15
Golf Course Maintenance
This chapter was written and contributed by Kevin Frank, Ph.D., Turf
Extension Specialist, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
FOR MANY CLUBS, the golf course ranks among the members’ top concerns. The
course may be the reason that they joined the club and maintain their membership. A golf course must be properly maintained, or else the members are unhappy
and the general manager/chief operating oﬃcer (GM/COO) will hear about it. The
golf course maintenance budget is often one of the higher expenses at a club.
The care and feeding of the golf course falls to the greens and grounds department, usually headed up by a golf course superintendent. It is this department
that plants, fertilizes, waters, and cuts the grass, laboring to keep it healthy and a
fine playing surface. The skills needed range from a thorough understanding of
turfgrass to budgeting to equipment maintenance and repair to a commitment to
environmental protection.
Greens and Grounds Department
The GM/COO will need to have good communication with the golf course superintendent. The manager should be aware of what occurs on the golf course, as
members will often comment on or question an activity. The manager should have
a working knowledge of what has transpired or will be transpiring to be able to
answer questions intelligently.
The superintendent generally works in a remote location separated from the
clubhouse. Following up on paperwork and ensuring the members are kept informed
of changing golf course conditions via postings on bulletin boards, e-mails, or the
club’s newsletter helps to keep everyone satisfied. The club manager should help
the golf course superintendent in the administration area. In addition, the manager
must ensure the superintendent is in compliance with OSHA and other environmental regulations.
While it is the golf course superintendent who cares for and maintains the
golf course, the GM/COO must be able to work closely and cooperatively with him
or her. Mutual respect and knowledge develops between managers and superintendents. The GM/COO needs to support the superintendent and have an understanding of many issues aﬀecting the course. These include:
•
Water. The superintendent must have a sound water management program.
The water hazards and lakes each require maintenance, and the grass must
be kept green. Golf course superintendents need to be able to reduce the
529
530 Chapter 15
potential for water contamination by managing the chemicals they use. In
many areas of the country, water conservation is also an issue. Clubs need to
examine changing irrigation amounts and intervals, using eﬄuent water and
wetting agents on the greens.
•
Pesticides. Few, if any, courses could provide the quality of greens that members demand without the use of some pesticides and fertilizers. Primary concerns of the manager include ensuring that pesticides are stored safely. Clubs
should install a concrete floor in their storage shed and make sure there is
good ventilation and that pesticides are separated by group. Other things the
GM/COO can do are to make sure the superintendent has a spill cleanup procedure and inspect the containers often.
•
Recycling and waste disposal. The most common waste products that superintendents must decide whether to recycle or dispose of include grass clippings, pesticide rinsate, batteries, motor oil, and solvents. Grass clippings can
be “recycled” by spreading them along roughs and around trees. Batteries
can be turned over to a company that recycles them. Pesticide rinsate can be
recycled in the field, but only if done in the proper doses.
•
Wetlands. Proper golf course management can help protect and sustain existing wetlands. Golf courses provide large recharge areas that help supply wetlands with water and filter the water to help purify it before entering wetland areas. Also, golf courses help erosion control and serve as buﬀer zones
between urban environments and wetland areas.
•
Equipment. The equipment that the grounds crew has will often determine
how well the course is kept up. Some basic utility vehicles include oﬀ-road
vehicles, all-terrain vehicles, and on-road vehicles. Two other major pieces of
equipment are the mower and the tractor.
Golf Course Superintendent
Aesthetics are the very core of the game of golf, and the golf course superintendent is the person primarily responsible for the playing conditions. This individual may carry the title of golf course superintendent, greens superintendent,
golf course manager, or director of golf operations. Superintendents manage all
golf playing areas and the surrounding grounds, manage equipment and facilities
used in the operation, supervise the maintenance staﬀ, and budget and oversee
expenditures related to maintaining and improving the golf course.
The superintendent usually has a good working relationship with the golf professional and often will work closely with the chairman of the green and grounds
committee. The green and grounds committee oversees golf course conditions and
works with the superintendent on golf course landscaping, or beautification matters, or special projects. The green and grounds committee is often involved in the
budgeting process as well.
In most clubs today, the golf course superintendent will report to the general manager/chief operating oﬃcer. However, there are still a few clubs where
Golf Course Maintenance
531
The members of a greens and grounds department work on the course’s water management program. (Courtesy of Kevin Frank)
superintendents work in a triumvirate relationship with the clubhouse manager
and golf professional. Regardless of the organization, the golf course superintendent is the golf course and turf expert.
Exhibit 1 is a sample job description for a golf course superintendent.
Typical Functions. The golf course superintendent assumes responsibility for
managing and maintaining club properties, which may include:
•
The golf course(s).
•
Maintenance equipment.
•
The golf cart fleet.
•
Clubhouse grounds and landscaping.
•
Tennis courts, swimming pool, and other recreational facilities.
•
Open spaces, wooded areas, unused acreage, and areas outside the perimeter
fence.
•
A sod farm and nursery.
•
Other properties.
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Exhibit 1
Golf Course Superintendent Job Descriptions
I. Position
Golf Course Superintendent
II. Related Titles
Greenskeeper; Greens Superintendent; Grounds and Greens Superintendent;
Director of Golf Course Maintenance Operations
III. Job Summary (Essential Functions)
Manage and maintain golf course properties including golf course, clubhouse
grounds and landscaping, open spaces, and the equipment used to maintain
these areas.
IV. Job Tasks (Additional Responsibilities)
1. Maintains all grounds and course maintenance equipment according to the
club’s turf management program.
2. Schedules, trains, supervises, and evaluates all personnel assigned to
department.
3. Supervises all planting, fertilizing, care, and removal of turf, plants, shrubs,
trees, and other facilities on the golf course.
4. Supervises operation of the equipment repair shop.
5. Records all maintenance on course.
6. Prepares annual budget for department; takes corrective action as necessary to
help ensure that budget goals are met.
7. Selects and prepares proper fertilizers and nutrients for all flora and fauna.
8. Develops and maintains drainage, irrigation, and watering systems.
9. Maintains course in proper playing condition.
10. Implements and enforces comprehensive safety program for employees,
members, and guests on course in compliance with local, state and federal
laws; implements and manages the club’s hazard communication (HAZCOM)
program.
11. Maintains accurate work records for all personnel in the department.
12. Communicates as necessary with golf professional to discuss conditions of
facilities, maintenance plans, and scheduled events.
13. Communicates as necessary with grounds, golf, or house committees or other
applicable committees.
14. Ensures that chemicals, petroleum, and other controlled products are used,
stored, and disposed of in accordance with local, state and federal regulations;
maintains required records and strives to minimize the use of chemicals and
petroleum products.
15. Attends staff and management meetings.
Golf Course Maintenance
Exhibit 1
533
(continued)
16. Attends turf conferences, equipment shows, workshops, and other educational
programs to maintain a current knowledge of technical and turf innovations and
changes that could affect the department’s operations.
17. Prepares and revises grounds manual.
18. Establishes short- and long-range plans for the golf course.
19. Oversees all course construction and maintenance.
20. Keeps members informed about current and future maintenance activities.
21. Conducts daily facility security checks, ensuring accurate inventory of equipment and keys.
22. Assists with snow removal planning.
23. Plans professional development and training activities for subordinates, including safety training for equipment use and proper handling of fertilizers, herbicides, and all other chemicals used on course; ensures that MSDSs are available in convenient location.
24. Makes recommendations for capital improvement and purchases.
25. Supervises road and roadside maintenance within the club’s grounds.
26. Ensures proper landscaping for property outside of golf course including the
clubhouse and surrounding areas.
27. Coordinates applicable work with outside contractors.
28. Inspects course regularly to evaluate and recommend improvements.
29. Determines if and when course should be closed due to weather conditions that
may damage the course if play continues.
