&
owner,”&the&disqualified&retailer&sets&up&the&business&again&and&continues&
criminal&activities.!A!recent!news!article!drew!attention!to!an!OIG!case!that!exposed!
such!a!scheme!in!Hartford,!Connecticut.3!!In!that!case,&a&store&owner&was&deported&
after&being&convicted&of&food&stamp&trafficking&fraud.!A!few!years&later,!
however,!he&illegally&reentered&the&United!States!and&opened&several&stores&using&
other&individuals’&names.!The!false!owners!of!these!stores!signed!their!names!on!
FNS!documents!to!obtain!authorization!to&accept&SNAP&benefits,!but!the!owner,!his!
wife,!and!his!brother!actually!operated!these!stores!and!used!them!to!defraud&the&
Government&of!about!$2&million.!As!a!result!of!our!investigation,!the!store!owner!
and!his!brother!were!ordered!to!pay!restitution!and!serve!a!total!of!78!months!of!
incarceration.!One!of!our!investigations!has!even!shown!that!a&group!of!criminals!in&
Floridavoluntarily!withdrew!their!store!from!SNAP!in!order!to!avoid!detection!for!
trafficking.!The!group!then!resubmitted!an!application!with!a!different!name!and!
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ownership,!and!continued!defrauding!SNAP!at!the!same!location.!They!executed&this&
scheme!successfully!three&times.!On!their!fourth!try,!OIG!investigative!efforts!led!to!
their!prosecution,!and!FNS!removed!them!from!the!program.!Our!investigation!
disclosed!that!this!group!trafficked&approximately&$6.2&million!in!benefits.!Between!
March!and!May!2010,!four!defendants!pled!guilty!to!wire!fraud!and!SNAP!fraud,!and!
were!each!sentenced!to!prison!terms!ranging!from!8!to!48!months!along!with!
restitution!orders!ranging!from!about!$350,000!to!$2.2!million.!!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
Food&insecurity&quells&insurgent&violence.&
Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And!
Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and!
Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82Y>.!
First,&acute&insecurity,&such!as!that!caused!by!drought!and!crop!failure,&diminishes&
the&resources&available&to&militants.&Military&thinkers&ranging&from&Sun&Tzu4&to&
Napoleon5&have&recognized&that&the&ability&to&forage&is&a&binding&constraint&on&
militaries&–&especially&those,&such&as&rebel&organizations,&that&lack&sophisticated&
logistics&and&support&networks.&Rebel&movements&typically&do&not&grow&their&
own&food&and&depend&on&voluntary&or&coerced&contributions&from&the&
population.!Drought!depresses!rural!incomes!via!reduced!agricultural!production!
making!it!more!difficult!to!find!willing!donors!and!making!civilians!more!likely!to!
resist!coercion.!These!dynamics!have!been!evident!in!Somalia.!As!drought!gripped!that!
country!in!2010–2012,!the!resulting!humanitarian!emergency!debilitated!Harakat!alY
Shabaab!alYMujahideen,!the!main!armed!opposition!to!Somalia’s!Transitional!Federal!
Government.!While!alYShabaab!has!been!accused!of!food!aid!theft!and!using!food!
denial!as!a!weapon,!environmental!stress!may!have!undermined!its!military!capacity.!
Drought!forced!farmers!and!herders!to!flee!regions!considered!alYShabaab!
strongholds,!undercutting!the!movement’s!economic!base!(Roble!2011).!As!resources!
became!scarcer!–!the!UN!declared!famine!conditions!in!July!2011!–!alYShabaab!
resorted!to!levying!higher!taxes!and!confiscating!livestock,!creating!tension!between!
the!movement!and!communities!under!its!control.!The!blockage!and!diversion!of!food!
aid!angered!tribal!groups!and!sparked!violent!clashes!with!local!militias.6!In!
November!2011,!alYShabaab!raided!the!Somali!offices!of!UNICEF,!the!World!Food!
Programme,!and!14!other!organizations,!forcing!them!to!suspend!relief!work!
(Chonghaile!2011).!Organizations!that!continued!to!provide!aid!were!met!with!new,!
higher!“taxes”!–!forced!levies!of!goods!–!on!aid!shipments!the!following!month!(UN!
Monitoring!Group!2012).!Though!motivated!by!a!desire!to!avoid!dependency!on!
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Western!organizations,!the!gambit!backfired.!The!increasing!strain!on!affected!
populations!caused!alYShabaab!to!lose!support!both!at!home!and!abroad,!contributing!
to!alYShabaab’s!military!decline!and!a!wave!of!defections!in!2012.!Second,&food&
insecurity&can&hinder&active&political&participation&–&including&participation&in&
civil&conflict&–&at&the&individual&level.&People&experiencing&acute&food&insecurity&
invest&virtually&all&their&effort&in&the&pursuit&of&food,&leaving&little&time&and&
energy&for&the&pursuit&of!higherYorder!needs!like!political!goals,!community!needs,!
and!ideological&ends!(Maslow!1984,!Inglehart!1981).!For!this!reason,!it!is!usually!not!
the!most!poor!or!foodYinsecure!who!participate!in!rebellion,!and!civil&conflict&is&
relatively&more&prevalent&under&conditions&of&relative&food&abundance&and&
better&agro`climatic&conditions&(Thiesen!2012,!Hendrix!and!Salehyan!
2012,!Salehyan!and!Hendrix!2012).!Finally,&the&fact&that&food&denial&is&often&
incorporated&into&counterinsurgency&operations&suggests&that&acute&and&severe&
food&insecurity&should&suppress&insurgent&violence!(Macrae!and!Zwi!1992).!!
!
!
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March/April&2015&
Affirmative&claims&that&food&insecurity&breeds&unrest&get&the&
causal&link&mixed&up&civil&conflict&causes&food&insecurity&
not&the&other&way&around.&
Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And!
Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and!
Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82>.!
While&the&causal&link&between&food&insecurity&and&civil&conflict&is&complex,&the&
reciprocal&relationship&(where&civil&conflict&causes&food&insecurity)&is&well&
established&and&relatively&straightforward.&Violent&conflict&is&an&important&
factor&behind&high&food&prices&and&severe&food&insecurity.&Conflict&often&affects&
the&ability&to&produce,&trade&and&access&food!(United!Nations!1993).!Conflict&
typically&brings&increased&military&spending&–&especially&on&arms&imports&–&
which&crowds&out&other&social&expenditures,&contributing&to&food&security&and&
child&hunger!(Scanlan!and!Jenkins!2001).!As!of!December!2012,prices&in&war`torn&
Syria&had&in&some&cases&sextupled&relative&to&prewar&prices.&The&price&rise&has&
been&attributed&both&to&decreased&production&as&a&result&of&bombed&factories&
and&dramatic&increases&in&transshipment&costs!(Morello!2012).!In!Mali,!where!
conflict!has!disrupted!market!access,!coarse!grain!prices!increased!sharply!by!80–100!
percent!above!average!from!late!2011!onwards!in!many!markets!during!the!lean!
season!(JuneYSeptember!2012),!with!the!highest!increases!recorded!in!northern!Mali.!
In!late!2012!and!early!2013!cereal!prices!had!returned!to!historic!levels!in!most!
markets!due!to!good!harvest!following!the!good!seasonal!rains!in!2012.!In!early!2013,!
however,!localized!cereal!price!increases!were!noted!as!the!military!intervention!
began!in!the!north!(WFP!2013).!As!the!following!vignette!on!the!Sudan!makes!clear,!
internally!displaced!persons!and!refugees!often!face!the!most!extreme!insecurity.!
These!negative!effects!can!persist!over!the!longer!term.!Children!in!Burundi!and!
Zimbabwe!who!experienced!violent!conflict!were!significantly!shorter!(stunted)!than!
others,!affecting!their!health,!education!and!economic!opportunities!later!in!
life!(Alderman,!Hoddinott!and!Kinsey!2006,!Blattman!and!Miguel!2010).!
Champion)Briefs)
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While&in&theory&food&security&might&help&the&poor&in&practice&
it&only&helps&the&well&off&at&the&expense&of&those&that&
depend&on&selling&agricultural&goods&for&their&livelihood.&
Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And!
Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and!
Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82>.!
Urban&bias&–&the&tendency&for&governments&in&developing&countries&to&be&more&
responsive&to&the&policy&concerns&and&preferences&of&urbanites&at&the&expense&of&
rural&dwellers&–&is&well&documented!(Lipton!1977,!Bezemer!and!Headey!2008).!In&
all&political&systems,&rulers&risk&removal&from&office&by&force&or&massive&popular&
upheaval&if&serious&urban&grievances&are&not&addressed.!However,!the!risks!of!
urban!unrest!as!a!result!of!higher!food!prices!are!perhaps!greatest!in!democracies,!
followed!by!hybrid!systems!and!then!autocracies.!Regardless&of&regime&type,&rulers&
face&general&incentives&to&invest&in&policies&that&disproportionately&favor&those&
segments&of&society&that&pose&the&most&threat&and&whose&support&is&most&
necessary&for&regime&survival:&urban&dwellers,&the&military&and&the&upper&and&
middle&classes&(Bates!1981a,!1981b;Stasavage!2005).!Urban!dwellers!are!more!
geographically!concentrated,!are!closer!to!the!seat!of!government!power,!and!face!
lower!costs!to!acting!collectively!to!protest!against!the!ruler.!The!military,!by!virtue!of!
their!organization!and!armament,!is!well!positioned!to!sabre!rattle.!The!wealthy!and!
middle!classes!have!relatively!more!resources,!time!and!energy!to!invest!in!popular!
expressions!of!discontent!–!and!more!to!lose.!For&these&reasons,&rulers&have&general&
incentives&to&subsidize&urban&food&consumption&at&the&expense&of&rural&
producers,&and&target&interventions&during&food&price&spikes&toward&
comparatively&better`off&segments&of&society.&These&interventions&–&such&as&
general&consumer&subsidies,&price&controls,&and&export&bans&–&harm&rural&
incomes&while&doing&little&to&target&aid&to&those&who&are&most&food&insecure.!
Champion)Briefs)
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Difference&between&food&security&and&food&sovereignty.&
Attalla,!Amber.!"“Food!Sovereignty!Vs.!Food!Security:!Is!There!A!Difference."!Coffee!
Kids.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.coffeekids.org/foodYsovereigntyYvsYfoodYsecurityYisYthereYaY
difference/>.!
Food&security&and&food&sovereignty,!although!often!used!interchangeably,!are&
considerably&different&concepts.&Food&security,&a&much&more&widely&understood&
notion,&refers&to&communities&with&access&to&food.!NGOs!that!work!with!food!
security!projects!often!work!with!a!community!to!meet!its!food!needs,!denoting!that!it!
currently!lacks!the!quantity!and!quality!of!food!necessary!to!sustain!community!
members.!Food&security&does&not&necessarily&stipulate&what&types&of&food&are&
provided&or&whether&or&not&that&food&is&local&or&brought&in&from&other&regions,!
and!it!does!not!always!require!the!direct!involvement!of!the!community!to!attain!and!
administer!that!food!(e.g.,!disasterYrelief!situations!in!which!food!arrives!from!outside!
sources).!!Food&sovereignty,&on&the&other&hand,&is&slightly&more&specific&and&
elicits&certain&guidelines&that&food&security&does&not&explicitly&mention.&Food&
sovereignty&puts&ownership&of&food&systems&into&the&hands&of&the&communities&
themselves.!It&involves&a&sustainable,&long`term&process&in&which&a&community&
can&establish&its&own&food&systems&and&produce&its&own&local&products&without&
being&subject&to&fluctuating&international&markets&or&dependent&on&external&
sources!for!the!acquisition!of!seeds.!Food!sovereignty!takes!into!account!the!cultural!
and!social,!political,!geographical!and!environmental!context!of!the!community!in!
order!to!develop!an!appropriate!plan!of!action!to!address!the!community’s!particular!
problems!and!needs.!
!
!
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Food&sovereignty&means&local&control&over&resources.&Food&
security&means&being&subject&to&neoliberal&markets.&
Zerbe,!Noah.!"Food!Security!Vs.!Food!Sovereignty."!Global!Food!Politics.!January!27,!
2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<https://globalfoodpolitics.wordpress.com/2012/11/30/foodYsecurityYvsY
foodYsovereignty/>.!
Food&sovereignty&is&thus&embedded&in&larger&questions&of&social&justice&and&the&
rights&of&farmers&and&indigenous&communities&to&control&their&own&futures&and&
make&their&own&decisions.!!The&difference&between&food&security&and&food&
sovereignty&is&important.!As!Windfuhr!and!Jonsen!describe!it!in!their!2005!book,!
Food!Sovereignty:!Towards!Democracy!in!Localised!Food!Systems,!“food!security!is!
more!of!a!technical!concept,!and!the!right!to!food!a!legal!one,!food!sovereignty!is!
essentially!a!political!concept.”!!For!my!part,!I’d!argue!that!food&sovereignty&
emphasizes&local&control&and&self`sufficiency,&while&food&security&emphasizes&
reliance&on&the&global&economy&based&on&liberalized&agricultural&markets.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
The&difference&between&security&and&sovereignty&matters&a&
lot.&
Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The!
Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!
The&difference&between&food&security&and&food&sovereignty&may&seem&like&mere&
semantics,!but&in&the!hyperYglobalized!world&wherein&transnational&companies&
may&privately&own&significant&portions&of!arable!land!in&countries&facing&food&
insecurity,&it&is&not&just&a&matter&of&word&play.&[Especially]&When&these&
companies&choose&to&export!the!entire!crop!grown!on!such!lands!and&when&the&
farmland&has&been&taken&from&uncompensated&smallholder&farmers.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&is&both&a&movement&and&a&theoretical&idea&
which&contrasts&with&food&security.&
Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The!
Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!
Food&security&means&the&availability&and&access&to&sufficient&safe&food,&whereas&
food&sovereignty&involves&both&ownership&and&the&rights&of&local&people&to&
define&local&food&systems,&without&first&being&subject&to&international&market&
concerns.!An!important!distinction!must!be!made!between!food!sovereignty!as!a!
theoretical!construct!and!food!sovereignty!as!a!movement.!The&food&sovereignty&
movement&considers&that&the&practices&of&multi`national&corporations&are&akin&
to&colonization,!as!such!companies!buy!up!large!tracts!of!land!and!turn!local!
agricultural!resources!into!export!cashYcrops.![1]!As&a&movement,&food&sovereignty&
lacks&direction&and&involves&a&great&diversity&of&opinion&and&idea.!As!a!model!to!
reYconsider!and!reYevaluate!food,!it!highlights!important!challenges!and!offers!
potential!remedies!to!current!challenges.!Food&sovereignty&as&a&theoretical&
construct,!which!is!the!definition!that!will!be!used!throughout!this!paper,!relates&to&
the&ownership&and&rights&of&food&growers&and&local&communities.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
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An&emphasis&on&food&security&has&problematically&led&to&
foreign&aid&organizations&being&able&to&ignore&structural&
problems.&
Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The!
Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!
USAID&argues&that&food&insecurity&is&often&a&result&of&poverty!(USAID,!2011),!while!
ownership,!land!rights!and!sovereignty!are!not!mentioned!as!causal!factors.!While&it&
is&true&that&a&direct&relationship&can&be&found&between&those&who&face&food&
insecurity&and&those&who&are&impoverished,&that&does&not&exclude&other&causes;&
such&as,&a&lack&of&sovereignty&or&oppressive&external&factors.!However,!USAID&
does&not&take&poverty&alleviation&and/or&human&rights&as&its&prime&reasons&for&
engagement;&rather&its&prime&interests&are&to&protect&America&and&to&create&
opportunities&for&Americans&(Riddell,!2007).!
!
!
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March/April&2015&
International&markets&actually&lead&to&more&insecurity&
though&land`grabbing.&
Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The!
Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!
A&“land&grab”&refers&to&those&land&acquisitions&that&have&caused&displacement,&
dispossession&and&disenfranchisement;!or,!according!to!the!Institute!of!
Development!Studies,&it&may&also&more&broadly&refer&to&the&mass&purchasing&of&
agricultural&lands&by&transnational&companies!(Scoones,!2009).!Land&grabbing&is&
occurring&on&a&scale&and&at&a&rate&faster&than&ever&known&before&(Food!First,!
2011).!When&over&one`hundred&papers&were&presented&at&
theInternational!Conference&on&Global&Land&Grabbing&in&2011,&not&one&positive&
outcome&could&be&found&for&local&communities;!such!as,!food!security,!employment!
and!environmental!sustainability!(ibid).!When!such!acquisitions!occur!in!places!of!
conflict,!postYconflict!and/or!weak!governance!there!is!less!monitoring!and!control!
and!even!greater!negative!impacts!(Mabikke,!2011).!Furthermore,!large`scale&land&
deals&increase&local&food&insecurity,&as&arable&land&produce&is&exported&rather&
than&reaching&the&local&market;&and&smallholder&farmers&must&purchase&foods&as&
opposed&to&harvesting&it&on&their&lands(Food!First,!2011).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
361&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Land&is&purchased&in&foreign&countries&to&provide&security&
for&food`importing&countries&ignoring&sovereignty&
concerns.&
Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The!
Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!
Lester!Brown!(2011)!argues!that!land&purchasing&is&a&part&of&the&global&struggle&to&
ensure&food&security.&Food`importing&countries&are&securing&overseas&supplies&
by&attempting&to&control&the&entire&supply`chain&of&food`stuffs,!and!thus!avoid!any!
potential!problems!that!may!arise!in!the!process.!Furthermore,!he!notes,!that!these&
deals&are&not&only&about&food&security&but&also&water&security.&Countries!such!as!
Saudi!Arabia!used!to!produce!much!higher!levels!of!wheat!internally;!however,!due!to!
declines!in!available!fresh!water!these!land!deals!have!secured!required!sources!of!
both!food!and!water!(Bunting,!2011).!Woodhouse!and!Ganho!(2011)!argue!that!the&
role&played&by&water&access&in&land&grabs&cannot&be&under`estimated,&including&
the&competition&between&local&and&investor&in&acquiring&access&to&water&
resources&and&to&sustainable&water&usage,!as!well!as!coping!with!the!problems!of!
creating!pollution!and!chemical!runYoff.!Case!studies!in!Ethiopia!demonstrate!that!
access!to,!and!rights!of,!water!sources!disproportionately!favor!investors!over!local!
smallholder!farmers!(Bues,!2011).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Land&grabs&hurt&the&poor&and&women&most&of&all.&
Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The!
Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!