30. Interacts with the golf professional to maximize the number of rounds played.
31. Conducts other appropriate tasks assigned by the general manager.
V. Reports to
General Manager
VI. Supervises
Maintenance Foreman; Pesticides Application Specialist; Irrigation Specialist;
Equipment Operator; Equipment Mechanic
In addition, the golf course superintendent typically assumes the following
responsibilities:
•
Construction, renovation, and/or reconstruction of such properties, whether
performed by maintenance staﬀ or outside contractors. In private club organizations, the superintendent submits written plans for course construction, reconstruction, or renovation projects to the green committee. Projects
534 Chapter 15
approved by the green committee are forwarded to the board of directors for
final approval.
•
Prepares the annual budgets for the maintenance and capital improvement
of course properties. The superintendent formulates the annual maintenance
and capital budgets in line with the long-range plan and defined maintenance
standards.
•
Interviews, hires, trains, directs, and supervises a staﬀ of employees for the
purpose of maintaining the properties. The superintendent has authority to
terminate employment of subordinates.
•
Plans all maintenance and project work, applying his or her agronomic and
administrative expertise to achieve the agreed-upon maintenance standards
and long-range goals.
•
Oversees the scheduling and routing of personnel and equipment to accomplish the work. The superintendent frequently inspects the golf course and
related areas to evaluate how well management standards are being achieved
and to implement changes in management programs.
•
Acquires equipment and purchases necessary supplies to maintain the golf course
and other properties. The superintendent is responsible for inventory control and
oversees the equipment-maintenance programs. The superintendent approves
all expenditures and exercises cost-control measures to keep, as nearly as possible, operating and capital expenses in line with the approved budgets.
•
Keeps accurate and complete records on payroll, inventory, weather data,
maintenance procedures, pesticide applications, etc.
•
Communicates regularly with other members of the top management group
to discuss activities, goals, plans, and member/customer feedback. The superintendent also plays golf regularly with these individuals, and in private clubs,
with the greens chairman. In a private club organization, the superintendent
attends all green committee and possibly board meetings.
Certification and Education. The Golf Course Superintendents Association of
America (GCSAA) sets the standards for golf superintendents. It is also the certifying body of the industry. In 2003, the GCSAA raised its standards for both membership and certification. “Today’s golf course superintendents are being challenged
by golfers and employers to produce at unprecedented levels,” the association
wrote, “and there is no reason to believe those demands will wane in the future.”
In order to become a Class A member of the association, superintendents have
to complete entry-level and ongoing requirements for continuing education and
service, earn tenure as a superintendent, and possess pesticide application credentials. The continuing education program has been developed around the core
competencies of:
•
Communications. Communicate with stakeholders, facilitate information
flow, manage conflict, network, and promote awareness of the profession.
Golf Course Maintenance
535
GCSAA Leadership Survey
Every year at the Golf Course Superintendent’s Association of America Education
Conference and Golf Industry Show, the GCSAA surveys superintendents on their
opinions on trends in golf and golf course management.
Some of the results from the 2005 survey include:
1. Which of these tools do you use to regularly communicate with golfers?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Printed newsletter
Electronic newsletter
Play golf with golfers
Bulletin board
Web site
Formal meetings
On-course personal contact
Other
61%
31%
53%
58%
44%
41%
87%
3%
2. In the past five years, have you added or subtracted wildlife habitat on your golf
course?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Added a significant amount (6 or more acres)
Added a small amount (less than 6 acres)
No change
Subtracted a small amount (less than 6 acres)
Subtracted a significant amount (6 or more acres)
14%
38%
42%
3%
1%
3. What is the most important piece of technology for your golf course operations?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Satellite weather report
Computerized irrigation
Internet/personal computer
GPS
Other
6%
64%
21%
1%
2%
4. In your opinion, how important is it for superintendents to play golf regularly
(twice per month in season) in order to succeed in their field?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Very important
Somewhat important
Somewhat unimportant
Not important at all
55%
32%
8%
4%
5. Which of the following is the most common complaint about golf course conditions from players?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
The greens are too fast
The greens are too slow
The rough is too thick/too tall
Bunker sand is too soft or not raked
Tees are in poor condition
Unrepaired ball marks
Other
6%
17%
17%
13%
3%
26%
10%
(continued)
536 Chapter 15
6. In your opinion, what is the single greatest challenge to the continued improvement of golf course conditions in the next five years?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
•
Budgetary issues
49%
Increased environmental regulation
7%
Labor shortages
5%
Water issues (quantity, quality, availability) 17%
Increased golfer expectations
18%
Golf behavior
2%
Other
3%
Leadership. Create a vision, determine expectations, empower staﬀ, engage
in continuous learning, establish a productive work climate, manage time,
promote ethics and values, solve problems, and make decisions
Golf Course Maintenance
537
•
Operations management. Conduct a safe operation, develop a crisis management plan, develop long-range master plan, manage ongoing programs,
develop and manage projects, document regulatory compliance, manage
finances, manage administration, and manage inventory and purchasing.
•
Personal skills. Balance work and family life, manage personal finances,
manage stress, and plan career development.
•
Resource use. Anticipate staﬃng needs, construct and renovate, handle hazardous materials, hire and fire staﬀ, maintain golf course and grounds, manage equipment, manage horticulture, manage soil, manage staﬀ, manage the
course to accommodate the rules of golf, manage turf, manage the irrigation
system, operate computer systems, train staﬀ, use fertilizers and plant protectants, and use water resources.
The certification requirements for golf course superintendents are more extensive than those for Class A membership. Members first must be found eligible for
certification, which means that they have:
•
Attained Class A membership status and maintained it for three years.
•
Earned five additional education points after attaining Class A.
•
Self-assessed their competencies.
•
Created a developmental action plan.
Certified superintendents must submit a portfolio of work samples, skill
statements, and case studies; pass a six-hour exam; and have their golf courses
evaluated by two other certified golf course superintendents.
Assistant Golf Course Superintendent
The assistant golf course superintendent is under the general supervision of the
golf course superintendent. This person directs and participates in the construction and maintenance of golf course tees, greens, fairways, roads, and paths. He or
she also supervises the maintenance and repair of motorized and other mechanical
equipment
Typical tasks include:
•
Assisting in planning, laying out, and supervising the construction and maintenance of greens, tees, and fairways.
•
Laying out work and supervising personnel and the use of equipment and
material in building greens, fairways, roads, and paths.
•
Directing construction work involving the use of equipment.
•
Supervising the repair and maintenance of all mechanical and motorized
equipment used on the golf course.
•
Instructing equipment operators in the operation and care of mowing and
other equipment.
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The Golf Course Superintendents of America released the following statement about
what a golf course superintendent must be:
•
•
Scientist—The golf course superintendent directs an agronomically sophisticated turfgrass management program designed to provide a playing surface
that meets the facility’s aesthetic and playing standards, while preserving the
layout’s environmental integrity. In addition to agronomy, the superintendent
also needs to know about entomology, soils, meteorology, chemistry, physics,
mechanics and more.
•
Environmentalist—The golf course superintendent must understand the complexities of the specialized golf course ecosystem and its interrelationships with
the surrounding environment.
•
Golf strategist—A golf course superintendent must understand the rules and
strategies of the game to provide a course that is fair and delivers the right mixture of challenge and entertainment.
•
Resource manager—The golf course superintendent masterminds the allocation of the facility’s resources—including labor, equipment, and supplies—and
serves as the project organizer and leader.
•
Administrator—The golf course superintendent’s administrative functions
include budget development, purchasing, cost control, inventory control, and
payroll—plus keeping records of weather, course conditions, and management
practices. In addition, the superintendent is responsible for achieving and documenting compliance with federal, state, and local laws and regulations.
•
Communicator/educator—The golf course superintendent communicates with
the course maintenance staff, other management team members, board of
directors, golfers, vendors, suppliers, professional colleagues and sometimes
golf course architects and builders. More and more, superintendents are being
called upon to educate community groups and media about golf course and
turfgrass management in today’s changing world.
Supervising and participating in the operation and maintenance of pumps
and in the maintenance of irrigation and drainage systems.
Assistant golf course superintendents need to have a working knowledge of
the construction and maintenance of golf course tees, fairways, and greens. They
also need to understand seeding and maintenance of the types of turf used on golf
courses, as well as the planting, cultivating, pruning, and care of plants, shrubs,
and trees. Increasingly important is familiarity with environmental matters and the
ability to properly apply fertilizers, herbicides, and pest control methods. They are
also often called upon to work with the course’s irrigation and drainage systems.
Golf Course Maintenance Foreman
The golf course maintenance foreman is also under the general supervision of the
superintendent or the assistant superintendent. The foreman assists in directing
and participating in the construction, maintenance, and watering program for the
golf course.
Golf Course Maintenance
539
Typical tasks include:
•
Scheduling, maintaining, and performing minor repairs on complex (automatic) irrigation systems.
•
Operating and maintaining well-pumping equipment.
•
Assisting in planning and laying out golf course construction and
maintenance.
•
Directing the work of golf course personnel as necessary.
Exhibit 2 is a sample job description for a golf course maintenance foreman.
Equipment Mechanic
At a typical golf club, the greens and grounds department is responsible for several hundred thousand dollars in equipment inventory. In this regard, one of the
most important positions within the superintendent’s staﬀ is the mechanic who
maintains all golf course equipment. The mechanic’s ability to maintain the equipment in good repair will be directly related to the length of service obtained from
the equipment.
Typical tasks include:
•
Inspecting, diagnosing, and repairing mechanical defects in automobiles,
trucks, sweepers, rollers, mowers, and other mechanical equipment used in
road and utility work.
•
Tearing down motors and performing general overhauling.
•
Grinding valves.
•
Repairing transmissions, diﬀerentials, carburetors, distributors, fuel pumps,
steering systems, starters, generators, universal joints, sirens, hydraulic systems, and high-pressure pumps and valves.
•
Installing and adjusting brakes.
•
Installing batteries, tires, wiring, and glass.
•
Some machining or welding work in making fittings used in automotive
equipment.
•
Occasional automotive painting or body and fender repair work.
•
Maintaining records of repairs made, orders, and time worked.
•
Occasional emergency repairs out of the shop.
Exhibit 3 is a sample job description for an equipment mechanic.
Light Equipment Operator
Light equipment operators work the light motorized equipment and trucks on the
golf course. This can include gang mowers, tractor-drawn mowers, loaders, dump
trucks, and portable pumps.
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Exhibit 2
Golf Course Maintenance Foreman Job Description
I. Position
Maintenance Foreman
II. Related Titles
Foreman; Golf Course Maintenance Supervisor; Equipment Operator Foreman;
Equipment Manager
III. Job Summary (Essential Functions)
Supervise daily course maintenance.
IV. Job Tasks (Additional Responsibilities)
1. Oversees and performs ongoing course maintenance activities.
2. Completes minor repair on equipment.
3. Operates and maintains equipment.
4. Maintains equipment inventory.
5. Trains personnel in ongoing course maintenance activities.
6. Selects, trains, supervises, schedules, and evaluates assigned personnel.
7. Maintains parts and supplies inventory.
8. Works with golf course superintendent to develop equipment purchase specifications.
9. Performs safety orientation and ongoing safety training for all department staff.
10. Monitors common repair and maintenance tasks.
11. Attends staff meetings.
12. Performs other appropriate tasks assigned by the golf course superintendent.
V. Reports to
Golf Course Superintendent
VI. Supervises
No supervisory duties are included in this position.
Light equipment operators need to understand the mechanical operation of
trucks and other motorized equipment as well as know how to use common construction and maintenance tools. Exhibit 4 gives a sample job description for an
equipment operator.
Groundskeeper
The groundskeeper, also known as the golf course section man or greensman, is
responsible for the care and maintenance of several designated holes on a golf
course. Each groundskeeper is typically assigned a specific set of holes to be
responsible for.
Golf Course Maintenance
Exhibit 3
541
Equipment Mechanic Job Description
I. Position
Equipment Mechanic
II. Related Titles
Maintenance Mechanic; Golf Course Mechanic
III. Job Summary (Essential Functions)
Repair all equipment associated with course maintenance department.
IV. Job Tasks (Additional Responsibilities)
1. Lubricates and services all course maintenance equipment.
2. Inspects equipment for operating deficiencies.
3. Repairs and adjusts equipment.
4. Maintains repair records on all equipment.
5. Trains maintenance staff in proper equipment maintenance methods.
6. Interviews and recommends applicants for maintenance staff positions.
7. Demonstrates use of new equipment.
8. Trains personnel in proper use of equipment.
9. Establishes and maintains safety procedures for using equipment.
10. Maintains safety records.
11. Trains operators in care of new equipment.
12. Performs general overhaul and other preventive maintenance on all equipment.
13. Maintains blades of reel mowers.
14. Maintains inventory of common equipment maintenance and repair parts.
15. Performs emergency repair work out of shop.
16. Undertakes body and fender work, fabrication, welding, troubleshooting, and
repairs to hydraulic and electrical systems.
17. Attends staff meetings.
18. Performs other appropriate tasks assigned by the golf course superintendent.
V. Reports to
Golf Course Superintendent
VI. Supervises
No supervisory duties are included in this position.
On their designated areas of the course, groundskeepers:
•
Operate powered mowing equipment in trimming golf course greens, aprons,
and tees.
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Exhibit 4
Light Equipment Operator Job Description
I. Position
Equipment Operator
II. Related Titles
Golf Course Laborer; Course Maintenance Equipment Operator
III. Job Summary (Essential Functions)
Operate and care for course maintenance equipment.
IV. Job Tasks (Additional Responsibilities)
1. Safely operates equipment such as mowers and pluggers used for various
course maintenance needs.
2. Maintains maintenance and fluid-use logs (gas and oil) on equipment.
3. Cleans machinery after each use.
4. Inspects machinery after each use.
5. Reports machinery and equipment problems to supervisor.
6. Makes necessary minor adjustments to equipment.
7. Loads and unloads materials.
8. Trims trees and removes cuttings.
9. Collects and empties litter cans.
10. Cleans gutters, drains, and culverts.
11. Waters plants.
12. Cuts grass, weeds, and bushes.
13. Rakes leaves.
14. Attends staff meetings.
15. Performs other appropriate tasks assigned by the golf course superintendent.
V. Reports to
Golf Course Superintendent
VI. Supervises
No supervisory duties are included in this position.
•
Water and fertilize tees, greens, and fairways.
•
Grade and prepare base, lay sod, and seed tees, greens, and fairways.
•
Change pins and tee markers.
•
Maintain ball washers, sand traps, and water hazards.
•
Repair and replace pipe on sprinkling systems.
Golf Course Maintenance
543
•
Install forms and lay walks, using gravel and asphalt mixes.
•
Spray chemicals on greens.
•
Rake and maintain sand traps.
•
Assist in the construction of new greens, tees, and fairways by grading, preparing base, and planting turf.
•
Operate dump trucks and other light equipment in hauling materials and
removing debris.
•
Trim trees, and prune shrubbery and flowers.
•
Cultivate shrubs and flowers.
Exhibit 5 gives a sample job description.
Laborer
Clubs will also employ a number of laborers depending on the season and the
demands of the course. These laborers will do everything from cutting weeds to
cleaning work to replacing sprinkling systems. They’ll work closely with the golf
course management to do any of the numerous tasks needed to keep the course
healthy and thriving.
Budget
The golf course department has immense fiscal responsibility to the rest of the
club. The average maintenance cost per hole of golf is $50,172, according to the
CMAA 2004 Operations Survey Report. The average cost of building a new course
was $402,440 per hole, with renovations running on average $75,112 per hole.
The first step in forming a golf course budget is to develop a standards policy. The standards policy includes how the golf course will be maintained. Is the
club striving to be the best country club course in the region? The country? The
world?
The standards policy should include input from the general manager, golf
professional, golf course superintendent, and greens committee chairman. Exhibit
6 shows a portion of a standards policy from Willoughby Golf Club.
Step two is to develop the maintenance plan, including such items as:
•
What is the desired green speed?
•
How often will cups be changed?
•
How will pests be controlled? This can be very specific with respect to individual weeds, insects, and diseases.
•
How often will fairways be mowed?
Formulating the maintenance plan will include an understanding of turf quality conditions. For example, will a certain level of disease incidence be acceptable
or will it be expected that no turf be lost from disease activity?