According!to!Ethiopian!government!sources,!over&thirty`six&countries&have&leased&
land&within&its&borders&(Vidal,!2011).!Although!estimates!vary,!it&is&thought&that&
60—80%&of&food&production&in&Ethiopia&is&completed&by&women.&Thus&the&role&of&
gender&is&revealed&by&analysis&of&those&affected&by&land&sales&and&
dispossessions!(USAID,!2010).!Of&those&who&face&the&brunt&of&food&shortages&and&
insecurity&in&Ethiopia,&most&are&women&and&children(USAID,!2010).!
Furthermore,!areas&of&large`scale&plantations&are&more&likely&to&be&poverty`
affected&than&prosperous&in&respect&to&the&local&populations(Da!Via,!E.!2011).!As!a!
parallel!example,!case!studies&from&Cambodia&show&that&land&grabs&do&not&benefit&
local&residents,&and&over&time&resulted&in&collective&action&by&the&local&
population&against&political&and&commercial&interests&(Schneider,!2011).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
363&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Land&grabs&pose&a&major&challenge&to&nations&despite&their&
efforts&to&develop.&
Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The!
Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!
The&Ethiopian&government&views&international&investment&and&land`lease&deals&
as&means&to&achieve&economic&development.!In!Madagascar,!when!1.3!million!
hectares!of!agricultural!lands!were!going!to!be!sold!to!Daewod,!the!international!
community!and!local!residents!reacted!in!opposition,!resulting!in!the!government!
being!overthrown!(Perrine,!Mathidle,!Rivo!and!Raphael.!2011).!!The!Ethiopian!
economic!development!model&is&one&which&seeks&export`driven&macroeconomic&
development&at&the&expense&of&micro`level&communities&and&residents,&
particularly&those&in&remote&regions.&Ethiopian&officials&seem&to&use&
interchangeably&the&terms&‘empty’&and&‘unused’&with&the&word&‘uncultivated’,&
with&little&or&no&reference&at&all&to&the&people&who&currently&live&on&and&use&
those&lands.!Thus,!not!only!do!levels!of!poverty!and!food!insecurity!increase!but!so!
too!may!political!instability.!The&World&Bank&concludes&that&the&risks&involved&
with&such&land`lease&investments&are&immense,&and&that&land&sales&“often&
deprived&local&people,&in&particular&the&vulnerable,&of&their&rights…!
Consultations,!if!conducted!at!all,!were!superficial…and!environmental!and!social!
safeguards!were!widely!neglected”!(Economist,!2011b,!p.1).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
364&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&can’t&solve;&you&need&food&sovereignty.&
RomanYAlcalá,!Antonio.!"From!Food!Security!To!Food!Sovereignty."!Civil!Eats.!May!07,!
2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!<http://civileats.com/2013/05/29/fromYfoodY
securityYtoYfoodYsovereignty/>.!
In&the&global&North,&much&of&the&past&20&years&of&activism&has&framed&the&concept&
of&“food&security”&as&the&right&of&all&people&to&have&enough&food&to&avoid&hunger&
and&malnutrition.&A&new&effort!underway!to!deepen!food!activism!focuses&on&a&
more&radical&idea:!The!concept!of!food&sovereignty.&The&global&food&sovereignty&
movement&is&making&the&case&that&reform&of&the&food&system&will&be&insufficient&
if&it&does&not&democratize&and&make&more&transparent&the&means&of&food&
production.&We’ll&never&be&able&to&resolve&the&environmental&and&social&abuses&
of&industrial&agriculture&without&changing&who&controls&the&food&system.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
365&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&is&anti`democratic&compared&to&food&
sovereignty.&
RomanYAlcalá,!Antonio.!"From!Food!Security!To!Food!Sovereignty."!Civil!Eats.!May!07,!
2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!<http://civileats.com/2013/05/29/fromYfoodY
securityYtoYfoodYsovereignty/>.!
As!Katherine!Zavala,!program!manager!of!grassroots!alliances!at!International!
Development!Exchange!(IDEX),!a!San!FranciscoYbased!organization!that!supports!food!
justice!in!the!Global!South,!explains!it:!“Food&security&might&focus&on&hunger&as&a&
human&rights&issue,&but&it&fails&to&consider&many&other&facets&of&food&like&the&
ways&it&is&produced,&the&social&relationships&it&relies&on,&or&the&cultural&
importance&it&holds&to&communities.”!
!!
Having!enough!to!eat!is!important,!certainly,!but!what&about&the&quality&of&that&
food?&What&about&the&way&that&people&are&treated&in&the&process&of&producing&
that&food?&What&about&the&cultural&traditions&of&food!that!are!left!aside!in!a!purely!
calorieYcounting!concept!of!“food!security”?!Zavala!says!that!perhaps!the&biggest&
inadequacy&of&the&food&security&concept&is&that&it&fails&to&address&“who&decides&
what&the&food&system&is.&It&doesn’t&address&who&is&driving&or&controlling&the&
global&food&system&or&the&lack&of&decision`making&power&among&people&to&decide&
what&food&system&they&want.”!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
366&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&is&about&providing&people&the&capacity&to&
take&part&in&the&decisions&affecting&them.&
RomanYAlcalá,!Antonio.!"From!Food!Security!To!Food!Sovereignty."!Civil!Eats.!May!07,!
2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!<http://civileats.com/2013/05/29/fromYfoodY
securityYtoYfoodYsovereignty/>.!
He!says:!“Food&sovereignty,&like&food&security,&is&about&rights.&But&because&food&
sovereignty&as&a&concept&argues&that&food&systems&are&determined&by&political&
and&economic&conditions,!it’s!about!the!rights!we!as!eaters,!citizens,!
and!communities&should&have&to&take&part&in&effecting&those&conditions.!It!is!also!
about!how!we!can!use!foodYbased!activism!to!transform!the!political!and!economic!
system!we!live!in.”!!That!“taking&part”&is&what&distinguishes&food&security&from&
food&sovereignty,&and&what&makes&food&sovereignty&such&a&compelling&and&
important&idea.!Yes,!of!course,!providing!food!for!people!in!need!is!essential,!but!a!
soup!kitchen!a!food!bank!or!a!Supplemental!Nutrition!Assistance!Program!(SNAP)!
card!is!not!enough!to!create!food!sovereignty.!Even!planting!gardens!in!urban!areas!
(full!disclosure:!my!area!of!employment!)!doesn’t!amount!to!food!sovereignty.!!Direct!
action!approaches!like!Occupy!the!Farm!may!not!be!enough,!because,!Zavala!reminds!
us,!“Those&that&are&in&positions&of&government&and&economic&power&are&
restricting&these&alternative&food&system&models.&They’re&not&thinking&about&
feeding&people;&they’re&mostly&thinking&about&the&bottom&line.!And!if!we!all!
created!our!own!food!systems,!how!would!they!profit?”!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
367&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&solves&security&and&is&hostile&to&market&
forces.&
Maritzová,!Christine.!"Food!Sovereignty!As!A!Way!To!Achieve!Food!Security."!EcoFair!
Trade!Dialogue!project.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://glopolis.org/en/articles/foodYsovereigntyYwayYachieveYfoodY
security/>.!
The&notion&of&food&sovereignty&is&rooted&in&the&refusal&of&farmers,&peasants&and&
other&food&producers&and&civic&organizations&to&see&their&domestic&food&markets&
subject&to&the&vagaries&of&international&market&forces.!It!is!now!an!increasingly!
used!concept!in!the!development!debate!seeking!more!control!over!food!production,!
trade,!and!consumption.!There&is&a&difference&between&food&security&and&food&
sovereignty,&the&first&one&setting&the&goal,&the&other&defining&the&way&to&realize&
it.!Food!security!means!that!all!people!have!physical!and!economic!access!to!basic!
food!at!all!times,!as!defined!by!the!United!Nations.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
368&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
The&only&way&to&provide&security&is&through&alleviating&
poverty&and&that&can&only&happen&through&food&
sovereignty.&
Maritzová,!Christine.!"Food!Sovereignty!As!A!Way!To!Achieve!Food!Security."!EcoFair!
Trade!Dialogue!project.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://glopolis.org/en/articles/foodYsovereigntyYwayYachieveYfoodY
security/>.!
The&main&determinant&of&food&insecurity&is&the&vulnerability&of&people,!which!in!
turn!is!induced&by&poverty.!Poverty!makes!people!unable!to!feed!themselves,!i.e.!to!
produce!sufficient!and!adequate!food!or!to!raise!sufficient!income!to!buy!food.&
Poverty&eradication&is&thus&a&key&factor&in&the&achievement&of&household&food&
security.&For&that&to&happen,&the&specificity&of&small`scale&agriculture&must&be&
recognized&as&being&the&main&source&of&income&and&livelihood&for&the&poor&in&
several&developing&countries,!especially!in!Africa!(approximately!80%!of!
Africa’s!poor!live!in!rural!areas).!This&is&where&food&sovereignty,&a&concept&born&
from&civic&mobilization,&comes&to&the&forefront&as&it&is&a&policy&framework&that&
underlines&the&right&of&nations&and&their&people&to&define&their&own&food&
production&systems!(production,!distribution,!and!consumption)!without!having!to!
depend!on!the!fluctuating!international!markets.!It!is!thus!not!possible!to!fully!realize!
food!sovereignty!without!controlling!the!main!determinants!of!agricultural!policies!
today,!i.e.!rules!regarding!tariffs!and!domestic!supports,!which!are!decided!within!
trade!policies!(especially!through!the!World!Trade!Organization.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Ensuring&food&sovereignty&is&more&than&just&criticizing&neo`
liberalism.&
Lee,!Richard.!"Food!Security!And!Food!Sovereignty."!Centre!for!Rural!Economy!
Discussion!Paper!Series!No.!11.!January!03,!2007.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.people.ku.edu/~anirtak/foodsov_vs_foodsec.pdf>.!
Concern&over&the&'mutation&of&the&meaning'&of&food&security&around&agricultural&
trade&liberalisation&is&an&important&element&of&food&sovereignty!(see!IUF,!2002).!
In!a!paper!on!food!sovereignty!and!trade!liberalisation,!Steve!Suppan!of!the!Institute!
for!Agriculture!and!Trade!Policy!points!out!that!the!configuration!of!agricultural!
policy!and!commodity!prices!is!disproportionally!determined!by!international!trade,!
given!that!only!10%!of!world!food!production!is!traded!internationally!(Suppan,!
2003).!Although&this&apparent&contradiction&is&an&important&concept&in&the&food&
sovereignty&framework,&focus&upon&international&trade&is&not&considered&
sufficient.&Advocates&of&food&sovereignty&stress&that&the&framework&is&a&'total&
package';!that!the!four!pillars!of!the!framework!can!not!be!isolated!from!each!other!
and!that!reform&of&food&and&agricultural&requires&fundamental&change.&In!a!
speech!to!the!World!Congress!of!Young!Farmers!in!2003,!Jacques!Chirac!aligned!food!
sovereignty!to!the!argument!for!increased!national!selfYsufficiency!and!the!
development!of!local!farming.!This!has!attracted!criticism!from!the!food!sovereignty!
movement!–!underpinned!by!a!rejection!of!potential!political!alignments!with!the!
leaders!of!Western!nations!–!by!failing!to!combine!the!protection!of!national!markets!
(under!the!trade!and!food!pillar)!with!a!change!to!production!models,!improved!
access!to!productive!resources!and!the!implementation!a!human!right!to!food.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
370&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&is&a&conceptual&alternative&to&top`down&
food&security&programs.&
Beuchelt,!TinaD.!"Food!Sovereignty!Or!The!Human!Right!To!Adequate!Food:!Which!
Concept!Serves!Better!As!International!Development!Policy!For!Global!Hunger!
And!Poverty!Reduction?."!Agriculture!and!Human!Values.!February!01,!2012.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<https://ew.uniY
hohenheim.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/fsc/Research_publications/Beuchelt_a
nd_Virchow_Agric_Human_Values_2012.pdf>.!
The!concept!of!food&sovereignty&stems&from&the&international&farmers’&
movement!‘‘La!Via!Campesina’’2!and!was,!as!a!term,!introduced!in!1996!when!La!Via!
Campesina!published!its!manifesto!‘‘Food!Sovereignty:!A!future!without!hunger’’!
during!the!NGO/CSO!forum!held!parallel!to!the!World!Food!Summit!(see!Table!2).!It&
refers&to&the&right&of&communities,&peoples&and&states&to&independently&
determine&their&own&food&and&agricultural&policies.!Social!movements,!civil!society!
organizations!(CSOs)!and!nonYgovernmental!organizations!(NGOs)!have!readily!
integrated!the!concept!into!their!terminology!and!have!contributed!to!its!further!
development.!The&aim&has&been&to&strengthen&peasants3&and&their&smallholder&
agriculture&in&order&to&enhance&their&political&participation&in&national&and&
international&arenas&and&their&autonomy,&and&to&contribute&towards&rural&
development,&poverty&eradication&and&food&security.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
371&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&gives&rights&to&farmers&rather&than&control&
to&the&governments&and&corporations.&
Beuchelt,!TinaD.!"Food!Sovereignty!Or!The!Human!Right!To!Adequate!Food:!Which!
Concept!Serves!Better!As!International!Development!Policy!For!Global!Hunger!
And!Poverty!Reduction?."!Agriculture!and!Human!Values.!February!01,!2012.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<https://ew.uniY
hohenheim.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/fsc/Research_publications/Beuchelt_a
nd_Virchow_Agric_Human_Values_2012.pdf>.!
The!concept!of!food&sovereignty&aims&to&ensure&the&survival&and&well`being&of&
smallholder&food&producers&and&peasants,&who&have&been!largely!neglected!
or!excluded&from&broader&processes&of&development.!La!Via!Campesina!argues!
that!smallholder&farmers&should!play!a!more!dominant!role!in!agricultural!policies!
which!can!only!be!achieved!if!local!communities!have&better&access!to!and!control&
over&productive&resources&and&more&social&as&well&as&political&
influence!(Desmarais!2008).!The!concept!of!food!sovereignty!raises!the!elementary!
question!of!which!type!of!food!production,!agriculture!and!rural!development!should!
be!pursued!to!guarantee!food!security!for!a!national!and!global!population.!By!way!of!
simplification,!there&are&two&contrasting&models&of&agriculture:!the!first!is!one!
suggested!by!the!concept!of!food!sovereignty!while!the!second!is!the!current!
neoliberal!free!trade!model.!Food&sovereignty&upholds&the&model&of&a&smallholder`
dominated,&locally`based,&environmentally&friendly&and&sustainable&agriculture.&
This&is&in&contrast&to&the!neoliberal!free!trademodel&of&industrialized&agriculture&
based&on&intensive&chemical&inputs&and&agricultural&exports,&involving&large&
farm&holdings&and&dominated&by&international&corporations.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
372&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&has&specific&policy&goals&that&separate&it&
from&food`based&rights.&Otherwise&it&strives&for&the&same&
goals.&
Beuchelt,!TinaD.!"Food!Sovereignty!Or!The!Human!Right!To!Adequate!Food:!Which!
Concept!Serves!Better!As!International!Development!Policy!For!Global!Hunger!
And!Poverty!Reduction?."!Agriculture!and!Human!Values.!February!01,!2012.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<https://ew.uniY
hohenheim.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/fsc/Research_publications/Beuchelt_a
nd_Virchow_Agric_Human_Values_2012.pdf>.!
According!to!Mechlem!(2004:!646),!the&right&to&adequate&food!‘‘focuses!on!
vulnerable!groups,!the!marginalised,!and!the!excluded,!and!pays!particular!attention!
to!nonYdiscrimination!…![and]!attempts!to!give!‘voice’!to!all!people’’.!Thus,!the!legal!
approach!entails&a&large&degree&of&overlap&with&the&target&group&of&food&
sovereignty&but!also!goes!further!to!include!any!vulnerable!group.!In!addition,!it&can&
be&seen&as&including&the&idea&of&people’s&empowerment(Mechlem!2004),!as&does&
the&concept&of&food&sovereignty.!Another!example!of!the!overlap!between!the!two!
concepts!is!the!focus!on!smallholders!and!peasant!agriculture.!Although!not!directly!
mentioned!in!the!ICESCR,!Article!2(1)!and!Article!11(2a)!of!the!ICESCR!were!to!be!
understood!in!such!a!way!that!governments!should!give!priority!to!smallholders!and!
peasant!agriculture!providing!access!to!productive!resources!when!peasants!
constitute!the!hungry!and!poor!of!the!population!and!no!alternative!income!sources!
are!available!(FAO!2005;!Haugen!2009).!In&an&analytical&comparison&of&the&
declaration&Food&Sovereignty:!A!Right!For!All!of!the!NGO/CSO!Forum!for!Food!
Sovereignty!(2002)!and&the&ICESCR,!Haugen!(2009)!found!that!the&majority&of&the&
elements&are&similar&in&both&concepts&except&for&three&aspects.!The!first!aspect!
refers!to!corporate&ownership&of&productive&resources;!the&other&two&to&patents&
on&seeds,&plants,&and&animals&as&well&as&the&use&of&GMOs&in&agriculture.!The&
concept&of&food&sovereignty&calls&for&a&ban&on&both,!while!the!ICESCR!does!not!
make!anyexplicit!statement!(Table!3).!The!final!difference!is!in!the!validity!of!the!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
concept;!while!the!right!to!adequate!food!is!a!national!and!international!right,!and!
thus!binding,!the!concept!of!food!sovereignty!is!only!part!of!national!law!in!a!very!few!
countries.!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Trade&liberalization&has&led&to&less&food&security&not&more.&
Hiranandani,!Vanmala.!"Disability,!Poverty!And!Food!Sovereignty:!Advancing!The!
Human!Security!Agenda."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal!
Volume!5,!Issue!3.!2009!.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.biasfree.org/operation.pdf#page=15!>.!
In&several&countries!that!gained!independence!from!colonialism,!food&security&was&
a&central&objective&of&economic&planning.&However,&in&recent&decades&neo`liberal&
globalization&in&the&form&of&international&rules&that&encompass&trade&
liberalization,&privatization,!and!the!use!of!genetically&engineered&seeds&have&
transformed&agricultural&practices&and&rural&livelihoods&everywhere&(Desmarais,!
2002;!Madeley,!2002;!Rosset,!2006).3!!Trade&and&seed&patenting&policies,!such!as!
the!Agreement!on!Agriculture!(AoA)!and!the!TradeYrelated!Aspects!of!Intellectual!
Property!Rights!(TRIPs)!have&forced&“developing&countries”&to&open&their&
agricultural&sector&to&global&agribusinesses&and&to&replace&traditional&farm&
saved&seeds&with&genetically&engineered&seeds&(which&are&non`renewable&and&
thus&require&repurchase&for&each&growing&season).!Trade&treaties&have&caused&
cheap&and&subsidized&food&to&flood&international&markets,&thereby&devastating&
local&small`scale&farmers!(IATP,!2006,!Madeley,!2002;!Rosset,!2006).!In&India,&
evidence&suggests&that&tens&of&thousands&of&small`scale&and&subsistence&farmers&
have&been&pushed&off&the&land!(Sharma,!2000).!Besides,!with!the!decline!in!rural!
credit!by!nationalized!banks,!farmers!are!forced!to!borrow!loans!at!exorbitant!interest!
rates!from!private!moneylenders!(Hardikar,!2006).!Countries&such&as&India&have&
witnessed&an&epidemic&of&farmer&suicides!since!1997!(Jeromi,!2007;!Sainath,!2007a,!
2007b).!!!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
375&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&requires&local&investment&which&means&that&local&
sovereignty&is&key.&
FAO.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food."!Right!to!Food.!2011.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public
ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.pdf!>.!
!!In&a&context&of&soaring&food&prices&any&structural&answer&to&food&price&volatility&
must&be&linked&to&re`investment&in&the&agricultural&sector.&Under!a!rights!
perspective,&this&production&increase&has&to&be&sustainable&and&focus&on&public&
efforts&for&poor&smallholder&farmers&and&agricultural&wage`workers4!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
376&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&is&conceptually&distinct&from&food&security.&
Brit,!Ny.!"The!Food!Crisis!And!The!Struggle!For!Food!Sovereignty."!The!Daily!Kos.!4Y
27Y11.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.dailykos.com/story/2011/11/27/1040252/YAntiYCapitalistY
MeetYupYTheYFoodYCrisisYandYTheYStruggleYforYFoodYSovereignty>.!
Food)security&is&the&dominant&mainstream&approach&to&dealing&with&poverty&and&
hunger.&This&term&is&defined&as&existing&“when&all&people,&at&all&times,&have&
physical,&social&and&economic&access&to&sufficient&safe&and&nutritious&food&which&
meets&their&dietary&needs&and&food&preferences&for&an&active&and&healthy&
life!(Trade'Reforms'and'Food'Security:'Conceptualizing'the'linkages,!Rome:!!UN!Food!and!Agriculture!
Organisation!( FAO ),!2003,!ch.!2!as!cited!in! http://www.waronwant.org/attachments/Food!
sovereignty!report.pdf,!p.!29 ).”There&are&many&problems&with&the&above&approach.&
It&addresses&the&problem&of&food&provision&as&a&social&welfare&problem&but&does&
not&address&where&it&is&produced,&who&produces&it&or&the&conditions&under&it&is&
produced!(see,!http://www.waronwant.org/attachments/Food!sovereignty!report.pdf!
p.!29).!As!such,& it&concentrates&on&the&simple&fact&that&people&have&enough&food&to&
eat&rather&than&a&problem&that&address&the&needs,&demands&and&control&over&the&
production&of&food.&As&is&often&the&case,&this&approach&tends&to&view&neoliberal&
free&trade&as&a&way&of&ensuring&that&the&needs&of&the&population&for&food&are&met.&
In&this&case,&neither&the&control&of&people&of&what&they&eat,&how&food&is&produced,&
nor&the&needs&of&a&population&are&the&central&concern.&Food&insufficiency&is&
treated&as&something&which&can&be&addressed&through&aid&and&free&trade&rather&
than&deriving&out&of&the&political&and&economic&choices&of&governments,&NGOs&
and&inter`governmental&agencies&in&collusion&with&MNCs!(both!in!the!centre!and!
peripheral!countries).!Clearly!the!current!system!is!not!working:& irrespective&of&increased&
food&production,&more&people&than&ever&are&classified&as&food&poor!(add!numbers).!
Even!worse,!the!reasons!for!food!poverty!stem!from!the!very!policies!that!Aid!Agencies,!the!IMF,!World'
Bank,!International!Development!agencies!have!been!advocating.! The&notion&of&food)
Champion)Briefs)
377&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
sovereignty&was&defined&in&2007.&It&begins&with&the&very&simple&acceptance&of&the&
notion&of&the&right&to&food(water,!sanitation!and!energy).&From&the&acceptance&of&the&
right&of&people&to&food,&it&is&able&to&directly&address&the&problems&that&we&are&
seeing&where&food&production&and&agricultural&production&is&done&to&ensure&
profits&rather&than&the&needs&of&people.&It&deliberately&addresses&the&problems&
of&hunger&from&the&point&of&view&of&the&production&of&food&and&the&decisions&of&
peasant&producers&and&local&consumers&in&achieving&control&of&food&production&
and&distribution&(http://www.waronwant.org/attachments/Food!sovereignty!
report.pdf,p.!30).!It&aims&to&eliminate&food&dependency&on&advanced&capitalist&
countries&and&the&international&market&for&food,&reintroduce&domestic&food&
production&under&the&hands&of&peasants,&calls&for&land&reform&to&ensure&equal&
access&to&land!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
378&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&developed&as&a&criticism&of&food&security&
and&is&key&to&female&empowerment.&
Sachs,!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!
Crafting!A!New!Vision."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!09Y14Y2013.!Web.!
February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.
pdf>.!
The&concept&of&food&sovereignty&emerged&from&La&Via&Campesina&in&the&mid`
1990s&as&a&critique&of&the&concept&of&food&security&and&a&critique&of&the&corporate&
food&regime!(Wittman,!Desmarais,!and!Wiebe,!2010!and!Fairbairn,!2010).!Food&
sovereignty!is!not!an!academic!concept!but&the&outcome&of&a&social&movement&of&
peasants,&farmworkers,&and&small&producers&to&challenge&the&global&neoliberal&
food&regime.&Food&sovereignty&is&the&“right&of&nationals&and&people&to&control&
their&own&food&systems,&including&their&own&markets,&production&modes,&food&
cultures&and&environments”!(Wittman!et!al,!2010:2).!Peasant!women!and!women!
farmers!participated!in!the!food!sovereignty!movement!from!the!outset.&The&concept&
of&food&sovereignty&is&more&fluid&and&nuanced&than&the&concept&of&food&security,&
which&has&been&carefully&defined&by&agricultural&institutions.&Several&of&the&key&
components&of&food&sovereignty&are:&the&right&to&food,&valuing&farmers&and&
farmworkers,&local&production&and&control,&and&environmental&sustainability.&
Each&of&these&components&have&important&gender&dimensions,&which&have&often&
been&raised&by&women&at&the&grassroots&level.!The!right!to!food!focuses!on!a!basic!
right!to!food!for!all!people!which!supports!culturally!appropriate!and!healthy!food!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
379&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&ensures&that&the&agricultural&work&that&
women&do&in&LDCs&is&recognized&and&valued.&
Sachs,!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!
Crafting!A!New!Vision."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!09Y14Y2013.!Web.!
February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.
pdf>!
The&focus&on&food&as&a&basic&right&is&a&strong&critique&of&the&neoliberal&food&
regime&which&treats&food&only&as&a&global&commodity.&From&a&gender&
perspective,&the&right&to&food&implies&that&men,&women,&boys&and&girls&have&
access&to&culturally&appropriate&and&healthy&food.!The!second!component!of!food!
sovereignty!values!farmers,!peasants,!food!producers,!and!farmworkers.!Food!
sovereignty!pushes!for!a!food!system!based!on!smallYscale!agriculture!rather!than!
largescale!commodity!monocultural!systems.&In&this&context&women’s&contribution&
to&food&production&in&the&global&south&is&recognized.&Women&in&the&food&
sovereignty&movement&insist&that&their&work&in&production&for&the&market,&for&
the&family,&and&in&social&production&be&recognized&and&valued.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
380&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Food&sovereignty&is&key&to&challenging&traditional&gendered&
divisions&of&labor.&
Sachs,!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!
Crafting!A!New!Vision."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!09Y14Y2013.!Web.!
February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.
pdf>!
Knowledge&of&peasants&and&farmers&is&also&valued&by&food&sovereignty&advocates&
in&contrast&to&the&privatization&of&plant&breeding&by&transnational&corporations.&
Gender&issues&are&key&here,&with&women&having&a&long&and&largely&unrecognized&
history&of&seed&saving&and&plant&selection&in&many&regions&of&the&world.&Also,&
women&in&rural&areas&are&more&likely&than&their&male&counterparts&to&produce&a&
wider&diversity&of&crops&for&family&consumption&and&for&local&markets.&A&
complex&dilemma&here&is&how&to&value&women’s&contributions&to&household&and&
local&food&provision&without&reinscribing&women’s&traditional&responsibility&for&
food&provisioning.&Caro&(2013)&puts&forward&the&possibility&of&transforming&both&
men’s&and&women’s&work&in&this&realm&through&gender&empowerment&to&
challenge&women’s&sole&responsibility&for&food&at&the&household&level.!The!fourth!
component!of!food!sovereignty!focuses!on!protecting!the!environment!and!reducing!
greenYhouse!gas!emissions!with!a!commitment!to!end!agriculture’s!contribution!to!
global!warming.!Studies!have!shown!that!women!farmers!in!the!U.S.!are!more!likely!to!
use!sustainable!and!organic!agricultural!practices!(Trauger!et!al,!2009).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
381&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Only&a&food&sovereignty&paradigm&can&stop&land&grabbing.&
Rosset,!Peter.!"Food!Sovereignty!And!Alternative!Paradigms!To!Confront!Land!
Grabbing!And!The!Food!And!Climate!Crises."!Society!for!International!
Development.!January!01,!2011.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://globalalternatives.org/files/RossetDevYFoodSovAltPar.pdf>.!
Only&food&sovereignty&based&on&genuine&agrarian&reform,&and&the&
defense&of&land&and&territory&against&land&grabbing,&offers&a&real&
alternative&to&the&multiples&crises&we&are&facing.&Food&sovereignty,!as!I!
have!written!elsewhere!(Rosset,!2008,!2009a,!b)!is&the&only&way&to&effectively&
protect&national&food&economies&from&predatory&dumping,&hoarding,&
and&speculation.&Sustainable&peasant&agriculture&as&another&building&
block&of&food&sovereignty&allows&us&to&survive&and&even&mitigate!(LaVia!
Campesina,!2009)&the&climate&crisis.&All&of&these&can&only&be&achieved&with&
the&kind&of&paradigm&shift&that&only&social&movements&can&bring&about.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
382&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Net&benefit&to&food&sovereignty&over&food&security.&
Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And!
Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!January!01,!2011.!Web.!February!09,!
2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.!
According!to!Wittman,!Desmarais,!and!Wiebe!(2010)!and!Fairbairn!(2010),!food&
sovereignty&emerged&as&a&counterframe&to&the&neoliberal&conception&of&food&
security&that&champions&the&principles&of&keeping&the&markets&free&of&
government&intervention,&further&liberalizing&food&and&agriculture,&and&
increasing&productivity&through&high`tech&approaches!(e.g.,!the!adoption!of!
genetically!modified!seeds).!Rejecting&the&neoliberal&approach&to&food&as&a&regular&
commodity&and&to&peasants&as&atomized&individuals,&food&sovereignty&highlights&
peasant&solidarity,&collective&rights,&and&ownership&of&resources&by&identifying&
the&power&dimensions&inherent&in&food&and&agriculture!(Fairbairn!2010;!Wittman!
et!al.!2010).!Wittman!et!al.!(2010:2)!define&food&sovereignty&as&“the&right&of&
nations&and&peoples&to&control&their&own&food&systems,&including&their&own&
markets,&production&modes,&food&cultures&and&environments.”!Efe!Can!Gürcan!
(2011,!forthcoming)!has!argued!that!food!sovereignty!points!to!the!importance!of!
state–social!movement!partnership!in!achieving!food!security.&Such&a&partnership&
rests&on&a&four`pillar&strategy,&which&includes:&(1)&land&collectivization&through&
radical&agrarian&reforms&with&a&strong&emphasis&on&cooperative&organizing,&(2)&
socializing&participatory&urban&agricultural&practices&(in&light&of&growing&urban&
rates&in&the&Third&World),&(3)&supporting&local&agricultural&markets&that&would&
promote&local&access&to&food,&and&(4)&encouraging&transnational&peasant&
alliances&that&would&empower&peasant&movements&vis`à`vis&the&state.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
383&
NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&&
March/April&2015&
Sovereignty&solves&better&for&food&crisis&than&security.&
McMichael,!Phil.!"Food!Security!Politics!And!The!Millennium!Development!Goals."!
Third!World!Quarterly.!January!01,!2011.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21591303>.!
Just&as&the&official&response&to&the&food&crisis!(an!expression!of!the!more!
fundamental!agrarian!crisis)!has&been&‘agribusiness&as&usual’,&with&the&goal&now&of&
incorporating&small&farmers&into&global&commodity&markets,&so&the&response&by&
the&‘food&sovereignty’&movement&has&been&to&offer&an&alternative&interpretation&
of&the&problem,&and&the&solution.&The&‘food&sovereignty’&perspective&critiques&the&
narrative&of&de`peasantisation&and&its&enabling&policies,&and&advocates&
protection&of&peasant&farming&as&a&social&and&environmental&necessity&in&
promoting&food&security&across&the&world.!This&perspective,!and!
movement,!emerged!in!the!early!1990s!as&a&direct&result&of&the&pressures&on&small&
farming&cultures&across&the&world&stemming&from&the&privatisation&of&food&
security,!via!the!political!mechanisms!of!trade!liberalisation!and!the!belief!in!the!
ability!of!transnational!food!corporations!to!‘feed!the!world’.!At&a&Food&Security&
Summit&in&Rome&in&1996&the&substitution&of&‘sovereignty’&for&‘security’&was&a&way&
in&which&the&international&peasant&coalition,&La&Vı´a&Campesina,&politicised&the&
corporate&food&regime.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
384&
NEG:&Gift&K&
&
March/April&2015&
This&self`aggrandizing&motion&to&promote&humanity&through&
aid&destroys&the&unique&value&to&these&people’s&lives.&
Korf,!Benedikt.!"Antinomies!Of!Generosity."!Geoforum!38!(2007)!366–378.!2007.!Web.!
February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016718506001242>.!
&“Practices&in&the&aid&chain&have&had&humiliating&effects&for&local&agents.!The!
exclusion!of!affected!people!from!planning!the!reconstruction!process!and!the!
performances!of!posturing!have!undermined!their!selfYesteem,!reducing!them!to!pure!
passivity.!Eye!on!Aceh!(2006)!reports!about!how!recipients!of!aid!felt!forced!into!
passivity.!They!are!only!invited!to!become!active!when!they!have!to!return!the!gift!in!
performing!the!rituals!of!gratefulness.!Here,&we&can&see&the&‘‘poison’’&of&generous&
gifts&as&a&symbolic&expression&of&domination.&In&the&micro`politics&of&aid&giving,&
this&is&symbolised&in&the&rituals&of&giving&aid&in&ceremonies&of&‘‘handing&over’’&
relief&items&to&‘‘victims’’.&It&is&here&that&the&humiliation&happens&–&it&is&not&the&
tsunami&that&made&these&persons&‘‘victims’’,&it&is&during&the&rituals&of&giving&and&
of&brokering&aid&in&a&one`directional&way&that&they&become&victimised.&By&
degrading&those&people&affected&by&the&tsunami&to&bare&victims,&we&derail&them&
from&their&political&rights&of&being&(equal)&compatriots,&of&fellow&human&beings.&
What&we&see&and&reproduce&is&a&kind&of&‘‘bare&life’’!(Agamben,!1998)!–!the!‘‘pure’’!
victims!of!nature’s!force.!In!a!sense,!this!is!the!new!homo!sacer!of!Giorgio!Agamben!–!
the!bare!victim!placed!outside!of!the!polity.!Slavoj!Zizek!captures!this!paradox!when!
he!asserts!that!one!is!deprived!of!human!rights!when!one!is!reduced!to!a!‘‘bare’’!
human!being!(2005,!p.!43)!–!or!a!bare!victim!–!without!citizenship!rights,!profession!
or!identity!other!than!this!fuzzy!victimhood.!Victims&become&homo&sacer,&bare&
victims,&just&in&the&process&of&handing&over,&of&reducing&those&persons&to&
recipients&(and&nothing&beyond).”!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
385&
NEG:&Gift&K&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&stamps&create&a&cycle&of&need&`&the&welfare&state&is&the&
new&plantation.&
Parker,!Star.!"The!New!American!FoodYStamp!Plantation."!World!Net!Daily.!07Y13Y
2012.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!<http://www.wnd.com/2012/07/theYnewY
americanYfoodYstampYplantation/>.!
But,!as!Sen.&Jeff&Sessions,!RYAla.,!points&out,!spending!on!this!program!increased&
100&percent&from&2001&to&2006,!a&period&over&which&there&was&no&increase&in&the&
rate&of&unemployment.!From&2007&to&2011,&spending&increased&135&percent.&But&
CBO&attributes&only!about!65&percent!of!the!dramatic!growth!in!program!spending!
and!the!number!of!recipients!to!the!recession.!What!has!been!happening!is!that!it!has!
become!increasingly!easy!to!qualify!for!SNAP!benefits,!the&government&has&
been!spending!more!taxpayer!funds!promoting&the&program,!and!the&stigma!of!
SNAP,!food!stamps,!being!perceived!as!a!welfare!program!has&disappeared.!A!New!
York!Times!article!in!2010!carried!the!headline!“Once!Stigmatized,!Food!Stamps!Find!
Acceptance.”!The!article!notes!posters!in!New!York!City!announcing!“Applying!for!food!
stamps!is!easier!than!ever”!and!quotes!Eric!Bost,!head!of!the!program!under!President!
George!W.!Bush,!saying,!“I!assure!you,!food!stamps!is!not!welfare.”!According!to!