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Exhibit 5
Groundskeeper Job Description
I. Position
Grounds Person
II. Related Titles
Landscaper, Golf Course Laborer; Practice Area Attendant; Groundskeeper;
Landscape Gardener; Course Utility Worker; Section Person
III. Job Summary (Essential Functions)
Maintain golf course and landscaping around the course, clubhouse and other
club facilities, including parking lots.
IV. Job Tasks (Additional Responsibilities)
1. Trims trees; removes cuttings.
2. Maintains landscape beds around clubhouse and club grounds.
3. Rakes and blows leaves.
4. Prepares and lays sod.
5. Rakes bunkers.
6. Loads and unloads materials.
7. Repairs and maintains driving range tees.
8. Cleans equipment used in practice area.
9. Operates walk-behind equipment.
10. Aerifies and spikes greens.
11. Helps with drainage projects.
12. Empties garbage cans.
13. Attends staff meetings.
14. Performs other appropriate tasks assigned by the maintenance foreman.
V. Reports to
Maintenance Foreman
VI. Supervises
No supervisory duties are included in this position.
Once the maintenance plan is in place, the actual budgeting process begins.
The budget consists of:
•
A written maintenance plan based on the standards policy.
•
A maintenance department organization chart, including the chain of command and who reports to whom.
Golf Course Maintenance
Exhibit 6
545
Standards of Playability Policy
The Willoughby Green Committee, including the Golf Course Superintendent, Golf
Professional and General Manager, has developed specific Standards of Playability
for our golf course. These standards have been reviewed by a cross-section of the
membership at large, and we are grateful for their contributions to the final product.
The Standards reflect the Willoughby membership’s expectations as to the maintenance and conditioning of our golf course. Our over-riding objective is to properly
care for and enhance our most valuable asset and to provide Members and guests
with excellent playing conditions on a continual basis within an appropriate budget.
The Board of Directors has adopted these Standards as a guideline for the performance expectations of the Golf Maintenance Department.
The Standards of Playability set forth herein become the basis upon which the Golf
Course Superintendent will establish or re-establish written guidelines for daily,
weekly and monthly course maintenance procedures. These Standards and maintenance guidelines will be used to develop the annual Operating and Capital budgets.
The following Standards of Playability include an overview of key maintenance
procedures used to achieve the Standards:
TEES
•
Cut to a height of between 1/3 and 1/2 inch three to five days per week depending on growing conditions.
•
Have a dense turf stand and smooth surfaces.
•
Weed free.
•
Divots filled by the maintenance staff three to four days per week.
•
Tee markers are moved daily, to create interesting and challenging holes, and
are to be placed in a location that is perpendicular to the target.
•
Members are expected to dispose of whole and broken tees to prevent damage
to mower blades.
•
Trash containers are emptied daily and ball washers cleaned once per week.
•
Hole-marker areas are trimmed monthly.
•
Verticut and hollow-tine aerified three times during the summer months.
•
Over-seeded during winter months with Poa trivialis.
•
Fertilized approximately every two months.
Source: Club Operations and Performance Review, Premier Club Services, Club Managers Association
of America.
•
A staﬃng chart with job descriptions, including how many staﬀ members are
needed to conduct maintenance activities and how many hours they typically
will work.
•
Descriptions of each category in the budget.
•
A spreadsheet chart with category items down the x axis and months down
the y axis.
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Exhibit 7 Sample Budget for Replacement of Golf Course Maintenance
Equipment
Golf Course Maintenance
Utility Cart
$ 16,000
$ 16,000 Replacement
Walk mowers (4)
$ 31,200
$ 31,200 Replacement
Elec. Utility Carts (2) $ 16,500
$ 16,500 Replacement
Bunker Rake
$ 9,500
$ 9,500 Replacement
Metal Bldg 20' × 20'
$ 25,000 $ 25,000
TOTAL
$ 98,200 $ 25,000 $ 73,200
To house fertilizer (currently
in equip. storage area)
Source: The Moorings Club, Vero Beach Florida, Club Operations Manual.
•
Capital equipment purchases and repairs (see Exhibit 7).
•
Capital or special improvement projects.
Hand labor may be necessary for some golf course management practices. For
example, hand labor might be used to fight annual bluegrass infestations or to create a barrier between a putting green turf and the surrounding turf.
There are dangers in comparing golf course budgets as there are many factors
that will aﬀect the budget:
•
The number of golf rounds will aﬀect the budget. More players results in
more wear and tear on the golf course. It may be necessary to core aerate more
often. Other courses may need to reseed tee boxes more often.
•
Environmental concerns will aﬀect the budget. A club may be in a climate
where it will have to spray for disease more often.
•
Design elements may require certain maintenance practices such as fly
mowing.
The amount of money available to maintain the golf course will aﬀect the turf
conditioning and the product that the club presents.
Equipment
Eﬃcient, properly maintained equipment is an important component in modern
golf course maintenance. To properly groom and maintain golf course conditions
at an acceptable level, a variety of equipment is required. Often, inventories will
include makes and models of equipment spanning many years and very high dollar amounts. The average annual expenditure for golf course maintenance equipment according to the CMAA 2004 Operations Survey Report is $118,410. A wellrun golf course maintenance operation will have dated inventories and planned
replacement schedules.
Golf Course Maintenance
547
The golf course superintendent is responsible for a wide array of turf care equipment
that the department depends upon to maintain a healthy course. (Courtesy of Kevin Frank)
Equipment can include:
•
Mowing equipment, including multiple riding mowers for fairways or greens,
various types of walking mowers, and special rough or trimming mowers.
•
Tractors and trucks, including utility trucks (often with trailer attachments),
pickup trucks, backhoes, dump trucks, or jeeps for snow plowing.
•
Sprayers and spreaders, including high-volume tractor-mounted sprayers, drop
spreaders, mist sprayers, and foggers.
•
Hand tools, including shovels, spades, post hole diggers, rakes, edgers,
weedeaters, shears, sickles, and brooms.
•
General maintenance equipment, including verticutters, rotary tillers, pumps,
aerators, blowers, power leaf sweepers, snowplows, power rakes, and topdressing machines.
•
Accessories, including hole cutters, cup setters, tee markers, and flagsticks.
•
Shop equipment, including plumbing tools, mechanic tools, and woodworking
equipment.
•
Communications equipment, including walkie-talkies, beepers, pagers, and cellular telephones.
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Turfgrass Management and Maintenance
The goal of golf course maintenance is to produce the highest quality turfgrass
conditions for playing the game of golf. Not only do members demand it, but
the elevated professionalism of golf superintendents demands it. Even the most
dedicated superintendent is unlikely to be able to produce perfect turfgrass all the
time—there are too many conditions that work against that, whether it is disease,
weather, or nearby trees. Other factors can include the number of rounds of golf,
the experience and knowledge of the golf course superintendent, and budgets.
However, there are many things that the superintendent can do to produce
high quality conditions for the majority of the time. This includes selecting the
right type of grass and practicing sound turfgrass management principles.
Turfgrass Species
There are many diﬀerent types of grasses. Wheat, corn, rice, barley, and bamboo are all classified as grasses. What makes turfgrasses diﬀerent from regular
grasses? There are three criteria that set turfgrass apart from other grasses. First,
turfgrass tolerates frequent, close mowing. If you mow corn, for example, it will
not regrow—it’s done. On putting greens it is now possible to mow turfgrass at
cutting heights as low as 1/8 of an inch or less. Mowing turfgrasses at these low cutting heights creates a very smooth, fast surface. Often, people that are not familiar
with golf will not believe that putting greens are actually living plants and not
artificial turf.
Secondly, turfgrass forms a contiguous or dense surface. This density allows
golfers to play the game of golf and to have putts roll smoothly on greens.
Finally, turfgrass can withstand a great deal of traﬃc. This might be the most
important property of turfgrass. If it did not possess this characteristic, it would
be only a matter of time before golf courses would have to be closed and reestablished. Turfgrass has the ability to creep and regrow over damage from divots in
fairways, ball marks on greens, and cart traﬃc all over the golf course.