CBO,!three&fourths&of&recipients&are&“categorically&eligible,”&which!means!they!
automatically!qualify!by!virtue!of!participating!in!some!other!federal!or!state!welfare!
program.!They!need!not!be!receiving!cash!benefits!from!these!programs.!Simply!
having!received!an&information&pamphlet&can&be&enough.!At!one!time!recipients!
received!their!food!stamp!benefits!in!dollar!denominated!paper!vouchers!that!they!
had!to!present!at!the!cash!register.!Now!benefits!come!on!a!sharp!looking!electronic!
debit!card!that!looks!like!any!credit!or!debit!card.!And!the&fact&that&SNAP&funds&are&
provided&by&the&federal&government,&but&administered&and&spent&by&the&states,&is&
a&proven&formula,!as!in!Medicaid,!for&undisciplined&spending&growth.!Sadly,!our&
nation&has&become&a&food`stamp&plantation.!The!most!compassionate!thing!that!can!
Champion)Briefs)
386&
NEG:&Gift&K&
&
March/April&2015&
be!done!today!is!exactly!what!is!not!happening!–!economic!growth,!job!creation!and!
getting!folks!to!work.!The!path!to!this!end!is!less,!not!more,!government.!!
Champion)Briefs)
387&
NEG:&Gift&K&
&
March/April&2015&
State&charity&such&as&food&security&programs&just&make&
recipients&lazy.&
DeTocqueville,!Alexis.!"Memoir!On!Pauperism.".!NO!DATE.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.opengrey.eu/item/display/10068/418149>.!
Legal&charity&affects&the&pauper’s&freedom&as&much&as&his&morality.!This!is!easily!
proved.!When!local!governments&are!rigorously!obligated!to!aid&the&indigent,&
they!necessarily!owe&relief&only&to&the&poor&who&reside&in&their&jurisdiction.!This!
is!the!only!fair!way!of!equalizing!the!public!burden!which!results!from!the!law,!and!of!
proportioning!it!to!the!means!of!those!who!must!bear!it.!Since&individual&charity&is&
almost&unknown&in&a&country&of&organized&public&charity,&anyone&whose&
misfortunes&or&vices&have&made&him&incapable&of&earning&a&living&is&condemned,&
under&pain&of&death,&to&remain&in&the&place&of&his&birth.!If!he!leaves,!he!moves!
through!enemy!territory.!The!private!interest!within!the!parish,!infinitely!more!active!
and!powerful!than!the!best!organized!national!police!could!be,!notes!his!arrival,!dogs!
his!every!step,!and,!if!he!wants!to!establish!a!new!residence,!informs!the!public!
authority!who!takes!him!to!the!boundary!line.!Through&their&Poor&Laws,&the&English&
have&immobilized&a&sixth&of&their&population.&They&have&bound&it&to&the&earth&
like&the&medieval&peasantry.!Then,!man!was!forced!against!his!will!to!stay!on!the!
land!where!he!was!born.!Legal!charity!keeps!him!from!even!wishing!to!move.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
388&
NEG:&Individual&Rights&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&initiative&drive&up&demand&for&Big&Western&
nations&to&exploit&the&global&south&by&land&grabing.&
Seo,!Kihwan.!"Land!Grab,!Food!Security!And!Climate!Change:!A!Vicious!Circle!In!The!
Global."!Earth!and!Plantetary!Sciences:!Human!and!Social!Dimensions!of!
Climate!Change.!11Y14Y2012.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.intechopen.com/books/humanYandYsocialYdimensionsYofY
climateYchange/landYgrabYfoodYsecurityYandYclimateYchangeYaYviciousYcircleY
inYtheYglobalYsouth>.!
The&commercialization&of&public&land&in&the&Global&South,!which!refers!to!the!
medium!and!low!human!development!based!on!the!United!Nations!development!
program!report!2005![1],!has&increased&dramatically&in&recent&years&due&to&the&
wide&spread&leasing&and&sale&of&land&to&foreign&companies&and&governments.&The&
main&goal&of&these&investors&is&to&secure&food&and&energy&production&for&their&
populations&as&multiple&factors&threaten&their&food&security&at&home.!On!the!one!
hand,!the!current!population!will!increase!worldwide!from!nearly!7!billion!to!over!9!
billion!by!2050![2],!a!growth!that!would!require!the!increase!of!food!production!from!
nearly!6!billion!tons!(gross)!to!9!billion!tons!by!2050![3].&Furthermore,&competition&
for&land,&water,&and&energy&will&only&intensify&along&with&the&need&to&reduce&the&
many&negative&impacts&of&agriculture&to&the&environment![4,!5].!Global!food!
security!has!been!further!strained,!notably!during!2007Y08![6],!by!the!growing!
volatility!of!the!food!market!and!the!political!controversy!surrounding!the!use!of!grain!
to!produce!biofuels![7,!8].!Any!one!of!these!factors!will!likely!pose!significant!
challenges,!but!the!sum!of!all!of!them!could!constitute!a!major!threat!to!land!
ownership.!Overall,!these!factors!have!driven!a!change!in!perspectives!of!land!
ownership.!Recent&trends&indicate&that&the&need&to&provide&food&and!
energy!security&at&home&has&led&international&corporations,&sovereign&wealth&
funds,&foreign&governments,&private&equity&firms&and&domestic&actors&to&buy&or&
lease&large&tracts&of&land&outside&their&national&borders&[9].&These&land&deals&or&
“land&grabbing”,&as&labeled&by&many&Non`Governmental&Organizations&and&the&
media,&are&certainly&to&be&considered&a&prominent&factor&in&the&list&of&significant&
Champion)Briefs)
389&
NEG:&Individual&Rights&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
drivers&of&land&change&in&certain&parts&of&the&globe,&especially&in&southern&
hemisphere&continents.!
Champion)Briefs)
390&
NEG:&Individual&Rights&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Land&Grabbing&is&a&new&means&for&Western&nations&to&
institute&neo`colonialism&in&the&Global&South.&
Brilmayer,!Lea.!"Regulating!Land!Grabs:!Third!Party!States,!Social!Activism!And!
International!Law."!Springer.!02Y13Y2014.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2395461>.!
While!the!term!has!been!used!broadly!throughout&history,!we!refer!to!the&large`
scale&acquisitions&and&leases&of&land&following&the&Global&Food&Crisis(2007–
2008)!that&have&concentrated&in&Africa,&Asia,&and&Latin&America.&It&is&an&issue&
that&has&already&gained&a&certain&prominence&on&the&agenda&of&human&rights&
activists,5!and!promises!to!be!of!increasing!concern!in!other!fields,!as!well.6!“Land&
grabs”,&for&some,&is&a&story&of&easier&access&to&markets,improved!crop!yields,!and!
the!modernization!of!agriculture.!To!these!people,!the!commodification!of!land!will!
help!the!global!market!allocate!resources!optimally!to!maximize!global!food!output!
(thereby!indirectly!lowering!price!and!benefiting!the!poor).7&But&others&see&only&the&
“invisible&hand”&of&neocolonialism,&ruthless&pursuit&of&profit,&and&capitalism&run&
amok.&The&land&grab&trend&portends&dispossession&of&indigenous&populations,&
appropriation&of&ancestral&lands,&entrenchment&of&chronic&hunger,&potentially&
permanent&environmental&degradation,&extermination&of&endangered&species,&
and&contamination&or&depletion&of&water&supplies.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
391&
NEG:&Individual&Rights&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Labor&workers&who&supply&food&are&often&underpaid&and&
overworked.&
Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.!
December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!
According!to!Brown!and!Getz!(2011),!in&California&between&1991&and&2001,&the&
average&annual&income&of&an&agricultural&worker&employed&directly&by&a&farmer&
was&$8,500;&for&an&agricultural&worker&employed&by&a&contractor&the&average&
annual&income&was&even&less:&$5,000.!With!so!little!pay,!those&who&performed&
most&of&the&labor&necessary&to&grow&the&majority&of&the&food&for&the&American&
food&system&are&unable&to&adequately&feed&themselves&or&their&families.!Indeed,!
almost!oneYinYtwo!farm!workers!have!been!found!to!be!food!insecure!at!some!point!in!
any!given!year!(Brown!and!Getz!2011).!In!addition!to!such!lowYincome,!farm&workers&
also&experienced&both&poor&conditions&and&unstable&work&schedules.&While&farm&
workers&are&often&routinely&exposed&to&hazardous&chemicals&and&perform&
strenuous&physical&labor&exposing&them&to&risk&of&injury,&they&often&have&no&
access&to&health&care!(Brown!and!Getz!2011;!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!2010).!For!example,!
Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010)!point!to!events!such!as!farm&workers&being&housed&in&
crowded&unsanitary&conditions,&forced&to&work&at&gunpoint,&made&sterile&from&
exposure&to&pesticides,&and&being&at&much&higher&risk&of&asthma,&Parkinson’s&
disease,&and&cancer&due&to&various&chemical&exposures.!
!
Champion)Briefs)
392&
NEG:&Libertarian&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&programs&create&a&state&of&long`term&
dependence&for&the&population.&
Bradley,!Katherine.!"Confronting!The!Unsustainable!Growth!Of!Welfare!Entitlements:!
Principles!Of!Reform!And!The!Next!Steps."!Backgrounder,!No.!2427.!December!
01,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://countyofnebraska.org/research/entitlements.pdf>.!
SNAP!is!the!federal!government’s!largest!food&assistance&program.!It!is&a&quasi`
entitlement!that!pays!states!for!nearly!every!person!who!enrolls!in!the!program.!
Benefits!are!mostly!determined!by!the!financial!status!of!the!household,!including!the!
value!of!any!income!and!assets,!and!recipients!are!generally!limited!to!those!who!are!
at!or!below!130!percent!of!the!poverty!line.!Although&nearly&all&food&stamp&
households&contain&working`age&adults,&few&of&these&individuals&are&
employed.!The&program&fosters&a&pattern&of&longterm&dependence.!While!the!food!
stamp!program!is!commonly!misperceived!as!a!temporary,!shortYterm!assistance!
program,!in!reality!the&majority&of&food&stamp&recipients&at&any&given&time&are&or&
will&become&long`term&dependents.!In!fact,!half&of&food&stamp&aid&goes&to&
individuals&who&have&received&aid&for&8.5&years&or&more.12!(See!Chart!4.)!Over!the!
life!of!the!program,!the!number!of!recipients!has!grown!steadily,!and!spending!has!
skyrocketed!over!the!past!two!years.!The!new!enrollment!numbers!for!February!2010!
show!that!nearly!40!million!people!are!receiving!food!stamps.13!Spending!on!food!
stamps!is!expected!to!rise!to!$75!billion!in!2011!according!to!the!President’s!budget!
for!FY!2011.!This!is!$36!billion!more!than!in!FY!2008.!Enrollment&has&grown&to&39&
million&people&as&of&January&2010.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
393&
NEG:&Libertarian&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&should&not&be&a&right&unless&recipients&work&
for&it.&
Bradley,!Katherine.!"Confronting!The!Unsustainable!Growth!Of!Welfare!Entitlements:!
Principles!Of!Reform!And!The!Next!Steps."!Backgrounder,!No.!2427.!December!
01,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://countyofnebraska.org/research/entitlements.pdf>.!
One&of&the&most&important&elements&of&TANF&reform&that&led&to&success&was&the&
addition&of&meaningful&work&requirements.!This!was!at!the!core!of!helping!to!move!
families!off!of!welfare!and!into!jobs.!States!were!required!to!reduce!caseloads,!to!have!
at!least!40!percent!of!their!adult!population!engaged!in!some!kind!of!work!or!job!
preparation!activity,!or!some!combination!of!the!two.!States!that!failed!to!reduce!
dependence!or!require!a!sufficient!portion!of!their!TANF!rolls!to!engage!in!workY
related!activities!faced!fiscal!penalties.!As!a!result!of!these!provisions,!the&caseload&
nationally&fell&by&more&than&60&percent&in&only&a&few&years.&More&than&2.8&
million&families&left&welfare&for&jobs&and&a&better&life.!Both!food&stamps!and!the!
three!major!federal!housing!programscould&easily&be&reformed&along&the&same&
lines&by&adding&similar&work&requirements.!Often,!families!will!receive!benefits!
simultaneously!from!several!programs.!Benefits&from&multiple&programs&should&be&
tied&together&as&a&package,&and&the&beneficiary&should&be&required&to&work&or&
prepare&for&work&as&a&condition&of&receiving&the&entire&package&of&aid.!There!is!no!
reason!why!TANF!should!have!a!work!requirement!while!the!other!welfare!programs!
are!treated!like!oldYstyle!entitlements.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
394&
NEG:&Libertarian&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
AT&Poverty:&A&right&to&any&welfare&benefit&only&encourages&
people&to&not&work.&
Bradley,!Katherine.!"Confronting!The!Unsustainable!Growth!Of!Welfare!Entitlements:!
Principles!Of!Reform!And!The!Next!Steps."!Backgrounder,!No.!2427.!December!
01,!2014.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://countyofnebraska.org/research/entitlements.pdf>.!
Poverty!and!welfare!dependence!among!able!bodied!adults!is!largely!the&result&of&
counterproductive&and&self`limiting&behaviors:!dropping!out!of!school,!having!
children!outside!of!marriage,!and!intermittent,!haphazard!employment.!Particularly!
important!is!the!widespread!nonYmarital!childbearing!that!pervades!most!lowYincome!
communities.!OutYofYwedlock!childbearing!and!single!parenthood!form!the!foundation!
of!most!child!poverty!and!welfare!dependence!in!American!society.!Because&the&
welfare&state&buffers&individuals&from&the&financial&consequences&of&poor&
decisions&and&self`destructive&behaviors,&it&encourages&and&perpetuates&these&
behaviors.!Welfare!must!be!revolutionized!to!increase!the!incentives!for!constructive!
behaviors!while!limiting!the!rewards!for!behaviors!that!generate!poverty!and!
dependence.!One&way&to&alter&the!welfare!incentive&system&is&to&make&potential&
welfare&recipients&more&aware&of&and&responsible&for&the&financial&costs&
resulting&from&imprudent&decisions!and!behaviors.!To!accomplish!
this,!government&could&treat!the!means!tested!cash,!food,!housing,!and!medical!care!
received!by!ableYbodied!parents!and!their!children!as&a&loan.!The!parent!could!be!
expected!to&repay!some!portion!of!the!loan!(perhaps!oneYthird)!at&some&future&time.!
Both!custodial!and!noncustodial!parents!would!bear!some!responsibility!for!the!
welfare!costs!of!their!children.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
395&
NEG:&Libertarian&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&banks&help&millions&every&year.&
Riches,!Graham.!"Food!Banks!And!Food!Security:!Welfare!Reform,!Human!Rights!And!
Social!Policy.!Lessons!From!Canada?."!Social!Policy!and!Administration,!Vol.!36,!
No.!6.!December!12,!2001.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://historyofsocialwork.org/1967_food_banks/2002%20Riches%20food%
20banks.pdf>.!
Food!banks!in!Canada!provided!assistance!to!1.25!million!people!in!1989!and!more!
than!twice!that!number!in!1997!(Theriault!and!Yadlowski).!However,!these!figures!
may!well!include!double!counting,!and!more!reliable!data!were!not!available!until!the!
CAFB!commenced!its!annual!hunger!count!survey!in!March!1997.!The!most!recent!
survey!reports!that!in&2001,!718,334&people&living&in&Canada!(2.4!per!cent!of!the!
population)!used&a&food&bank&in&March&of&that&year.!Some!294,516!(41!per!cent)!of!
these!food!bank!users!were!children!and!young!people!under!the!age!of!18!years!
despite!the!fact!that!this!age!group!includes!25!per!cent!of!the!Canadian!population!
(Wilson!and!Tsoa!2001).!The!CAFB!estimates!that!almost&60&per&cent&of&households&
accessing&food&banks&were&families&with&children.!As!the!report!itself!notes,!it!is!
important!to!realize!that!in!1989!an!allYparty!resolution!in!the!House!of!Commons!
committed!itself!to!the!eradication!of!child!poverty!in!Canada!by!the!year!2000.!What!
these!figures!suggest!is!that!women&as&mothers,&and&particularly&single&mothers,&
are&significant&users&of&food&banks&and&that&food&poverty&is&as&much&a&problem&
for&families&as&it&is&for&unemployed&individuals.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
396&
NEG:&Libertarian&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&banks&have&become&sophisticated&enough&to&handle&
food&security&problems.&
Riches,!Graham.!"Food!Banks!And!Food!Security:!Welfare!Reform,!Human!Rights!And!
Social!Policy.!Lessons!From!Canada?."!Social!Policy!and!Administration,!Vol.!36,!
No.!6.!December!12,!2001.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://historyofsocialwork.org/1967_food_banks/2002%20Riches%20food%
20banks.pdf>.!
Food&banks&can!reasonably!be&defined&“as&centralized!warehouses!or!clearing!
houses!registered&as&non`profit&organizations&for&the&purpose&of&collecting,&
storing&and&distributing&surplus&food!(donated/shared),!free&of&charge!either!
directly!to!hungry!people!or!to!front!line!social!agencies!which!provide!supplementary!
food!and!meals”!(Riches!).!However,!it!would!be!unwise!to!consider!this!
description!as!definitive!in!that!organizations!in!Canada,!and!indeed!in!other!
countries,!which!describe!themselves!as!food&banks&vary&in&their&aims&and&
objectives,!their!size!and!scope!and!in!their!roles!and!functions.Some!food!banks!
such!as!Toronto’s!Daily!Bread!Food!Bank,!the!Greater!Vancouver!Food!Bank!or!the!
system!of!Moissons!in!Quebec!are&large&coordinating&food&collection&and&
distribution&clearing&houses&which&provide&food&to&emergency&feeding&
programmes,&soup&kitchens&or&community&kitchens.!Others&are&small,&local&
church`run&social&agencies&which&both&collect&donated&foods&and&hand&out&
groceries!or!provide!meals!to!hungry!people.!Even!the!large!food!banks!may!deal!
directly!with!people!needing!food.!Some!food!banks!purchase!foods!when!running!low!
while!others!rely!entirely!on!donated!products.!Some!engage!in!advocacy!and!public!
education!while!most!prefer!simply!to!provide!a!charitable!service!of!feeding!the!
hungry.!However,!the!fact!of!the!matter!is!thatfood&banks,!however!they!are!
defined,!are&now&big&business&in!Canada.!Indeed,!it!has!recently!been!observed!that!
while!they!were!first!established!to!provide!emergency!relief!for!those!in!need!of!food,!
“years!later!they&have&become&an&integral&part&of&contemporary!Canadian!society.”!
Champion)Briefs)
397&
NEG:&Libertarian&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Any&state&mandated&welfare&program&leads&to&inherently&
unfair&practices.&
Palmer,!TomG.!"Poverty,!Morality,!And!Liberty."!After!the!Welfare!State.!November!30,!
2011.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!<https://studentsforliberty.org/wpY
content/uploads/2012/04/AfterYtheYWelfareYStateYPDF.pdf>.!
If!opportunities,!understood!as!freedoms&to&engage&in&voluntary&activities!to!create!
wealth,!are&unequally&distributed,&it&is&likely&that&that&will&entail&an&unequal&
distribution&of&wealth,&not&because&a&sum&of&“socially&created”&wealth&has&been&
divided&unfairly,&but&because&the&opportunities&to&produce&wealth&have&been&
withheld&from&some,!who!as!a!consequence!are!able!to!produce!less.!Classical!
liberals!have!emphasized!that!every&act&of&production&is&itself&an&act&of&
distribution.!If!freedom!to!produce!is!unequal,!holdings!of!wealth!will!also!be!
unequal.!For!example,!recipients&of&state&grants&of&monopoly&can&charge&higher&
prices&in&the&absence&of&competition&and&reap&monopoly&rents&as&a&consequence,!
a!process!(now!known!as!rentYseeking)!that!both!transfers!wealth!from!one!party!to!
another!and,!in!the!process,!diminishes!the!aggregate!of!wealth!produced,!
as!resources&are&diverted&to&rent`seeking&itself&and&away&from&production&of&
value,&thus&making&the&society&as&a&whole&less&wealthy!than!it!would!have!been!in!
the!absence!of!rentYseeking!behavior.1!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
398&
NEG:&Libertarian&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
If&emerging&markets&are&dependent&on&larger&countries,&their&
growth&is&stunted.&
Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And!
Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!November!30,!2011.!Web.!February!
08,!2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.!
How!are!we!to!characterize!the!food!regime!emerging!from!the!new!regulatory!
configuration!that!places!trade!at!center!stage!in!achieving!food!security?!Any!
theoretical!characterization!of!the&emergent&food&regime&would!have!to!fulfill&at!
least!two&analytical&requirements:&It&must&contribute&both&to&enhancing&our&
knowledge&and&understanding&of&reality&and&pointing&toward&the&basis&on&which&
it&can&be&transcended&in&a&progressive&direction&to&reduce&or&eliminate&food&
vulnerability&and&ensure&true&food&security.!To&characterize&the&food&regime,&we&
need&to&first&clearly&decipher&its&central&dynamic&factors&in&order&to&then&
identify&its&chief&antagonisms&and&transformative&elements.!Because&the&
foodregime&argument&takes&a&worldwide&perspective&on&capital&accumulation&in&
food&and&agriculture,&in&which&it&sees&systematic&divisions&and&dependency&
between&North&and&South,&we&explore&the&data&for&two&advanced&capitalist&
countries&in&comparison&with&a&few&developing&but&“emerging”&countries&from&
the&South.!The!point!is!to!make!it!as!hard!as!possible!to!falsify!the!dependency!
assumptions!of!worldYsystems!theory:!If&even&these&emerging&markets&are&indeed&
dependent&on&the&North,&then&a&much&more&dire&outcome&can&be&expected&for&
smaller&developing&countries.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
399&
NEG:&Malthus&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Population&growth&means&we&can’t&feed&everyone&and&trying&
will&only&exacerbate&the&problem.&
Malthus,!Thomas.!"An!Essay!On!The!Principle!Of!Population.".!November!30,!2011.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.searchengine.org.uk/pdfs/8/896.pdf>.!
Let!us!examine!whether!this!position!be!just.!I!think!it!will!be!allowed,!that!no&state&
has!hitherto!existed!(at!least!that!we!have!any!account!of)!where!the!manners!were!
so!pure!and!simple,!and!the!means!of!subsistence!so!abundant,!that!no&
check!whatever!has&existed!to&early!marriages,!among!the!lower!classes,!from!a!fear!
of!not!providing!well!for!their!families,!or!among!the!higher!classes,!from!a!fear!of!
lowering!their!condition!in!life.!Consequently!in!no!state!that!we!have!yet!known!
has!the&power!of&population!been!left!to&exert&itself&with&perfect&freedom.!Whether!
the!law!of!marriage!be!instituted!or!not,!the!dictate!of!nature!and!virtue!seems!to!be!
an!early!attachment!to!one!woman.!Supposing!a!liberty!of!changing!in!the!case!of!an!
unfortunate!choice,!this!liberty!would!not!affect!population!till!it!arose!to!a!height!
greatly!vicious;!and!we!are!now!supposing!the!existence!of!a!society!where!vice!is!
scarcely!known.!In&a&state!thereforeof!great!equality!and!virtue,!where!pure!and!
simple!manners!prevailed,!and!where&the&means&of&subsistence&were&so&abundant&
that&no&part&of&the&society&could&have&any&fears!about!providing!amply!for!a!family,!
the!power!of!population!being!left!to!exert!itself!unchecked,!the&increase&of&the&
human&species&would&evidently&be&much&greater&than&any&increase&that&has&been&
hitherto&known.!In&the&United!States!of!America,!where&the&means&of&subsistence&
have&been&more&ample,!the!manners!of!the!people!more!pure,!and!consequently!the!
checks!to!early!marriages!fewer,!than!in!any!of!the!modern!states!of!Europe,!the&
population&has&been&found&to&double&itself&in&twenty`five&years.!This&ratio&of&
increase,!though!short!of!the!utmost!power!of!population,!yet!as!the!result!of!actual!
experience,!we!will!take!as!our!rule,!and!say,!that!population,!when!unchecked,!goes&
on&doubling&itself&every&twenty`five&years&or&increases&in&a&geometrical&ratio.!Let&
us!now!take&any&spot&of&earth,!this!Island!for!instance,!and!see!in!what!ratio!the!
subsistence!it!affords!can!be!supposed!to!increase.!We!will!begin!with!it!under!its!
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present!state!of!cultivation.&If!I!allow!that!by!the!best!possible!policy,!by&breaking&up&
more&land&and&by&great&encouragements&to&agriculture,!the!produce!of!this!
Island!may&be&doubled&in&the&first&twenty`five&years,!I!think!it!will!be!allowing!as!
much!as!any!person!can!well!demand.!In&the&next&twenty`five&years,&it&is&impossible&
to&suppose&that&the&produce&could&be&quadrupled.&It&would&be&contrary&to&all&our&
knowledge&of&the&qualities&of&land.!The!very!utmost!that!we!can!conceive,!is,!that!
the!increase!in!the!second!twentyYfive!years!might!equal!the!present!produce.!Let!us!
then!take!this!for!our!rule,!though!certainly!far!beyond!the!truth,!and!allow!that,!by!
great!exertion,!the!whole!produce!of!the!Island!might!be!increased!every!twentyYfive!
years,!by!a!quantity!of!subsistence!equal!to!what!it!at!present!produces.!The!most!
enthusiastic!speculator!cannot!suppose!a!greater!increase!than!this.!In!a!few!centuries!
it!would!make!every!acre!of!land!in!the!Island!like!a!garden.!Yet!this&ratio&of&increase&
is&evidently&arithmetical.!
!
!
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The&poor&can't&eat&if&there's&no&food&available&to&them.&
Malthus,!Thomas.!"An!Essay!On!The!Principle!Of!Population.".!November!30,!2011.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.searchengine.org.uk/pdfs/8/896.pdf>.!
Suppose&that&by&a&subscription&of&the&rich!the!eighteen&pence!a!day!which!men!
earn!now&was!made!up!five&shillings,!it!might!be!imagined,!perhaps,!that!they!would!
then!be!able!to!live!comfortably!and!have!a!piece!of!meat!every!day!for!their!dinners.!
But!this!would!be!a!very!false!conclusion.!The&transfer&of&three&shillings&and&
sixpence&a&day&to&every&labourer&would&not&increase&the&quantity&of&meat&in&the&
country.&There&is&not&at&present&enough&for&all&to&have&a&decent&share.&What!
would!then!be!the!consequence?!The&competition&among&the&buyers&in&the&market&
of&meat&would&rapidly&raise&the&price!from!sixpence!or!sevenpence,!to!two!or!three!
shillings!in!the!pound,!and&the&commodity&would&not&be&divided&among&many&
more&than&it&is&at&present.!When!an!article!is!scarce,!and!cannot!be!distributed!to!all,!
he!that!can!shew!the!most!valid!patent,!that!is,!he!that!offers!most!money,!becomes!the!
possessor.!If&we&can&suppose&the&competition&among&the&buyers&of&meat&to&
continue&long&enough&for&a&greater&number&of&cattle&to&be&reared&annually,&this&
could&only&be&done&at&the&expense&of&the&corn,&which&would&be&a&very&
disadvantagous&exchange,!for!it!is!well!known!that!the!country!could!not!then!
support!the!same!population,!and!when!subsistence!is!scarce!in!proportion!to!the!
number!of!people,!it!is!of!little!consequence!whether!the&lowest&members&of&the&
society!possess!eighteen!pence!or!five!shillings.!They!must!at!all!events!be&reduced&
to&live&upon&the&hardest&fare&and&in&the&smallest&quantity.!
!
!
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Data&shows&that&global&society&will&collapse&by&the&middle&of&
the&century.&
Turner,!GrahamM.!"A!Comparison!Of!The!Limits!To!Growth!With!30!Years!Of!Reality."!
Elsevier,!Vol.!18,!No.!3.!December!08,!2007.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378008000435>.!
Appropriate!and!publicly!available!global&data&covering&1970–2000!have!been!
collected!on!the!five!main!subYsystems!simulated!by!the!Limits!to!Growth!World3!
model:!population,!food!production,!industrial!production,!pollution,!and!consumption!
of!nonYrenewable!resources.!In&the&style&of&predictive&validation,!these!data!have&
been&compared&with&three&key&scenarios!from!the!original!LtG!publication!
(Meadows!et!al.,!1972).!This!comparison!provides!a!relatively!rare!opportunity!to!
evaluate!the!output!of&a&global&model!against!observed!and!independent!data.!Given!
the!high!profile!of!the!LtG!and!the!implications!of!their!findings,!it!is!surprising!that!
such!a!comparison!has!not!been!made!previously.!This!may!be!due!to!the!effectiveness!
of!the!many!false!criticisms!attempting!to!discredit!the!LtG.!As!shown,!the&observed&
historical&data!for!1970–2000!most&closely&match&the&simulated&results&of&
the!LtG‘‘standard&run’’!scenario!for!almost!all!the!outputs!reported;!this&scenario&
results&in&global&collapse&before&the&middle&of&this&century.!The!comparison!is!
well!within!uncertainty!bounds!of!nearly!all!the!data!in!terms!of!both!magnitude!and!
the!trends!over!time.!Given!the!complexity!of!numerous!feedbacks!between!sectors!
incorporated!in!the!LtG!World3!model,!it!is!instructive!that!the!historical!data!
compare!so!favorably!with!the!model!output!
!
!
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Positive&feedback&means&governments&can&do&nothing&to&stop&
future&famine.&
Turner,!GrahamM.!"A!Comparison!Of!The!Limits!To!Growth!With!30!Years!Of!Reality."!
Elsevier,!Vol.!18,!No.!3.!December!08,!2007.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378008000435>.!
Furthermore,&the&general&trends&and&interactions&involved&in&the&‘‘standard&run’’&
scenario&resonate&with&contemporary&environmental&and&economic&pressures,!
notably!‘‘peak!oil’’,!climate!change,!and!constrained!food!production.!As&further&
growth&occurs!in!the!‘‘standard!run’’!scenario!under&business`as`usual&
settings,&the&attempts!of!the!World3!model!to&alleviate&pressures&in&one&sector&of&
the&global&system&by&technological&means&generally&results&in&increasing&
pressures&in&other&sectors,&often&resulting&in&a&vicious&cycle&or&positive&feedback.!
Stressful!signs&of&this&may&be&apparent&now,!as!the!following!examples!
illustrate.!Reduced&crop&production&has&been&blamed&on&newly&introduced&bio`
fuels&displacing&crops,!extreme!weather!conditions!possibly!associated!with!early!
climate!change!impacts,!and!growing!demand!for!meatYbased!diets!(KiYMoon,!2008).!
The!overall!systemYwide!effect!of!some!bioYfuels!in!reducing!greenhouse!gases!is!also!
in!contention,!when!factors!such!as!fertilizer,!new!infrastructure,!landYclearing!
(Searchinger!et!al.,!2008;!Fargione!et!al.,!2008),!and!transport!requirements!are!
included.!BioYfuels!may!also!increase!pressures!on!water!resources,!deplete!soil!
nutrients,!and!increase!destruction!of!native!forests!(UNYEnergy,!2007).!Efforts&to&
provide&water&security!such!as!recycling!water!or!desalination!require&greater&
energy&use!than!more!conventional!means,!further&increasing&the&demand&for&
resources&and&production&of&greenhouse&gases.!
!
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&Food&data&supports&an&overpopulation&model.&
Turner,!GrahamM.!"A!Comparison!Of!The!Limits!To!Growth!With!30!Years!Of!Reality."!
Elsevier,!Vol.!18,!No.!3.!December!08,!2007.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378008000435>.!
The!observed&food&per&capita!(average!supply!per!person!of!total!energy!content!in!
food!(WRI,!2002)!using!FAO!data)!shows&signs&of&diminished&growth(Fig.!7),!
most!similar&to&that&in&the&‘‘standard&run’’&scenario—by&year&2000&there&is&only&
about&5%&difference&between&observed&and&modeled&data.Comparisons!with!other!
data!sets!provide!similar!indications:!global!meat!production!per!capita!has!increased!
approximately!linearly!by!40%!(Brown!et!al.,!2002);!world&grain&production&per&
capita&peaked&in&the&1980s&and&has&increased&only&a&few&percent&since&1970;!and!
a!smooth!curve!of!the!developing!countries!grain!production!per!capita!has!increased!
about!20%!(Lomborg,!2001).!The&food&per&capita&outputs&of&the!‘‘comprehensive!
technology’’!and!‘‘stabilized&world’’&scenarios&are&substantially&higher&than&the&
observed&data.!Any!of!the!scenarios!that!include!pollution!control!and!increased!
agricultural!productivity!(such!as!the!‘‘comprehensive!technology’’!scenario)!show!
food!per!capita!increasing!at!a!rate!of!growth!to!levels!well!beyond!that!observed.!This!
indicates!that!this!combination!of!technological!initiatives!is!not!being!implemented!
or!realized!at!a!rate!that!is!greater!than!the!population!growth!rate.!The!‘‘stabilized!
world’’!scenario!shows!a!higher!level!of!food!per!capita!than!the!observed!data,!due!to!
the!simulation!of!soil!enrichment!and!preservation!in!the!scenario.!This!scenario!also!
diverts!capital!to!food!production!even!if!this!is!‘‘uneconomic’’!so!that!sufficient!food!
is!available!for!all!people!(where!the!population!has!been!stabilized!at!less!than!the!
current!world!population).!
!
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Carrying&Capacity&is&still&a&constraint&on&food&security&and&
the&quality&of&life.&
Tal,!Alon.!"Overpopulation!Is!Still!A!Problem."!The!Huffington!Post.!December!08,!
2007.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.huffingtonpost.com/alonY
tal/overpopulationYisYstillYt_b_3990646.html>.!
Overpopulation&remains&the&leading&driver&of&hunger,&desertification,&species&
depletion&and&a&range&of&social&maladies&across&the&planet.!Recently,!a!spate!of!opY
ed!essays!have!filled!the!pages!of!some!of!world's!top!newspapers!and!blogs!YY!from!
theGuardian!to!the!New'York'Times!YY!challenged!this!view,!declaring!that!
overpopulations!is!not,!nor!has!ever!been,!a!problem.!To!make!progress!in!the!most!
recent!round!of!the!ageYold!debate!between!technological!optimists!and!Malthusian!
realists,!it's!important!to!establish!criteria!and!characterize!consequences.!On!what!
basis!are!these!newest!cornucopian!assurances!made?!In!the!New'York'Times!piece,!
for!instance,!Ellis!Erle!asserts!that!after!studying!the!ecology!of!agriculture!in!China!
and!talking!to!archaeologists,!he!reached!the!conclusion!that!technologies!have!always!
been!able!to!overcome!any!anticipated!exceedance!of!carrying!capacity.!A!key!
corroboration!marshaled!for!this!view!refers!to!a!retrospective!assessment!of!Chinese!
farming!by!archaeologists.!It!purportedly!claims!that!new!and!more!efficient!
technologies!invariably!enabled!local!farmers!to!overcome!any!anticipated!exceedance!
of!carrying!capacity.!If&food&security&is&the&criterion,!it!is!particularly!ironic!that!
arguments!are!based!on!China.!Anyone&with&a&teaspoon&of&historic&sensibilities&
about&the&country's&environmental&history&might&want&to&mention&its&long&litany&
of&famines&which&occurred&precisely&because&carrying&capacities&were&
consistently&outstripped&by&a&growing&population.!Conservative!estimates!report!
that!China's!most!recent!food!crisis,!between!1958!and!1961,!led!to!the!starvation!of!
over!twenty!million!people,!in!part!due!to!the!erosion!of!China's!natural!capital.!
Uncontrolled!human!fertility!led!to!a!depletion!of!the!land's!fertility.!Previous!famines!
were!worse.!Over!the!years,!hundreds!of!millions!died!a!horrible!death!of!
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hunger.!Their&misery&should&teach&a&sobering&lesson&about&insouciant&disregard&
for&the&balance&between&human&numbers&and&natural&resources.!Chinese!oneY
child!policy!has!been!tough!medicine,!and!implementation!was!clearly!flawed.!But!it!
also!prevented!the!next!round!of!famines!that!would!have!taken!far!more!lives!had!