Grasses are typically divided into two categories: cool season grasses and
warm season grasses. It is a classification based on photosynthetic pathway, that
is, how the plant makes food. Cool season grasses thrive at air temperatures of 65°
to 75° F, while warm season grasses prefer 80° to 95° F. Exhibit 8 shows the climactic zones in the United States where diﬀerent grasses do best.
Both cool and warm season grasses will grow outside of these temperature
ranges, but these are the temperatures where they grow best. In the north, cool
season grasses grow best in the spring and fall. Warm season grasses will grow
vigorously during the hottest portions of the summer in the south. Warm season
grasses will not survive in the north due to cold weather.
In what is known as the transition zone, it is possible to grow both cool and
warm season grasses. In these areas, the type of grass that is grown will likely be
determined by the position in the transition zone. The northern edge will probably
have cool season grasses.
Golf Course Maintenance
Exhibit 8
549
Turfgrass Climactic Zones
Cool Season Grasses. Cool season grasses grow rapidly in the spring. They are
somewhat intolerant of summer stresses and often enter dormancy when water
becomes deficient. Their growth increases again in the fall, and they may even stay
green throughout the winter.
Common cool season turfgrasses include:
•
Kentucky bluegrass.
•
Creeping bentgrass.
•
Poa annua (annual bluegrass).
•
Tall fescue.
•
Fine fescue.
•
Perennial ryegrass.
Kentucky bluegrass is a widely used cool season turfgrass. It has been used
on fairways in dry, northern climates and with new cultivars that are called lowmowing tolerant or dwarf varieties. It can tolerate low mowing, with mowing
height usually set at from 1/2 inch to an inch. Abut 20 years ago, it was used extensively on fairways and roughs but it fell out of favor because of persistent disease problems. It’s only been in recent years that the breeding of dwarf and lowmowing varieties with improved disease resistance has revived its popularity. It
may be used on fairways in northern, arid climates and is widely used throughout
the northern United States as a rough grass.
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Creeping bentgrass is considered a superior quality playing surface. It is
used on greens, tees, and fairways. It can tolerate very low mowing heights on
greens (less than 1/8 of an inch) and fairways (less than 1/4 inch). Golfers particularly
like this grass as it can make play like rolling a ball across the surface of a table.
The putting green qualities in terms of speed and smoothness of ball roll are very
appealing to golfers. These playing characteristics have caused many golf courses
in the southern United States to try to grow bentgrass greens because they are perceived to be a higher quality putting green surface than bermudagrass greens.
One of the common problems with creeping bentgrass is its tendency to
become infected with annual bluegrass (Poa annua). Annual bluegrass dominates
older golf courses in northern regions where moisture is plentiful and temperatures are cool. Many golf course superintendents work hard to eliminate annual
bluegrass as it produces seedheads—even under the mowing height—that can
influence putting green smoothness and may reduce turfgrass quality.
However, many golf course superintendents throughout the country have
learned how to grow annual bluegrass. There have even been major championships played on annual bluegrass. For annual bluegrass to achieve high quality, it
may require frequent irrigation and greater attention to preventive disease management and turf fertilization.
When annual bluegrass invades bentgrass, it starts to be a problem that is
challenging to address, and annual bluegrass may become a serious contamination problem in bentgrass five to ten years after it has been planted. Clubs that
can aﬀord a great deal of labor may send out grounds staﬀ to hand pick annual
bluegrass out of creeping bentgrass on a weekly basis. Plant growth regulators can
suppress seedheads. New herbicides are being developed to selectively remove
annual bluegrass from creping bentgrass. One such herbicide is Velocity, which
has shown great promise in selectively controlling annual bluegrass in bentgrass.
Warm Season Grasses. Warm season grasses typically grow more vigorously than
cool season grasses as they are deeper rooted. They are more tolerant than cool
season grasses to drought, heat, and wear. While most cool season grasses are
seeded, warm season grasses tend to be established vegetatively through sod or
sprigging. When the temperatures get low, the grasses aren’t as hardy and tend to
discolor.
Common warm season grasses include:
•
Bermudagrass.
•
Zoysiagrass.
•
Centipedegrass.
•
St. Augustinegrass.
•
Seashore paspalum.
•
Kikuyugrass.
Bermudagrass is a very aggressive turfgrass and the most common one in
the warm zones. It can be mowed from greens height (1/8 inch) to rough height (3
Golf Course Maintenance
551
inches) and has excellent drought and wear tolerance. Its growth stops when temperatures drop below 60° F. During this dormant phase, it shouldn’t be watered
lest the course turn into a bog. Discoloration occurs when temperatures drop
below 50° F, a problem for the northern areas of the warm zone. It doesn’t tolerate
shade well.
In warm climates that have cool winters, bermudagrass will go dormant. Many
golf courses will overseed with cool season grasses in the winter. Overseeding:
•
Provides winter color.
•
Improves winter and spring playing conditions.
•
Attracts golfers to the course, especially from the north where snow is preventing play.
Concerns with overseeding include:
•
Costs.
•
Uniform establishment problems.
•
Broadleaf weeds, ryegrass, and Poa annua.
•
Spring transition problems.
•
Fall establishment disrupts play.
•
Good irrigation system required.
Weather is unpredictable, making it diﬃcult to schedule overseeding times.
Zoysiagrass is often used in the northern parts of the warm zone. Due to
recent breeding eﬀorts, it is now producing outstanding turfgrass quality. It has a
very low cutting height and forms an excellent playing surface because of its finer
texture. It adapts well to a variety of soil and climate conditions and tolerates cold
temperature, shade, and salt spray fairly well. It is a turfgrass that grows slowly
but is extremely dense and chokes out weeds.
Transition Zones. The transition zone is the area of the country where it is especially challenging to grow turfgrass as extremes in both high and low temperatures may be experienced in one year. Characteristics of the zone include high
humidity and high temperatures. This zone extends through the central part of
the country and includes parts of the warm and cool zones. It is the most diﬃcult
region in which to grow turfgrass.
Every grass, including both cool and warm season turfgrasses, will grow in
this region, but none will survive indefinitely due to the extremes in climate. Disease pressure can be intense in this zone due to high humidity and temperatures
during the summer.
Golf Course Sections
Every section of the golf course has diﬀerent cutting and treatment needs dictated
by the necessities of the golf game. Many courses will even have diﬀerent species
of grass for the diﬀerent areas of the course.
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Each golf course is made up of:
•
Greens.
•
Fairways.
•
Tees.
•
Roughs.
•
Bunkers.
Note: Some of the following definitions were provided by the Golf Course Superintendents
Association of America.
Greens. The greens are the portion of the course where the hole, flagstick, and cup
are located. As it is the spot where the golfer putts to the hole, it is also often the part
they care the most about and will be most demanding about. The greens require
frequent mowing and golfers generally want it to be very smooth and fast.
Fairways. While the rules of golf contain no precise definition of fairways, they
are usually deemed to be the area between the tee and putting green. In terms
of maintenance, fairways are those areas of the course that are mowed at heights
between 1/2 and 1 1/4 inches, depending on the grass species and the cultural intensity desired. Fairways normally are about 50 yards wide but vary from about 33
yards to more than 60 yards, depending on the caliber of the golf course involved
and limitations imposed by architecture or terrain.
Tees. The tee, or teeing ground, is the starting place for the hole to be played. It is
a rectangular area two club lengths in depth, the front and the sides of which are
defined by the outside limits of two tee markers.
Rough. The rough includes those areas outside the fairways where the grass is not
cut as low. Some courses will have naturalized roughs where they mow very little
or not at all. Many courses will have a first and second cut of rough where the first
cut is higher than the fairway, but lower than the second cut. This area requires far
less maintenance than the other areas of the course.
Bunkers. Bunkers on golf courses were originally places where livestock found
shelter from the weather. They’ve become a hot topic among golfers. They complain that the sand is too hard or too soft, too wet or too dry, that the bunkers are
inconsistent.
Bunkers, though, are defined and designed as hazards—they are places where
the golfer doesn’t want to be. The answer to many golfer complaints about bunkers may be a referral to the golf pro—the pro who can teach them how to make
bunker shots.