China!continued!to!race!forward!and!became!a!nation!of!two!billion.!Even!so,!China!
today!still!needs!to!bolster!local!food!supply!by!attaining!lands!overseas.!It!gives!little!
satisfaction!for!sustainable!population!advocates!to!point!out!that!the!past!twenty!
years!saw!an!estimated!200!million!hungerYrelated!deaths!worldwide.!Relatively!few!
occurred!in!countries!where!population!was!stable.!The!U.N.!reports!that!today!one!in!
eight!people!in!the!world!suffers!chronic!undernourishment.!Almost!without!
exception,!they!live!in!developing!regions,!where!most!of!the!planet's!population!
growth!continues!apace.!If!family!planning!had!been!energetically!promoted!years!
ago,!enormous!suffering!could!have!been!avoided.!Present!global!trends!will!lead!to!a!
doubling!of!the!world's!urban!areas!by!2050.!That!means!that!cities,!mostly!in!
developing!countries,!will!expand!from!3!to!6!percent!of!allYice!free!land.!It!also!means!
that!10!to!15!percent!of!lands!farmed!today!would!be!taken!out!of!production.!In!a!
perfect!world!we!would!have!better!ways!of!distributing!surplus!food!to!famine!
stricken!regions!or!promoting!land!reform!to!optimize!food!production.!But!for!the!
foreseeable!future!we!will!be!living!in!a!very!imperfect!world!where!communities!
need!to!take!care!of!themselves!and!maintain!sustainable!populations.!Overpopulation!
is!not!just!about!food!shortages!and!human!suffering.&Ecologists&explain&that&the&
collapse&in&global&biodiversity&is&also&linked&to&overpopulation.!China,!Mexico!and!
Brazil!have!been!singled!out!as!extreme!cases!of!species!loss.!Brazil's!population!grew!
four!fold!during!the!past!sixty!years;!little!wonder!the!Amazon!is!feeling!the!pressure.!
Mexico!and!China's!growth!is!comparable.!Israel!offers!a!microcosm!of!the!global!
situation:!A!meeting!point!of!three!continents,!at!the!middle!of!the!twentieth!century,!
this!tiny!country!was!still!home!to!an!astonishing!assemblage!of!mammals,!birds!and!
reptiles.!That's!because!in!1949!there!were!one!million!people!living!in!Israel.!Today!
there!are!eight!million.!The&equation&is&simple:&more&people&means&less&
wildlife.!Accordingly,!about!a!third!of!the!country's!115!indigenous!mammal!species!
today!are!either!endangered!or!critically!endangered.!The!amphibian!population!is!
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almost!entirely!extirpated.!Israel!has!a!remarkable!program!of!conservation!and!its!
powerful!Nature!and!Parks!Authority!set!aside!25%!of!the!country!for!reserves.!But!
growing!human!settlement!continues!to!fragment!habitats!and!undermine!the!benefits!
that!nature!provides.!These&go&far&beyond&any&individual&organism.&When&humans&
encroach&on&open&spaces,&they&also&lose&the&free&services&that&nature&provides:!
filters!for!clean!water,!protection!from!hurricanes,!natural!pollinators,!soil!integrity!
and!recreational!resources.!The!rapid!rise!in!populations!also!tends!to!sabotage!basic!
social!services:!schools!are!crowded,!medical!care!overwhelmed,!the!legal!system!
backed!up,!transportation!gridlock!unbearable!and!accessible!housing!inadequate.!
Infrastructure!has!a!very!hard!keeping!up!with!relentless!growth.!Technological!
Pollyannas!suggest!that!today's!technologies!mean!that!we!in!the!West!needn't!be!
concerned.!But!of!course!we!should.!There!are!global!limits!that!affect!us!all.!Even!
Israel,!whose!ultraYhiYtech!agriculture!probably!yields!more!"crop!per!drop"!than!any!
other!country!is!only!able!to!produce!45%!of!the!calories!required!for!its!growing!
population.!The!good!news!is!that!public!policy!matters!and!can!reduce!
overpopulation.!Many!countries,!from!Bangladesh!and!Iran!to!Singapore!and!Thailand!
adopted!policies!that!incentify!small!families,!make!birth!control!available,!provide!
better!social!security!and!most!of!all!YY!empower!women.!The!results!are!remarkable,!
showing!that!trend!need!not!be!destiny.!As!population!began!to!stabilize,!the!drop!in!
undernourished!people!in!Asia!and!the!Pacific!went!down!from!23.7!percent!to!13.9!
percent.!The!quality!of!education,!housing!and!health!improved!as!a!matter!course.!It&
is&time&to&realize&that&there&is&a&tradeoff&between&"quality&of&life"&and&"quantity&
of&life."&In&a&planet&with&limited&resources&``&sustainable&growth&is&an&
oxymoron.!Of!course!humanity!could!all!shift!to!vegan!diets,!forgo!national!parks!and!
crowd!in!a!few!more!billion!people,!hoping!that!new!levels!of!efficiency!will!allow!us!
to!survive.!But!it!is!well!to!ask!if!this!really!is!the!kind!of!world!that!we!want?!There!is!
much!we!can!do!to!reduce!the!suffering!caused!by!human!population!growth.!
But!recognizing&that&overpopulation&is&a&perilous&problem&constitutes&a&critical&
first&step.!
!
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Pity&is&an&instance&of&moral&failure.&
Nietzsche,!Friedrich.!"“The!Will!To!Power!(Volumes!I!And!II)”."!Digireads.com.!1901.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!!
365.!The!behavior!of!a!higher!man!is!the!result!of!a!very!complex!set!of!motives:!any!
word!such!as!“pity”!betrays!nothing!of!this!complexity.!The!most!important!factor!is!
the!feeling,!“who!am!I?!who!is!the!other!relative!to!me?”—Thus!the!valuing!spirit!is!
continually!active.!366.!To!think!that!the!history!of!all!moral!phenomena!may!be!
simplified,!as!Schopenhauer!thought,!—that!is!to!say,!that!pity!is!to!be!found!at!the!
root!of!every!moral!impulse!that!has!ever!existed!hitherto,!–is!to!be!guilty!of!a!degree!
of!nonsense!and!ingenuousness!worthy!only!of!a!thinker!who!is!devoid!of!all!historical!
instincts!and!who!has!miraculously!succeeded!in!evading!the!strong!schooling!in!
history!which!the!Germans,!from!Herder!to!Hegel,!have!undergone.!367.!My!“pity.”!–!
This!is!a!feeling!for!which!I!can!find!no!adequate!term:!I!feel!it!when!I!am!in!the!
presence!of!any!waste!of!precious!capabilities,!as,!for!instance,!when!I!contemplate!
Luther:!what!power!and!what!tasteless!problems!fit!for!back!woodsmen!!(At!a!time!
when!the!brave!and!lightYhearted!skepticism!of!a!Montaigne!was!already!possible!in!
France!)!Or!when!I!see!someone!standing!below!where!he!might!have!stood,!thanks!to!
the!development!of!a!set!of!perfectly!senseless!accidents.!Or!even!when,!with!the!
thought!of!man’s!destiny!in!my!mind,!I!contemplate!with!horror!and!contempt!the!
whole!system!of!modern!European!politics,!which!is!creating!the!circumstances!and!
weaving!the!fabric!of!the!whole!future!of!mankind.!Yes,!to!what!could!not!“mankind”!
attain,!ifYY!!This!is!my!“pity”;!despite!the!fact!that!no!sufferer!yet!exists!with!whom!I!
sympathize!in!this!way.!368.!Pity&is!a!waste!of!a!feeling,&a&moral&parasite&which!
is&injurious&to&the&health,&“it!cannot!possibly!be!our!duty!to!increase!the!evil!in!the!
world.”&If&one&does&good&merely&out&of&pity,&it&is&one’s&self&and!not!one’s!
neighbor&that&one&is&succoring.&Pity&does&not&depend&upon&maxims,&
but&upon&emotions.&The&suffering&we&see&infects&us;&pity!is!an!infection.&There&is&no&
such&thing&as&egoism&which&keeps&within&its&bounds&and&does&not&exceed&them—
consequently,&the&“allowable,”&the&“morally&in&different”&egoism&of&which&some&
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
people&speak,&does&not&exist&at&all.”&one&is&continually&promoting&the&interests&of&
one’s&ego&at&the&cost&of&other&people”;!“Living!consists!in!living!at!the!cost!of!
others”—he!who!has!not!grasped!this!fact,!has!not!taken!the!first!step!towards!truth!
to!himself.!370.!The!“subject”!is!a!piece!of!fiction:!the!ego!of!which!every!one!speaks!
when!he!blames!egoism,!does!not!exist!at!all.!371.!Our!“ego”—which!is!not!one!with!
the!unitary!controlling!force!of!our!beings!—is!really!only!an!imagined!synthesis;!
therefore!there!can!be!no!“egoistic”!actions.!372.!Since!all!instincts!are!unintelligent,!
utility!cannot!represent!a!standpoint!as!far!as!they!are!concerned.&Every&instinct,!
when!it!is!active,!sacrifices&strength&and&other&instincts&into&the&bargain:&in&the&
end&it&is&stemmed,&otherwise&it&would&be&the&end&of&everything&owing&to&the&
waste&it&would&bring&about.&Thus:&that&which&is&“unegoistic,”&self`sacrificing,&and&
imprudent&is&nothing&in&particular—it!is!common!to!all!the!instincts;!they!do!not!
consider!the!welfare!of!the!whole!ego!(because!they!simply!do!not!think!),!they&act&
counter&to&our&interests,&against&the&ego:!and!often!for!the!ego—innocent!in!both!
cases.!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
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Food&is&always&caught&up&in&a&racial&apparatus.&
Slocum,!Rachel.!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.!2010.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!
http://phg.sagepub.com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/content/35/3/303!
A&material`semiotic&substance&used&in&the&‘creation&and&maintenance&of&social&
relationships,&food&serves&both&to&solidify&group&membership&and&to&set&groups&
apart’!(Mintz!and!Du!Bois,!2002:!109).!Food&products&‘create&the&images&by&which&
we&understand&who&we&have&been,&who&we&are,&and&who&we&might&or&should&be&
in&the&future’!(Miller,!1995:!35).!Producing&and&maintaining&racial&identity&is&
dependent,&in&part,&on&holding&on&to&food&habits&and&tastes,&which&are&
themselves&imagined&as&cuisines&belonging&to&racialized&groups!or!nations!
(Appadurai,!1988;!Weismantel,!1989).!Eating!and!cooking!as!acts!at!once!intimate!and!
public,!empowering!and!complicit,!are!constitutive!of!racial!identity!and!its!
politics.!Scholars&understand&food&preparation&and&consumption&as&central&to&the&
development&and&preservation&of&racialized&identity&and&belonging!for!women,!
diasporic!populations,!immigrants!and!the!displaced,!enslaved!
andimpoverished.!Themes&include&how&non`white&groups&are&exoticized&or&
demonized,&how&food&histories&of&marginalized&people&are&ignored,&
appropriated&or&maligned&by&dominant&groups&and&how&racialized&groups&
discursively&resist&these&oppressions.&Authors!have!also!written!aboutthe!
encounterthat!occurs!through!the!preparation!and!consumption!of!‘others’!foods’!and!
question!the!idea!that!food!‘belongs’!to!particular!racialized!groups.!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Racism&NC&
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&definitions&including&the&notion&of&cultural&
appropriateness&assume&stable&racial&groups.&
Slocum,!Rachel.!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.!2010.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!
http://phg.sagepub.com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/content/35/3/303!
In!the!early!1990s!Ha¨agen!Dazs!launched!an!advertising!campaign!offering!black!
masculinity!as!‘phallic!embodiment’!and!the!pleasure!of!miscegenation!through!ice!
cream!flavors.!Such!imagery,!both!a!fetishization!of!black!sexuality!(see!also!Sheller,!
2010)!and!a!destabilization!of!whiteness’!omnipotence,!says!more!about!whiteness!
than!anything!else!(Nayak,!1997).!Writing!a!few!years!later,!Rafia!Zafar!(1999)!
wondered!whether,!with!the!updating!of!the!image!of!Aunt!Jemima!on!the!pancake!
box,!the!consciousness!of!the!American!public!about!African!Americans!and!food!had!
been!altered.!Perhaps!Western!disgust!over!Asian!consumption!of!dog!meat,!for!
instance,!is!more!muted!now!than!in!the!past!(Okamura,!2010;!Wu,!2002)!and!more!
ridiculed!for!its!hypocrisy!(Foer,!2009).!In!an!intriguing!comparison!between!the!
politics!of!race!in!his!native!India!and!the!USA,!Krishnendu!Ray!(2007:!135)!suggests!
that!the!‘visceral!disgust!of!blackness!–!the!body,its!appetites,!and!the!comestibles!
that!go!into!it!…!is!still!real!and!normal!in!India’!(referring!to!racism!against!Dalits)!
whereas!in!the!USA!people!nolongertake!seriously!stereotypes!about!African!
Americans!and!chicken!or!watermelon!consumption.!But!stereotypes!are!agile.!A&blog&
entry&described&NY&city&school&lunch&advocates&‘genuinely&trying’&to&show&their&
cultural&sensitivity&through&the&argument&that&it&was&‘part&of&black&culture&to&eat&
Wonder&Bread&and&Cheetos’&and&‘junk&food’.5!US&alternative&food&networks&make&
a&point&of&defining&food&security&as&existing&when&people&can&access&‘culturally&
appropriate’&food,&but&this&intention&may&map&static&‘races’&onto&inert&food&
cultures.!
*Ellipsis!from!source!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Racism&NC&
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March/April&2015&
The&exclusion&of&race&in&the&discussion&of&food&security&is&
harmful.&
Slocum,!Rachel.!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.!2010.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!
http://phg.sagepub.com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/content/35/3/303!
Political&ecology&seeks&to&explain&human&environment&inequalities&through&
empirical&studies&that&rely&on&close&analysis&of&the&articulation&of&local&situations&
with&global&processes&(for!overviews,!see!Robbins,!2004;!Zimmerer!and!Bassett,!
2003).!It!is!in&these&global&places&that&the&question&of&race&might&usefully&be&
raised.!But,!with!some!exceptions,!race&tends&to&be&absent&from&much&of&this&
research,&particularly&that&work&done&in&‘third&world’&contexts&where&no&obvious&
white/non`white&relationship&to&food&and&farming&is&evident.&Few&study&the&
subject&of&race&and&hunger,&food&insecurity,!landlessness!or!development!in&the&
global&south.!As&one&colleague&remarked&on&the&question&of&race&and&hunger&in&
Africa,&‘it’s&fairly&obvious&that&white&settlers&don’t&starve’.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Racism&NC&
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March/April&2015&
Urban&agriculture&is&a&solution&entrenched&in&whiteness.&
Slocum,!Rachel.!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.!2010.!
Web.!February!03,!2015.!
http://phg.sagepub.com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/content/35/3/303!
Urban&agriculture&is&increasingly&heralded&as&a&solution&to&food&insecurity&and&
future&catastrophes.!In!South!Africa,&it&is&assumed&that&urban&food&insecurity&can&
be&solved&by&making&more&food&available&through&urban&agriculture&when&it&
would&be&more&useful&to&determine&whether&people&have&access&to&
transportation&and&storage&as&well&as&the&location&of&shops&near&work&or&
home&(Battersby,!2010).!In!the!UK,!the!cordial!relationship!between!the!
environmental!movement!and!allotment!gardeners,!who!are!working!class,!older,!and!
white,!but!also!West!Indian,!Indian!and!Pakistani,!broke!down!over!land!scarcity!
(Wiltshire,!2009).!Largely&white&and&middle&class,&environmentalists&take&Cuba&as&
their&icon!(for!surviving!through!gardening)!and!‘feed!off!a!moral!panic!about!global!
warming!and!the!end!of!cheap!oil’.!Among!the!gardeners,!racist!sentiments!are!
articulated!overtly!and!covertly,!while!an!ageist!discourse!identifies!older!allotment!
gardeners!as!‘in!the!way,!in!part!because!they!are!not!maximizing!the!output!of!polar!
bearYsaving!vegetables!using!oilYfree!methods’!(Wiltshire,!personal!communication,!
2009).!Race&is&one&part&of&the&process&that&makes&gardening&a&‘solution’&to&
Detroit’s&collapse,&northern&England’s&deindustrialization,&South&African&food&
insecurity&and&peak&oil.&!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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The&food&security&movement&(specifically&alternative&food&
efforts)&does&not&take&race&into&consideration.&
Sbicca,!Joshua.!"Growing!Food!Justice!By!Planting!An!AntiYoppression!Foundation:!
Opportunities!And!Obstacles!For!A!Budding!Social!Movement."!Agric!Hum!
Values!(2012)!29:455–466!15.!January!04,!2012.!Web.!February!06,!2015.!
http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/83307048/growingYfoodYjusticeY
byYplantingYantiYoppressionYfoundationYopportunitiesYobstaclesYbuddingY
socialYmovement!
The!alternative!food!movement!(AFM)!largely!mobilizes!activists!around!localism!and!
sustainability.!White&middleclass&activists&dominate&this&movement&and&they&
focus&on&reform&strategies,&which&reflect&an&ecologically&focused&ideology&
stemming&from&traditional&environmentalism&and&a&dedication&to&local&
alternatives!to!globalized!agrifood!systems!(Alkon!2008;!DuPuis!and!Goodman!
2005).!However,!the!AFM![it]&often&fails&to&incorporate&concerns&about&racial&and&
economic&inequality&in&the&agrifood&system.&Charges&of&elitism&have&grown&in&
light&of&influential&organizations!such!as!Slow!Food!USA!championing!local!organic!
food!despite!its!high!costs,!which!often!shut!out!lowYincome!consumers!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
&
Setting&food&within&the&realm&of&security&allows&for&the&
possibility&of&conflict.&
SiegenbeekvanHeukelom,!Tim.!"The!Emerging!Securitisation!Of!Food."!The!Brocker.!
January!04,!2012.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.thebrokeronline.eu/Blogs/AYnewYagricultureYforYfoodY
security/TheYemergingYsecuritisationYofYfood>.!
The!problems!relating!to!‘food!security’!are!multiYdisciplinary!and!know!many!
dimensions,!covering!wide!areas!like!development!studies,!agricultural!research,!
nutrition,!public!health,!economics!and!security!–!amongst!many!others.!Interestingly!
though,!many!International!Security!scholars,!mostly!drawing!from!the!Political!
Realists!school!of!thought,!or!those!working!in!the!realms!of!Military!and!Strategic!
security,!continue&to&resist&accepting&that&food&has&a&national&–&and&international&
security&dimension.!Food!is!often!seen!as!an!environmental!–!and!human!security!
issue,!but!as!Tolentino!points!out!here,!it&becomes&increasingly&difficult&to&deny&
that&food&is&entering&the&realm&of&national&security.!!The!argument!is!far!from!new.!