That said, there are several maintenance challenges when it comes to bunkers.
Choosing the correct sand is not easy. Norm Hummel, a soil tester, says that “probably a half dozen sands in the U.S. meet the criteria for an excellent bunker sand...
of all the sands we test, we probably approve only about five percent and some of
those are marginal.”
Golf Course Maintenance
553
Golf course design often dictates additional bunker maintenance. Sod faced
pot bunkers are unique but often require rebuilding as the sod wall will erode and
collapse over time. Golf course design can create problems if traﬃc patterns are
directed over the edge of a bunker. There are some designs that dictate the golfers
walk near the lip of the bunker. This will cause erosion and throw sand onto the
turfgrass bank, which can burn the turf on a hot summer day. Also, rainfall can
wash out bunkers that have poor drainage.
Turfgrass Management Practices
The golf course superintendent’s job centers around the care of the course. In
this task, he or she is laboring on behalf of a very demanding clientele—the golfers who love the game and come in with very high expectations about the color,
height, and speed of a course.
One of the superintendent’s main jobs is to keep the grass alive. What kills
grass?
•
Pressure from golfers
•
Conditioning and environment
•
Budgets
•
Weather stresses
There are many things that the golf course superintendent can do to respond
to these pressures. Golf course maintenance tasks tend to center around mowing,
planting, irrigation, drainage, cultivation, top-dressing, and fertilizing. Superintendents are also under increasing amounts of pressure to speed up their greens.
Mowing. Mowing is necessary to keep turfgrass attractive and healthy. The mower’s blades should be sharp so that grass blades are cut cleanly, not ripped. Ripped,
frayed grass blades invite disease.
Cutting height refers to the distance above the soil line that grasses are clipped.
A bench setting is the height at which the bedknife is set above a firm, level surface.
This is generally the accepted measure for determining cutting height. Eﬀective
cutting height is the actual height at which grasses are cut. It varies from bench
setting, depending on the degree of thatch and floatation of the cutting unit.
Seeding, Sodding, and Sprigging. These terms refer to the way that grass is introduced and grown. Diﬀerent varieties of grass require diﬀerent methods. A seedling is a plant grown from seed and usually refers to a young plant. They are
planted in seed beds, an area of soil prepared for seeding. Sodding is the process
of laying down sod—already grown grasses that are rolled out with their root systems like carpet. Sprigging is the process of planting runners, rhizomes, stolons,
or vegetative segments of plants.
Irrigation and Drainage. All golf course superintendents are keenly aware of
the weather. Extensive weather tracking devices adorn their oﬃces or facilities.
554 Chapter 15
This grounds crew member uses a fly mower to cut the turf to its proper height. (Courtesy
of Kevin Frank)
Elaborate irrigation systems, often computer-operated, are also becoming standard operating equipment.
The living plants that make up a golf course require the appropriate balance
of water, sunlight, and food to flourish. Obviously, weather conditions aﬀect these
greatly. The amount of water supplied to the course through irrigation systems is
variable based on the weather. Golf course superintendents must become weather
experts to eﬀectively manage their irrigation systems.
The water used on golf courses can be an excellent investment in both economic and environmental terms. Irrigated golf courses generate millions of tourist
and property tax dollars for state economies. Many courses now use recycled—or
eﬄuent—water as part of their irrigation practices.
As a result of computerized irrigation systems and improved turfgrass varieties, courses can now use less water more eﬃciently to achieve the same level
of conditioning. Continuing research will provide even more low-water turfgrass
varieties in the future.
The GCSAA has identified several simple conservation eﬀorts, including:
•
Reading water meters monthly to monitor the success of water conservation
eﬀorts. Superintendents can compare usage to the same period from the previous year.
•
They will, though, have to take into account weather variances that can greatly
aﬀect the results of such comparisons.
Golf Course Maintenance
555
•
Watering at night or in the early morning when wind and evaporation are
lowest.
•
Washing all equipment and machinery by using a hose with a shutoﬀ nozzle,
and soap and water from a bucket.
•
Checking for plumbing leaks and malfunctions and turning oﬀ any unnecessary flows.
Many clubs will hire an irrigation specialist (see Exhibit 9) to manage the irrigation
system.
The ability to deliver and remove water from golf courses is crucial to producing excellent turfgrass conditions. Irrigation is especially critical in arid climates
that are prone to droughts. In northern climates, freeze/thaw cycles during the
winter can result in burst irrigation lines and increased repair costs.
Managing the irrigation system can be one of the most important parts of the
golf course superintendent’s job. According to the CMAA 2004 Operations Survey
Report, the average golf club replaces or updates its irrigation system every 15
years and the average country club replaces or updates its irrigation system every
18 years. Water is crucial to the grass’s survival. If an irrigation system is not in
good working condition, it will be impossible to maintain a healthy, green course.
All irrigation systems must take the following elements into account:
•
Rate of water loss through evaporation
•
Rate of water infiltration into the soil
•
Water-absorption capacity of the soil to which the water is applied
•
Depth of infiltration (usually related to depth of the topsoil)
•
Depth of plant roots
The supply or source of water can be one of the following:
•
The treated, potable water system of the club
•
A stored supply, such as in a lake or underground tank
•
A nearby stream or river
•
Eﬄuent (gray) water
A typical irrigation system consists of sprinkler heads or mist applicators.
Sprinkler heads are located at the terminals of a piping system. When the water
pressure reaches a certain point, the heads begin to spray water. Sprinkler heads
are, in general, pressure dependent; the greater the pressure, the greater the flow
of water and the greater the area of coverage. Three common types of sprinkler
heads are fixed, pop-up, and pulsating.
Mist applicators are similar to the other types of sprinkler heads, except that
the nozzle is designed to create a fine mist. Because the discharge nozzles of mist
applicators are smaller in diameter, they are easier to clog and thus require more
maintenance.
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Exhibit 9
Sample Job Description for Irrigation Specialist
I. Position
Irrigation Specialist
II. Related Titles
Irrigation Technician
III. Job Summary (Essential Functions)
Maintain proper irrigation on all grounds.
IV. Job Tasks (Additional Responsibilities)
1. Designs, implements, and maintains mechanical and electrical components of
course irrigation system.
2. Repairs equipment associated with irrigation.
3. Performs preventive maintenance on all equipment associated with irrigation.
4. Maintains complete records on all equipment maintenance associated with
irrigation.
5. Controls expenses associated with irrigation equipment and activities.
6. Maintains inventory of parts needed for irrigation equipment.
7. Irrigates all grounds as needed or scheduled.
8. Performs all record keeping relative to irrigation system, including weather and
rainfall data; assists in recording fertilizer and pesticide applications.
9. Grades and prepares soil base, lays sod, and seeds greens, tees, and fairways.
10. Attends staff meetings.
11. Performs other appropriate tasks assigned by the golf course superintendent.
V. Reports to
Golf Course Superintendent
VI. Supervises
No supervisory duties are included in this position.
When courses get especially hot, many courses will use syringing to help
cool the turf during the hottest times of day. Syringing is the process of applying
small amounts of water to help the turf avoid heat stress. It is sometimes as simple
as dragging out a hose and sprinkling the grass. The sprinkling is light enough so
that water is applied only to the leaves, not to the soil.
The flipside of water management is drainage. Golfers don’t want to play on a
flooded, wet course. Drainage is critical to golf courses in all regions, but especially
in those that receive heavy rainfall. Golf course superintendents have to manage
such things as tiles, culverts, and catch basin to remove excess water.
Golf Course Maintenance
557
Syringing the turf can help keep the turf healthy during hot, dry days. (Courtesy of Kevin
Frank)
Often new drainlines are installed shortly after course construction when it is
realized that certain turf areas are not draining well.
Excess water and moisture on greens can lead to black layers while dry areas often
occur on elevated areas of greens and can form what is called localized dry spot.
Irrigation and drainage systems should be observed daily when in use and
inspected monthly. Observers should make note of any sprinkler units that do not
seem to deliver the correct quantity of water (either too much or too little). If too
little water is delivered it can be a sign of clogged pipes or nozzles, partially closed
valves, inadequate water pressure, or other problems.
As part of preventive maintenance, the following should be looked for each day:
•
Pump problems
•
Leaks in the distribution system
•
Sprinkler heads not functioning
All control valves in the irrigation and draining systems should be exercised
semi-annually. Valves and control devices should be marked with an identifiable
code and special paint color. Their location should be documented for easy access.
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This turf is suﬀering from irrigation issues. Water has pooled under the turf and has
damaged the surface. (Courtesy of Kevin Frank)
Irrigation systems located in cold climates must be protected against freezing. To
winterize the system, it is usually necessary to remove the water.
Cultivation. Cultivation becomes an important part of turfgrass management
because the more a course is played, the more compacted the soil becomes. Compaction is the compression of soil particles resulting in loss of pore space in the soil
profile, resulting in a decrease in soil aeration. Compaction happens when golfers
walk the same path day in and day out. It happens from cart traﬃc.
There are three layers of turfgrass—the grass itself, thatch, and soil. The thatch
is living and dead plant material. A healthy course will have a very small amount
of thatch.
There are many things that golf course superintendents and their staﬀ can do
to cultivate the course and reduce compaction and thatch.
Core aeration corrects soil layering problems by removing cores of turf and
soil. It’s a mechanical process that creates more air space in the soil and promotes
deeper roots. Core sizes are usually 1/4 inch to 1 inch in diameter and are two to
eight inches long. The process cuts cores of soil from the turf and then replaces it
with sand. It helps to dilute the thatch.
Golf Course Maintenance
559
This photo shows a core aerator in action. Core aerators help fix soil layering problems
and leaves temporary holes in the turf. (Courtesy of Kevin Frank)
Aeration can be accomplished by:
•
Hollow-tine coring and tine sizing.
•
Shatter core aeration.
•
Hydroject.
•
Vertidrain.
•
Verticutter.
•
Spiker.
Golfers hate core aeration because it makes for a short-term disruption in play
with a very bumpy course. However, it is essential for the health of the turf. Clubs
can help ease the pain of aeration for their members by making sure they communicate the benefits of aeration and give members plenty of advance warning
through e-mails, newsletters, and bulletin board notices about when it will be taking place.
Topdressing. Topdressing is a prepared root zone mix (usually sand) added to a
turf surface and worked in by brushing or irrigation. Topdressing promotes better
560 Chapter 15
thatch control, improved putting quality, and soil modification. It is a method of
getting rid of soil layers.
The drawbacks to topdressing are the disruption of play, the cost, leaf abrasion, and finding the right material. Many older golf courses may have a deep
layer of sand topdressing that has been built up over years. These greens may
perform similar to sand-based putting greens.
Fertilization. Fertilization maintains the healthy appearance members have come
to expect from landscaped grounds and golf courses. Exhibit 10 shows a sample
pesticide/fertilization application record. Commercial fertilizers usually contain
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Nitrogen is the most widely used nutrient on golf courses. It helps control
growth by aﬀecting:
•
Shoot growth.
•
Shoot density.
•
Shoot color.
•
Root growth.
•
Disease susceptibility.
•
Stress tolerance.
•
Recuperative potential/rate.
•
Turf compositions.
Exhibit 11 shows a sample nitrogen application strategy.
There are also some organic fertilizers that are lower in nitrogen and less likely
to burn the grass. One popular organic fertilizer is Milorganite, which is made
from Milwaukee sewage sludge. This leads to one of the biggest complaints about
it as well—many golfers object to the odor. Golf course superintendents may have
to get creative about when they fertilize to limit golfers’ exposure to the smell.
Overall, independent university research supports the fact that modern pesticides and fertilizers used to maintain healthy golf course turf have been thoroughly tested and are considered safe when used according to label directions.
Green Speed. Green speed is a topic that almost all golfers care about. Golfers
rank the speed of the greens as one of the most important things to know about a
course. Why is it such an issue? Television announcers love to discuss green speed
during tournaments. Also, a club member may have just played in a tournament at
another golf course where the greens were speeded up for the two-day event. He
or she then wants to know why the home club’s greens aren’t like that every day.
Green speed is the rate at which a golf ball will travel on the greens. It is measured by stimping. The stimpmeter was introduced in 1937 by Eddie Stimpson.
The stimpmeter is a tool for greenkeepers who want to measure the speed and
uniformity of their greens.
Golf Course Maintenance
Exhibit 10
561
Pesticide / Fertilizer Application Record
Pesticide / Fertilizer Application Record
Plant Type: (circle one)
Turf
Ornamentals
Annuals
Hardscape
Other: ________________
Chemical Group: (circle one)
Herbicide
Insecticide
Read Label: (___) Yes
Fertilizer
Roundup
Animal Repellent
(___) No
Completely fill in:
Date and time (and duration) of
application:
Area or target treated and pest:
(Ex: Target—daylilies, Pest—deer)
Equipment and setting:
(Ex.: RTU shaker can, or Solo
backpack fungicide sprayer)
Formulation, lot number, and rate
(per acre, per 100 gal, etc.):
Total formulation added to hopper
or tank:
(Ex: Roundup, 2% solution, 8 oz
per 3 gal tank)
Amount of mixture used:
(Ex: canisters of deer away or 3
gal. 3 1-lb of Roundup)
Amount treated and location:
(Ex: 13 tee—all daylilies) use
back of form if needed
Applicator Name:
Temperature, wind, etc.:
Infestation severity:
(Ex: all daylilies on top of bank
eaten to ground)
(continued)
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Exhibit 10
(continued)
Protective clothing: (circle what used)
Gloves
Long sleeves
Coveralls
Boots
Long pants
Shoes + Socks
Hat
Respirator
Goggles
Dust mask
Face shield
Tyvak suit
Hood
Other: _____________________________
Cleanup: (how, what used, etc.)
__________________________________________________________
Application is: (circle one)
Completed
Incomplete—Schedule another time to complete
Office Use: ___________________
Record in File: ________________
3/2/05 Grounds Maintenance Department
Source: Farmington Country Club, Charlottesville, Virginia, Club Operations Manual, Premier Club
Services, Club Managers Association of America.
A stimpmeter is a 36-inch long piece of metal with a notched end to hold the
golf ball and a V-shaped groove for the ball to roll down. The ball begins rolling
down the stimpmeter when it reaches a 20-degree angle. The person using the
stimpmeter will roll three golf balls in one direction, and then go to the spot where
those balls finished and roll three more golf balls back to the spot where he or she
previously rolled. He or she then takes the average of all measurements to determine the green speed in feet and inches.
There are many factors that aﬀect green speed, including:
•
Mowing height.
•
Rolling.
•
Fertilization.
•
Irrigation.
•
Weather.
The Golf Course Superintendents Association of America has pointed out that
the quest for fast greens has serious consequences in terms of cost, environmental
quality and the long-term health of the green:
A healthy, vigorous green can be maintained at a very short cutting height
(as low as 1/8-inch) for short periods of time without serious consequences
Golf Course Maintenance
Exhibit 11
•
563
Strategies for Nitrogen Fertilization
Cool-season grasses:
Fall fertilization: Two-thirds of total N for the year in the fall
Spring fertilization: Avoid excess N, especially in late spring. At that time, stimulate color, not growth.
•
Warm-season grasses:
Spring fertilization: N sources tied to environmental conditions.
Summer fertilization: Control N availability for sustained growth without leaching
or run-off losses.
•
Cool-season grasses:
Summer fertilization: Three possible strategies for N:
1. Apply small amounts (0.125 to 0.25 lbs./M) of N from a quick-release
source during the summer when necessary.
2. Apply a slow-release fertilizer (1 to 2 lbs. N/M) early in the summer.
3. Moderately apply a slow-release source at the beginning of the summer,
then supplement with quick-release as needed.
Source: Mike Reese, North Carolina State University, Advanced Turfgrass Management course.
if it’s been prepared properly and weather conditions are acceptable.