Back!in!the!Cold!War!days!some!scholars!already!explored!the!link!between!food!and!
national!security.!Christensen,!for!example,!argued!in!1977!that!'under!conditions!of!
increasing!scarcity,!foodYimporting!countries!have!several!reasons!for!considering!
their!international!food!position!as!a!matter!of!national!security.'!Fast`forwarding&to&
2008,&we&indeed&notice&that&a&number&of&wealthy&food`importing&countries&
started&to&classify&food&as&a&matter&of&national&security&and&invoked&policies&of&
self`sufficiency&to&avert&potential&future&food&shortages&for&their&
populations.!Especially!Gulf!and!Asian!states!became!soYcalled!‘new!imperialists’!in!
Africa!and!SouthYEast!Asia,!leasing!vast!amounts!of!foreign!agricultural!land!to!
produce!and!secure!their!own!food!supply.!!Thus,!while&there&may&be&an&intuitive&
link&between&hunger&and&conflict,&it&remains&the&question&whether&securitisation&
of&food&is&a&favourable&outcome.!On!the!one!hand!one!could!argue!that!elevating&
food&into&the&national&security&realm!may!be!a!powerful!way!to!unlock!vast!
amounts!of!funding!for!agricultural!research,!sustainable!solutions!and!increased!food!
production.!Yet,!at!the!same!time!it!allows&states&to&utilise&security&–&and&military&
resources&to&compete&over&scarce&resources&such&as&agricultural&land,&fresh&
water,&fertilisers&and&fish&stocks&–&increasing&the&risk&for&conflict.!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
Inaccurate&media&sensationalizing&contributes&to&food&
securitization.&
Franks,!Suzanne.!"Public!Perception!And!Policy:!Famine!And!Food!Securitization!In!
The!Horn!Of!Africa."!Chatham!House.!January!04,!2012.!Web.!February!03,!
2015.!
<http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/home/chatham/pu
blic_html/sites/default/files/20131118PublicPerceptionPolicyFamine.pdf>.!
The!speaker!questioned!when!exactly!a!famine!should!be!reported.!There&exists&an&
unpleasant&dynamic&where&elements&of&the&media&will&wait&for&shocking&images&
to&come&through&before&widespread&coverage&is&granted.!NGOs&are&fully&
aware!that!this!is!the!way!that!the!media!operates!and!in!a!way,!they!
arecomplicit.!They&will&also&wait&for&horrific&images&of&hunger!to!become!available!
before!widespread!coverage!is!given.!The!speaker!expressed!her!belief!thateven&using&
the&word&‘famine’&is&fraught&with&problems.!Journalists&typically&want&to&use&the&
word,&even&when&it&is&not&strictly&true.&For&example,&the&media&reported&that&a&
famine&was&occurring&in&Niger&in&2005.&The&horrific&images&that&accompanied&
this&news&made&headlines&but&it&later&became&clear&that&famine&had&not&actually&
occurred.!As!such,!journalists!tend!to!be!happy!to!use!the!‘F’!word!even!when!it!is!not!
actually!true.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
Food&securitization&can&contribute&to&biotechnological&
corporate&forces.&
Dibden,!Jacqui.!"Framing!GM!Crops!As!A!Food!Security!Solution."!Journal!of!Rural!
Studies.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016711001045>.!
The&spectre&of&a&food&security&crisis&raises&important&questions&about&future&
directions&for&agriculture!and&has&given&fresh&impetus&to!a!longYstanding!debate!
about!the&potential&contribution&of&agricultural&biotechnology&to&food&security.&
Proponents&of!genetically!modified!organisms!(GMOs)!–!particularly!GM!crops!–
!argue&that&the&technology&can&make&a&vital&contribution&to&increasing&
agricultural&production,&improving&livelihoods,&and&enhancing&food&quality&in&
the&developing&world.&In!contrast,!critics!believe!agricultural!biotechnology!
undermines!food!security.!
!
!
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
Champion)Briefs)
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March/April&2015&
Food&securitization&creates&a&moral&imperative&to&invest&in&
biotech&that&outweighs&other&policy&making&concerns&in&
public&debates.&
Dibden,!Jacqui.!"Framing!GM!Crops!As!A!Food!Security!Solution."!Framing!GM!crops!as!
a!food!security!solution.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016711001045>.!
The!remainder!of!this!paper!is!structured!as!follows.!In!the!next!section,!we!consider!
the!discursive!foundations!for!the!embrace!of!agricultural!biotechnology.Whereas&
notions&of&progress&and&‘science`based’&risk&assessment&act&as&‘anti`political’&
strategies&to&remove&GMOs&from&the&cut&and&thrust&of&politics,&the&concept&of&
‘food&security’&reconstitutes&agricultural&biotechnology&as&a&moral&imperative.!
We!then!outline!the!arguments!and!counterYarguments!concerning!the!role!of!
biotechnology!in!relation!to!global!food!production!and!security!in!developing!
countries.!Feeding&into&this&conflict&are&disagreements&about&the&use&of&science&
and&probabilistic&assessments&to&approve&risks&which&have&societal&and&moral&
implications,&and&the&perceived&dominance&in&policy`making&of&business&and&
technological&solutions&over&considerations&of&social&welfare.!In!Section!3,!we!
argue!that!a!debate!ostensibly!focussed!on!developing'countries,!in!fact,!largely!arises!
from!discordant!views!about!the!future!of!farming!and!rural!areas!
indeveloped!countries.!These!divergent!views!are!represented!as!alternative!
paradigms,!contrasting!highYinput,!high!technology!farming,!in!which!transgenic!
technology!plays!a!vital!role,!with!an!agroYecological!approach!which!views!this!
technology!as!both!unnecessary!and!risky.!
!
!
&
Champion)Briefs)
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Food&security&initiatives&foster&neo`colonialist&relations&of&
dependence.&
Blas,!Javier.!"UN!Warns!Of!Food!‘neoYcolonialism’."!Financial!Times.!January!01,!2013.!
Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3d3ede92Y6e02Y11ddY
b5dfY0000779fd18c.html>.!
The&race&by&food`importing&countries&to&secure&farmland&overseas&to&improve&
their&food&security&risks&creating&a&“neo`colonial”&system,&the&United&Nations’&
top&agriculture&official&has&cautioned.!The!warning!by!Jacques!Diouf,!directorY
general!of!the!Food!and!Agriculture!Organisation,!comes!as!countries!from!Saudi!
Arabia!to!China!plan!to!lease!vast!tracts!of!land!in!Africa!and!Asia!to!grow!crops!and!
ship!them!back!to!their!markets.&&“The&risk&is&of&creating&a&neo`colonial&pact&for&the&
provision&of&non`value`added&raw&materials&in&the&producing&countries&and&
unacceptable&work&conditions&for&agricultural&workers,”!Mr!Diouf!said.!Financial!
investors!and!food!companies!were!also!looking!to!invest!in!overseas!farmland,!
raising!some!concerns,!officials!said.!The&pursuit&of&foreign&farm&investments&is&the&
latest&sign&of&how&the&global&food&crisis,&which&has&seen&record&prices&for&
commodities&such&as&wheat&and&rice,&is&reshaping&the&politics&of&agriculture.!This!
year!big!providers!of!agriculture!commodities!–!including!India,!Russia,!Argentina!and!
Vietnam!–!have!restricted!exports!to!keep!local!markets!supplied.!Joachim!von!Braun,!
director!of!the!International!Food!Policy!Research!Institute,!said&importing&nations&
realised&that&dependence&on&the&international&market&made&them&vulnerable!–!
not!only!to!surging!prices!but,!crucially,!also!to!an!interruption!in!supplies.!“They!
want!to!secure!the!supply!lines!of!food,”!he!said.!The!recent!drop!in!agricultural!
commodity!prices!had!not!altered!this!view,!as!food!prices!remained!well!above!
historical!levels,!analysts!said.!Middle!Eastern!and!North!African!countries,!which!
import!most!of!their!food,!are!leading!the!race!to!invest!overseas.!Countries!such!as!
Sudan,!Ethiopia!and!Ukraine!are!opening!their!doors.!Meles!Zenawi,!prime!minister!of!
Ethiopia,!said!recently!its!government!was!“very!eager”!to!provide!hundreds!of!
thousands!of!hectares!of!agricultural!land!for!investment.!Referring!to!recent!
investment,!Mr!Diouf!said:&“Some&negotiations&have&led&to&unequal&international&
relations&and&short`term&mercantilist&agriculture.”!
Champion)Briefs)
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&
The&idea&of&vulnerability&to&any&outside&stressor&requires&a&
complex&system&of&quantification.&
Luers,!AmyL.!"A!Method!For!Quantifying!Vulnerability,!Applied!To!The!Agricultural!
System!Of!The!Yaqui!Valley,!Mexico."!Global!Environmental!Change,!Vol.!13.!
November!30,!2002.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.199.4110&rep=re
p1&type=pdf>.!
No&single&measure&will&be&able&to&capture&completely&the&multiple&dimensions&of&
vulnerability.&Ultimately,!vulnerability!research&will&require&a&set&of&metrics&that&
can&help&analyze&and&explain!vulnerability!characteristics&within&and&between&
systems.!The&most&effective&metrics&will&be&those&that&are&generic!enough!that!
they!can!be!applied!to!a!wide!range!of!settings.!There!are!several!reasons!why!we!
believe!the!proposed!metric!is!an!example!of!the!type!of!measures!that!are!needed.!
Firstly,!the!form!is!sufficiently!general!to!apply!to!simple!one!dimensional!systems!or!
complex!multiYdimensional!systems!modeled!in!matrix!form.!Second,!because!the!
measure!is!unitless!it!is!easily!comparable!between!and!within!systems.!Third,!the&
metric&can&be&used&in&a&modeling&framework&where&the&vulnerability&
implications&of&future&environmental&or&political&scenarios&can&be&evaluated&and&
the&uncertainties&can&be&incorporated.!Fourth,!the!proposed!measure!allows!
researchers!to!analyze!four!essential!aspects!of!vulnerability!independently—the!
state!relative!to!a!threshold!of!damage,!sensitivity,!exposure!and!adaptive!capacity.!
Finally,!the!proposed!metric!is!not!confined!to!a!particular!conceptual!framework!but!
rather!could!be!applied!to!test!and!compare!the!appropriateness!of!multiple!
frameworks!in!different!systems.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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The&AFF&necessarily&quantifies&people&in&order&to&assess&food&
policy.&
Luers,!AmyL.!"A!Method!For!Quantifying!Vulnerability,!Applied!To!The!Agricultural!
System!Of!The!Yaqui!Valley,!Mexico."!Global!Environmental!Change,!Vol.!13.!
November!30,!2002.!Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.199.4110&rep=re
p1&type=pdf>.!
To&apply&the&concept&of&vulnerability&in&policy`driven&assessments&researchers&
need&to&be&able&to&measure&it.!It&is&difficult!if!not!impossible!to&systematically&
identify&which&systems&are&most&vulnerable&and&why&without&some&criteria&by&
which&one&system&is&said&to&be&more&or&less&vulnerable&than&another.!However,!
defining!criteria!for!quantifying!vulnerability!has!proven!difficult,!in!part!because!of!
the!fact!that!vulnerability!is!often!not!a!directly!observable!phenomenon!(Downing!et!
al.,!2001).!In!certain!case!studies,!depending!on!the!type!of!stressor!and!outcome!
variables!of!concern,!the&relative&impacts&of&stressors&in&a&region&could&be&used&as&
objective&ex`post&measures&of&vulnerability.!For!example,!an!ex!post!assessment!of!
a!hurricane!might!use!the!number!of!stormYrelated!deaths!within!a!given!region!that!
experienced!equalYforced!hurricane!winds!as!one!measure!of!which!areas!were!most!
vulnerable!to!the!hurricane.!This&simple&approach,&although&useful,&is&not&easily&
applied&to&a&greater&variety&of&stressors&and&outcome&variables.!For!example,!if!
the!measure!of!wellYbeing!is!not!limited!to!just!life!and!death!(as!in!the!above!
example)!but!also!considers!such!variables!as!ecosystem!function,!average!income,!or!
human!health!then!defining!which!region!is!the!most!vulnerable!would!be!more!
subjective.!Is!a!population!most!vulnerable!if!the!decrease!in!average!income!is!the!
highest!immediately!after!the!hurricane?!However,!what!if!one!year!after!the!
hurricane!the!community!with!the!least!overall!drop!in!income!has!still!not!recovered!
but!the!community!whose!income!initially!dropped!the!most!had!recovered!
completely—which!was!most!vulnerable!to!the!hurricane?!The&situation&is&even&
more&complicated&when&assessments&are&extended&from&discrete&stressors!such!
as!a!hurricane!to&gradual&and&continual&stresses!such!as!climate!change.!
Champion)Briefs)
422&
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The&most&widely&accepted&definition&of&food&security&is&
market&oriented.&
Sachs,!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!
Crafting!A!New!Vision."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!November!30,!2002.!
Web.!February!07,!2015.!
<http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.
pdf>.!
In!1996,!the&Food&and&Agriculture&Organization&of&the&United&Nations&(FAO)&
established&at&its&World&Food&Summit&the&most&widely&agreed&definition&of&food&
security:&“Food&security,&at&the&individual,&household,&national,&regional&and&
global&levels&[is&achieved]&when&all&people,&at&all&times,&have&physical&and&
economic&access&to&sufficient,&safe&and&nutritious&food&to&meet&their&dietary&
needs&and&food&preferences&for&an&active&and&healthy&life.”&Food&security&goes&
substantially&beyond&adequate&global&level&production&to&include&a&deeper&
understanding&of&different&aspects&of&food&security.&However,&as&Fairbairn&
(2012)&has&pointed&out,&this&concept&of&food&security&emphasizes&market&
orientation&over&state&intervention&that&is&consistent&with&neoliberal&ideology.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
423&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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March/April&2015&
Globalization&and&industrialization&increase&challenges&for&
food&security.&
Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And!
Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,!
2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.!
The&political&and&policy&importance&of&food&security&has&intensified&in&the&early&
21st&century&with&the&unfolding&of&inter`related&crises&including&natural&
disasters,&pronounced&food&price&spikes!starting!in!2007e2008,!food&shortages&
and&related&civil&unrest&in!various!parts!of!the!world!(Lawrence!et!al.,!2010).!
McDonald!(2010)!details!now!familiar&drivers&of&climate&change,&population&
increase,&new&technologies,&and&shifting&consumption&preferences&that&
interconnect&globally&and&combine&to&produce&distinct&and&growing&food&security&
challenges.!The&current&structures,&flows&and&externalities&of&an&increasingly&
globalized,&productivist&food&system!are&seen&to&result&in&new&nutritional&
challenges!(not!only!malnutrition!or!hunger,!although!they!remain!critical),!to!
contribute!to!threatening!patterns!of!global!environmental!change!and!to!increase!the!
likelihood!and!magnitude!of!food!safety!crises.!From!this!perspective,!increased&
industrialization!and!tightly!coupled!links!within!a!more!globalized!food!system!
will!generate&other&social&and&environmental&problems&that&then&amplify&and&
extend&the&problem&of&food&insecurity.!The&character&and&scale&of&the&global&food&
system&create&conditions&that&can&exacerbate&food&security&itself&and&contribute&
to&a&wider&set&of&human,&national&and&international&security&challenges,!ranging!
from!migration!and!refugee!crises!to!conflict!management!and!peaceYkeeping!
operations!to!disaster!response!and!recovery!(McDonald,!2010).!Thus!construed,!the&
present&and&growing&challenges&of&food&security&affect&increasing&numbers&of&
people&worldwide,!either!directly!or!indirectly.!Food&security&has&become&a&more&
resonant&and&urgent&public&issue,&arguably&more&entangled&with&social,&political&
and&environmental&problems&at&multiple&scales&in&our&era&than&in&the&
past!(Falcon!and!Naylor,!2005;!PinstrupYAndersen,!2009).!
Champion)Briefs)
424&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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Food&security&furthers&a&neoliberal&agenda.&
Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And!
Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,!
2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.!
Food&security&thus&demonstrates&a&discursive&fungibility&that&corresponds&to&
changes&in&the&global&political&economy,&national&politics&and&social&
movements!(Maxwell,!1996).!For!example,!food!security!for!both!the!FAO!and!the!
World!Bank!evolved!from!an!emphasis!on!assuring!national!food!supply,!even!national!
food!selfsufficiency!in!the!1970s!to!the!prevailing!neoliberal!focus!on!individual!and!
household!choices!and!preferences!in!the!context!of!globalizing!markets!(Jarosz,!
2011).!Thus&aligned&with&poverty&alleviation&and&effective&market&demand,&food&
security&squares&with&neoliberal&agendas&centered&on&market&solutions&and&
constitutes&at&best&a&reformist&project!(HoltYGiménez!and!Shattuck,!2011).!
MacMillan!and!Dowler’s!(2012)!examination!of!the!shifting!historical!discourses!and!
current!imperatives!surrounding!food!security!in!the!UK!underscores!the!fungibility,!
expansiveness!and!importance!of!the!concept,!noting!that!renewed&UK&interest&in&
national&food&security&reveals&the&influence&of&international&policies’&neoliberal&
tendencies,&but&also&possible&openings&for&addressing&sustainability&and&social&
justice&concerns.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
425&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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March/April&2015&
The&need&for&food&security&is&driven&by&the&need&to&control&
population&and&manage&citizens.&
Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And!
Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,!
2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.!
Two&of&the&three&food&security&collective&action&frames&examined&by!Mooney!and!
Hunt!(2009)!invoke,&respectively,&hunger&and&community.!These!two!map!to!wellY
established!meanings!in!formal!definitions!and!informal!discourse!about!food!
security,!especially!in!the!recent!U.S.!context!(Anderson!and!Cook,!1999;!Bellows!and!
Hamm,!2002;!Allen,!2007).!Mooney!and!Hunt’s!(2009)!proposal!of!a!third!food!
security!collective!action!frame!centered!on!risk!reinstates!concern!about!food!supply!
and!the!assured!availability!of!safe,!adequate!and!nourishing!food.!As!presented!by!
Mooney!and!Hunt!(2009),!a&food&security&risk&frame&acknowledges&the&problems&
that&may&be&inherent&to&the&organization&and&operation&of&tightly&coupled,&
industrialized&global&food&supply&chains.&Such&supply&chains&are&associated&with&
the&very&“high&technology,&capital`intensive&food&system”&that&“flat&keyed”&
hunger&framing&has&promoted&as&a&way&to&increase&food&production&and&
availability&(Mooney!and!Hunt,!2009:!482).&Large`scale&food&safety&“accidents”&as&
well&as&intentional&terrorist&attacks&on&agricultural&resources&or&food&supply&are&
now&recognized&as&food&security&risks&of&highly&centralized&food&supply&systems.!
Both!have!the!potential!to!become!dramatic,!engulfing!socioYtechnical!(and!public!
health)!crises!once!they!are!recognized,!and!could!make!safe!food!suddenly!scarce.!
Mooney!and!Hunt!(2009)!say!that!the&prognostic&framing,!especially!by!governments!
and!business,!for&such&food&safety&and&agrofood&terrorism&“risks”&tends&to&be&
more&and&better&risk&management,&typically&through&more&technology,&new&
standards&and&regulatory&regimes,&and&even&tighter&systems&of&centralized&
control.!
Champion)Briefs)
426&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&is&linked&to&climate&change&and&terrorist&
threats.&
Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And!
Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,!
2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.!
!
Highlighting!risk!in!addition!to&hunger&and&community&clarifies&new&bases&for&
collective&action&regarding&food&security.!However,!a&risk&frame&involves&more&
than&the&specter&of&E.&coli&or&anthrax!stressed!by!Mooney!and!Hunt!(2009).!In!the!
21st!century,!a&food&security&framing&centered&on&risk&includes&not&only&sudden&
threats&to&food&supply,&but&also&slower`onset,&more&diffuse&forms&of&
perturbation,&as&now&evident&in&the&emerging&effects&of&global&environmental&
change&on&all&facets&of&the&food&system!(Ericksen,!2009).!Changes&in&global&
climate,!including!warming!temperatures,!and!more!severe!droughts!and!floods,!are&
challenging&expectations&of&crop&and&livestock&productivity&under&current&
farming&practices&in&many&parts&of&the&world(IAASTD,!2008;!National!Research!
Council,!2010),!and!politicizing!the!futures!of!rural!regions!in!new!ways!(Woods,!
2012).!Food&safety&crises,&terrorist&attacks&and&climate&change&processes&may&
differ&in&their&proximate&causes&and&threat&of&harm&to&human&communities,&but&
all&represent&the&de`bounding&of&uncontrollable&risks!that!Beck!(2002)!suggests!
now!characterizes!a!world!risk!society.!Precisely&because&the&implications&of&
increasing&climate&volatility&for&food&production&and&availability&are&complex&
and&poorly&understood,&global&environmental&change&now&enlarges&and&
intensifies&a&food&security&risk&frame.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
427&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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March/April&2015&
Post&9/11,&food&became&increasingly&securitized&by&the&US.&
Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And!
Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,!
2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.!
The&US&government&had&begun&to&study&and&address&threats&from&agricultural&
and&bioterrorism!well!before!the&9/11&terrorist&attacks!(Spellman,!2008).!Given!
their!magnitude!and!origin!from!offshore,&the&9/11&attacks&both&prompted&and&
justified&sweeping&new&government&initiatives&in&the&name&of&“security,”&some&of&
which&included&food&and&agriculture.!In&2002,&Congress&passed&the&Public&Health&
Security&and&Bioterrorism&Preparedness&and&Response&Act,!which!required!the!
Secretary!of!the!newly!created!Department!of!Homeland!Security!(DHS)!“to!develop!a!
coordinated!strategy!with!the!states!to!address!the!public!health!implications!of!
bioterrorism!and!other!public!health!emergencies”!(Endres!and!Endres,!2009:!
425).!Title&III&of&the&Act&addressed&specific&aspects&of&the&safety&and&security&of&
the&national&food&supply,&including&threat&assessment,&securing&food&processing&
facilities&and&distribution&networks,&detecting&contamination,&and&establishing&
response&protocols&e&in&short,&risk&management&for&critical&food&system&
infrastructure!that!Mooneyand!Hunt!(2009)!suggest&is&the&typical&prognostic&
frame.!Among!the!21!Homeland!Security!Presidential!Directives!issued!by!
the!Bush!Administration!(Endres!and!Endres,!2009),!Directive!9!in!2004&called&for&a&
national&policy&to&be&developed&and&implemented&by&DHS&and&other&government&
agencies&to&“defend”&U.S.&food&and&agriculture&systems&from&attacks,&disasters&
and&other&emergencies!(GAO,!2011).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
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NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&has&lead&to&a&more&authoritarian&government.&
Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And!
Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,!
2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.!
As!a!new!federal!agency!with!a!highly!charged!national!mission,!DHS&approached&
agriculture&and&food&through&strong&central&authority,!much!as!it!did!other!areas!
within!its!purview.!Yet!preparation!for!and!response!to!national!emergencies!and!
crises!ultimately!must!occur!in!threatened!and!affected!localities,!leading!some!to!
argue!more!generally!for!regionalist!approaches!to!homeland!security.!Caruson!et!al.!
(2005),!for!example,!note!that!the&U.S.&Homeland&Security&mission&on&critical&
emergencies&places&distinct&pressures!on!the!US!system!of!federalism,!and!suggest!
that!models!of!regionalism!would&foster&greater&intergovernmental&collaboration&
and,!in!the!end,!better&security&preparedness.!Such!tensions!between!the!U.S.!
federalist!system!and!food!security!planning!and!preparedness!as!a!facet!of!“homeland!
security”!are!evident!in!a!2007!Congressional!Hearing!of!the!Committee!on!Homeland!
Security!regarding!“partnerships!to!protect!the!food!you!eat.”!Speakers!from!DHS!and!
outside!food!and!agriculture!experts!debated!the!role!of!the!central!DHS!agency!vs.!
state!and!localYlevel!monitoring!of!agricultural!or!bioterrorismin!response!and!
recovery!(U.S.!House,!2007).!Although&raising&issues&of&scale&and&authority,&such&
debates&still&centered&on&how&best&to&secure&the&infrastructure,&operations&and&
safety!(i.e.,!to!manage!risks)!of&the&existing&U.S.&food&system&and&to&stream&
resources&and&coordinate&central&food&and&agriculture`related&Homeland&
Security&missions.&A&full&decade&after&the&9/11&attacks,&a&Government&Accounting&
Office&report&found&that&food&and&agriculture&“defense”&as&led&by&DHS&continued&
to&lack&effective&central&coordination&and&that&USDA&had&not&fulfilled&its&charge&
to&develop&and&implement&comprehensive&strategies&for&response&and&recovery!
(GAO,!2011).!
Champion)Briefs)
429&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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March/April&2015&
U.S.&securitization&and&food&security&are&intrinsically&linked.&
Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And!
Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,!
2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.!
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.!
Although!the!broad!Homeland!Security!mission!and!approach!remain!intact,!
government&acknowledgment&of&shortfalls&in&centrally`led&food&and&agriculture&
“defense”&may&be&telling.&Such&shortfalls&underscore&not&just&administrative&
inadequacies,&but&real&challenges&of&centralization&and&scale&as&responses&to&
food&security&risks.!Beyond!its!patriotic!urgency!for!many!when!first!introduced!and!
aside!from!the!growing!public!cynicism!it!has!since!engendered,!“homeland!security”!
also!prompted!further!discussion!about!the!actual!relationship!between!the!social!and!
ecological!organization!of!the!present!U.S.!food!system!and!genuine!food!security.!In&
the&wake&of&the&9/11&attacks,&anti`hunger&activists&immediately&urged&that&
“homeland&security&must&include&food&security”!(Mann,!2001).!Dahlberg!(2008)!
identified!centralization,&simplification&and&resource&intensity&of&the&prevailing&
U.S.&food&system&as&inimical&to&a&true&“homeland”&security&and&argued&that&the&
vulnerabilities&to&terrorist&and&other&threats&can&only&be&addressed&by&more&
regional&scale,&democratic&and&ecological&design.!Other!critics!have!advocated!
placing!local!and!regional!food!networks!at!the!center!of!Homeland!Security!planning,!
with!the!qualification!that!“a!balance!must!be!struck!between!keeping!regional!and!
local![food]!networks!autonomous!and!flexible!and!the!needs!for!national!
governmental!oversight!and!coordination!of!food!production!and!distribution!during!
an!emergency”!(Endres!and!Endres,!2009:!409)!In&its&implementation&and&its&
challenges,&the&distinctive&U.S.&construct&of&“homeland&security”&has&exposed&the&
importance&of&scale&as&a&strategic&response&to&food&security&risk.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
430&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&harms&global&south&countries&more&than&global&
north.&
Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And!
Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!08,!
2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.!
Trade&liberalization&has&been&a&hallmark&of&the&neoliberal&reformation&of&
capitalism!since!the!1980s.!If!agricultural!trade!was!liberal!during!the!first!food!
regime!from!the!late!nineteenth!century!to!World!War!I,!it!focused!on!national!
markets!in!the!second!food!regime!from!the!aftermath!of!World!War!II!to!the!late!
1970s.!By!the!1980s,!agriculture!had!become!the!most!inwardYlooking!sector!of!
national!economies,!and!national!agricultural!sectors!were!highly!protected.!One&of&
the&chief&discursive&tools&used&to&liberalize&agriculture!in!the!
1980s!was!“food!security,”!which&was&supposed&to&be&best&achieved&through&
trade&rather&than&self`sufficiency.!The!purpose!of!this!article!is!to!offer!a!critique!of!
the!notion!of!food!security!through!trade!as!promoted!centrally!by!suprastate!
organizations!like!the!United!Nations!Food!and!Agriculture!Organization!(FAO),!the!
World!Bank,!and!the!World!Trade!Organization!(WTO).!The!empirical!question!that!
emerges,!which!we!address!below,!is!to!what&extent&does&food`import&dependency&
help&enhance—or&worsen—food&security&in&developing&countries&compared&with&
that&in&advanced&capitalist&countries?!Our!hypothesis!on!this!is!simple:!the&more&
that&developing&countries&become&dependent&on&food&imports&and&exports,&the&
more&they&will&be&importing&the&“world&food&price”&for&the&relevant&commodities.&
Foodprice&inflation&will&more&adversely&affect&their&working&classes,&which&
spend&larger&shares&of&their&household&budgets&on&food.!We!offer!tentative!
corroboration!of!this!hypothesis!by!an!analysis!of!how!foodYprice!inflation!has!
affected!the!seven!countries!we!studied.!Clearly,!the&impact&was&much&lower&in&
Canada&and&the&United&States,&but&it&was&severe&in&all&developing&countries.!
Champion)Briefs)
431&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
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March/April&2015&
Food&security&is&neoliberal.&
Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And!
Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!08,!
2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.!
Philip!McMichael!(2009a:287)!has!argued!that!what!he!calls!the&“corporate”&food&
regime&has&led&to&“deepening&food&dependency&in&both&directions,”&that&is,&in&the&
“North”&and&“South.”!Using!longitudinal!data!from!the!FAO’s!FAOSTAT!database,!
however,!we&add&nuance&and&specificity&to&what&we&call&the&“neoliberal”&food&
regime,&and&show&that&its&food&security&can&best&be&characterized&as&“uneven&and&
combined&dependency.”!This!is!a!modification!of!Leon!Trotsky’s!(1934)!“unequal!
and!combined!development,”!and!indicates!that!states’&insertion&and&adaptation&
into&this&regime&are&based&on&their&different&stages&of&development!(quoted!in!
Morton!2011:3).!That!is,!we!wish!to!show!that!emerging&food&dependencies&under&
neoliberal&capitalism&are&not&parallel&between&advanced&capitalist&countries&and&
emerging&economies.!Rather,!the&former&display&mild&levels&of&dependency&on&
the&importation&of&what&we&call&“luxury”&foods!(which!invariably!make!small!
contributions!to!total!caloric!intake),!while&the&latter&generate&varying&degrees&of&
dependency&on&the&importation&of&“basic”&foods—very!“uneven”!types!of!
dependency.!Wealthier&countries&are&importing&high`value&and&high`quality&
foods,&while&they&are&exporting&mass&and&industrially&produced&cereals,&often&
the&product&of&biotechnology!(e.g.,!maize!and!vegetable!oils).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
432&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&is&historically&linked&to&the&spread&of&
neoliberalism.&
Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And!
Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!09,!
2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.!
We&can&trace&the&idea&of&food&security&back&to&the&1948&United&Nations&
Declaration&of&Human&Rights,&which&included&the&“right&to&food”!as!part!of!human!
rights.!The&term&“food&security”!as!such,!however,!was&not&articulated&until&1974&
and&it&did&not&come&to&dominate&official&discourse&in&suprastate&organizations&
until&the&mid`1980s,!once&the&neoliberal&reformation&of&capitalism&was&in&full&
swing!(Jarosz!2011).!From!this!time!on,!food&security&became&irrevocably&linked&to&
“trade&and&aid”&as&key&ways&of&making&food&available.&The&official&view&justified&
the&neoliberal&shift&from&a&supply`led&to&a&free`trade`oriented&food&security&
paradigm&relying&on&the&ideas&of&“balancing&supply&and&demand,”&
“differentiating&between&food&self`sufficiency&and&food&security,”&and&
“comparative&advantages”!(FAO!2006:1,!2003:35).!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
433&
NEG:&Securitization&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
World&Bank&study&justifies&neoliberalism.&
Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And!
Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!09,!
2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.!
Following!FAO’s!reconceptualization!of!food!security,!the&influential&World&Bank&
report&on&poverty&and&hunger&(Reutlinger!and!van!Holst!Pellekaan!1986)drew&a&
close&link&between&food&insecurity&and&high&levels&of&structural&poverty&and&low&
levels&of&income,&which&all&hinder&the&demand&side&of&food&security!(FAO!
2006:1).!Furthermore,&the&report&went&on&to&clearly&state&that&“there&is&no&
necessary&link&between&selfsufficiency&and&food&security”!(Reutlinger!and!van!
Holst!Pellekaan!1986:31).!Prior!to!the!1986!report,!the!World!Bank!had!already!drawn!
attention!to!the!need!for!identifying!costYeffective!ways!to!improve!food!security!
(Reutlinger!and!van!Holst!Pellekaan!1985:6–7),!labeling!food!selfYsufficiency!as!a!
costly!and!inefficient!solution,!and!arguing!for!a!free!trade!model!(3,!18).!Similarly,!the!
World!Bank!document!on!rural!wellYbeing!(Serageldin!and!Steeds!1997:16)!argued!
that!“only!with!stable,!integrated!longYterm!access!to!world!markets!can!countries!
comfortably!refrain!from!costly!food!selfYsufficiency!policies.”!The&World&
Bank&(2001)!insisted&that&“the&overall&benefits&of&liberalization&will&always&
outweigh&the&costs”&(2),&even&though&this&might&lead&to&negative&outcomes&in&the&
short&run&in&certain&cases.!!!
!
Champion)Briefs)
434&
NEG:&Worse&Food&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&stamps&can&lead&to&a&cycle&of&obesity.&
Dinour,!LaurenM.!"The!Food!InsecurityYObesity!Paradox:!A!Review!Of!The!Literature!
And!The!Role!Food!Stamps!May!Play."!Journal!of!the!American!Dietetic!
Association.!December!11,!2006.!Web.!February!05,!2015.!<http://ac.elsY
cdn.com/S0002822307016161/1Ys2.0YS0002822307016161Y
main.pdf?_tid=f0359692Yad09Y11e4Y8222Y
00000aab0f02&acdnat=1423122072_e400f4381bf6bd7f28279aedb8a47652>.!
The!relationship!between!the!Food!Stamp!Program!and!food!security!can!be!looked!at!
from!two!ways.!On!one!hand,!households&are&expected&to&become&more&food&
secure&after&receiving&and&using&food&stamps.!Conversely,!it&is&those&food`
insecure&households,!unable!to!meet!their!food!needs,!that&seek&assistance&through&
the&Food&Stamp&Program!(27,30)!as!a!potential!coping!strategy.!In!fact,!half!of!food!
stamp!households!were!food!secure!in!2004,!whereas!31%!were!food!insecure!
without!hunger!and!another!19%!were!food!insecure!with!hunger!(4).!The&food&
stamp&cycle&seems&to&affect&people&at&all&three&levels&of&food&security,!and!
households!may!transition!between!these!levels!depending!on!the!time!of!month!of!
the!food!stamp!cycle.!Still,!several&researchers&have&found&that&food&stamps&do&not&
ensure&consumption&of&nutritionally&adequate&diets!(39),!nor&do&levels&of&food&
insecurity&differ&between&food&stamp&participants&and&nonparticipants!(40,41).!
The!inability!of!the!Food!Stamp!Program!to!bring!all!households!to!a!level!of!food!
security!(42)!may!be!a!result!of!insufficient!benefits!(33),!the!duration!of!monthly!
benefits!(33,34,41,42),!inefficient!household!budget!management!(34,41),!and/or!
inadequate!nutrition!education!(41).!
!!
!!!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
435&
NEG:&Worse&Food&NC&
&
March/April&2015&
Food&security&does&not&help&farmers.&
McMichael,!Phil.!"Food!Security!Politics!And!The!Millennium!Development!Goals."!
Third!World!Quarterly.!January!01,!2011.!Web.!February!09,!2015.!
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21591303>.!
Paradoxically&rising&food&prices&do&not&provide&sufficient&commercial&stimuli&for&
small&farmers,&despite&FAO&suggestions&that&rural&households&producing&food&
staples&traded&internationally&could&benefit&from&rising&food&prices.46!
Rather,!the&World&Bank&reports&that,&because&farmers&tend&not&to&seek&such&
market&rewards&because&of&fertiliser&and&fuel&inflation,&in&addition&to&previous&
commitments&to&sell&harvests&at&fixed&rates,&and/or&that,&because&farmers&in&
poor&regions&self`consume&more&of&their&own&output,&their&gains&from&price&
increases&are&marginal.47!Another!World!Bank!report,!based!on!a!survey!of!1000!
households!in!nine!lowYincome!countries,!noted!that!poor!people!are!particularly!
vulnerable!to!staple!food!price!rises,!given!the!greater!share!of!staple!foods!in!their!
expenditure!patterns.48!Further,!an!IFAD!report!on!the!impact!of!the!food!crisis!on!
the!rural!poor!notes!that!not!only!are!they!becoming!poorer,!but!also,!as!producers,!
they!are!responding!either!by!withdrawing!from!the!market!and!reverting!to!lowY
input,!lowYoutput!production!for!home!consumption,!or,!where!they!have!the!
resources,!by!shifting!into!higherYvalue!marketYoriented!production,!as!a!means!to!
earn!the!income!to!assure!their!own!food!security.49!Either!way!this&means&that&
poor&and/&or&small&farmers’&choices&do&not&at&the&moment&include!(having!the!
public!support!for)!producing&food&for&domestic&markets&under&the&auspices&of&
national&food&security&programmes.!
!
!
Champion)Briefs)
436&