Courses hosting tournaments often take months (and spend significant
extra money) to bring greens up to an ultrafast speed for PGA Tour players…. However, fast greens are extremely fragile. If you compared them
with human beings, it would be fair to say that their immune systems can
be very weak. They become susceptible to diseases and pests, and therefore may require more chemical treatments. Weather can also quickly
destroy the health of an ultrafast green. High temperatures and lack of
moisture in the air are deadly to greens that are maintained at very short
cutting heights for any length of time.1
The GCSAA points out that, while golfing associations and organizations are
investing millions of dollars in research to develop new grasses that are tolerant of
fast speeds, golfers need to scale back their demands. “Golfers should understand
and accept the limitations of these living systems we call greens. Golfers should
also heed the advice of superintendents who manage, nurture, and protect these
ecosystems. And finally, golfers must change their attitudes about the competitive
aspect of green speeds. They should, in the footsteps of Mr. Stimpson, strive for
fairness, not fastness.”
Communication with golfers about green speed can be the key to success for
clubs.
Trees and Turf. One of the more unpopular decisions golf course superintendents
make is the removal of trees. People see trees as boosts to the aesthetic appearance
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of the course, filters of dust that lower temperatures by creating shade, and wildlife habitats.
However, golf course superintendents also know that trees compete with turf
for oxygen, water, and sunlight. Many warm weather grasses have low tolerance
for shade. All trees and turfs have competing root systems. Falling tree limbs pose
a risk to golfers.
Trees can also limit air circulation or movement around greens, which can
lead to increased disease activity. Some courses will place large fans on the course
to help aid air circulation blocked by trees, but that’s a short-term solution.
Trees and turf in balance can create a beautiful golf course. Sometimes, however, trees are located in places they should not be. Sometimes trees should just be
removed, for both aesthetic and safety reasons. Root encroachment into greens can
kill putting green turf. Shade can inhibit turf growth.
Tree removal can often inflict an emotional toll on a club. Members may have
sentimental attachments to particular trees that may have been planted by a particular group or act as a memorial for someone. The GCSAA says that “the most
important part of a tree maintenance program may be communicating the reasons
why such action is necessary.”
Environmental Concerns
Clubs with golf courses must be concerned about many issues aﬀecting the environment. The club is the caretaker of a large amount of land and the environmental decisions it makes aﬀects the club, its neighbors, and the entire community.
The use of pesticides, the impact on water and soil quality, and irrigation
water usage are often cited as public concerns about the golf industry. GCSAA is
leading the golf community in working to correct public misconceptions through a
comprehensive eﬀort combining research, education, and communication. Inaccuracies about the environmental policies of golf courses could pose a serious thread
to the vitality and integrity of the game of golf if not corrected.
Golf course superintendents strive to implement sound environmental practices on their courses. The GCSAA cites several of these:
•
University and government studies indicate that, when properly applied, pesticides and fertilizers do not leach into groundwater in appreciable amounts.
•
Modern turfgrass management practices greatly reduce the potential for
leaching or runoﬀ into water supplies.
•
Pesticides and fertilizers are used only on certain portions of the golf course.
The rest of the property often consists of natural areas not maintained with
turf care products.
•
These areas can provide a home for wildlife and include a diverse variety of
native plants and trees.
•
Golf course superintendents are among the best-educated and most conscientious users of chemical management tools. Today, most superintendents
Golf Course Maintenance
565
have two- or four-year university degrees in agronomy, horticulture, or other
related fields.
•
Many superintendents enter the profession because of a love of nature and
the outdoors, and are strongly committed to conservation. A recent survey
shows superintendents give extremely high priority to maintenance practices
that do not have a negative eﬀect on the environment.
•
Most golf courses compost grass clippings and leaves, which reduces the
amount of waste in landfills. Composting is a growing and recommended
practice for golf course operations.
Properly maintained turfgrass provides numerous environmental benefits. It
can:
•
Produce oxygen (carbon dioxide exchange) and cool the atmosphere.
•
Prevent soil erosion.
•
Filter natural and synthetic contaminants from rainfall and irrigation.
•
Recharge critical groundwater supplies.
•
Provide crucial “greenspace” in urban settings.
In addition to turf-related benefits, courses provide other important ecological and community assets. Golf courses are key sanctuaries for birds and other
wildlife. They are disposal and treatment sites for wastewater. They are attractive
and environmentally sound “covers” for closed landfills and other ecologically
damaged sites. Likewise, many courses are oﬃcial wetlands preservation areas.
Some clubs open up their courses to members for non-golf recreational activities such as jogging, walking, and bird-watching.
On golf’s behalf, GCSAA has built strong and cooperative relationships with the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and other major regulatory groups. Through
governmental aﬀairs, professional education, and public information, the association strives to make environmental responsibility a basic precept for its members.
Many of the nation’s golf course architects now design courses that reduce
the need for pesticides, water, and costly maintenance practices while preserving
habitat and environmental quality.
Some of the environmental issues that managers of golf courses must address
are:
•
Water.
•
Chemicals.
•
Wildlife.
Water
The health of all courses depend on the ability to get water to the grass. Two of
the primary water-related environmental concerns are the use of eﬄuent water
and wetlands.
566 Chapter 15
An increasing number of golf courses are using eﬄuent water, a sound environmental
choice that brings with it its own management concerns. (Courtesy of Kevin Frank)
Eﬄuent water. Water is the most precious resource on Earth. Despite the amazing
ability of turfgrass to use water eﬃciently, concerns about conservation have led
golf courses to increasingly turn to eﬄuent water for irrigation.
Sometimes called “gray water,” eﬄuent water is essentially partially treated
wastewater from community sewage or industry. It usually is cleansed of major
pollutants, but still contains enough trace amounts of salt, minerals, and bacteria
to render it undrinkable.
In the past, communities often simply dumped eﬄuent water back into lakes
and rivers. But today, golf courses are being viewed as environmentally desirable
disposal sites for eﬄuent water. In fact, golf courses can serve as highly eﬀective
wastewater treatment facilities for this partially polluted water.
Dense, well-managed turfgrass areas are among the best filtration systems
available for polluted water. Thatch traps and holds particle pollutants in the water
and allows them to degrade naturally. The eﬄuent water that goes on the course
as irrigation is actually cleansed and returned to lakes, streams, and groundwater
supplies.
Although the use of eﬄuent water on golf courses poses challenges for superintendents who must cope with high salinity and other pollutants, golfers should
not notice any diﬀerences (other than an occasional early morning odor). However,
Golf Course Maintenance
567
because some wastewater still contains E. coli and other bacteria, golfers should
pay heed to posted warnings about contact with eﬄuent water that is being stored
in ponds or sprayed through sprinklers.
Wetlands. Many golf courses have been built on wetlands. They contribute to the
diversity of landscapes that make a golf course unique and interesting to golfers. However, many wetlands are also regulated and bring special challenges to a
club.
Many clubs will call in a wetland consultant whenever they are doing a
golf course construction or renovation project that might aﬀect a wetland. These
experts can help determine exactly where the wetlands begin and end—a boundary that may change from year to year. They use site surveys, aerial photography,
GIS maps, soil surveys, and national wetland inventory maps.
The three primary ingredients of a wetland survey are:
•
Vegetation. What types of plants are growing on the site? Are they the plants
typically found in wetlands?
•
Soils. Consultants will take soil samples and look for conditions in which soil
oxygen was limited by the presence of water for long periods of the growing
season.
•
Hydrology. This part of the survey measures the depth of surface water, drainage patterns, water marks on vegetation, drift lines, and soil deposits.
Special United States Army Corps of Engineers permits are required whenever doing any of the following to a wetland:
•
Utility installations
•
Stream relocations
•
Site development fills
•
Construction of revetments, groins, breakwaters, levees, dams, dikes, and weirs
•
Placement of riprap and road fills
Chemicals
Chemicals often hold negative connotations, yet without them, golf courses would
be far less attractive. The golf course superintendent and his or her staﬀ must
become highly educated in appropriate chemical use and precautions. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulate the application of chemicals. It is critical to the safety
and well-being of the golf course staﬀ that chemicals be used correctly. In addition,
one can lose or burn a golf course through inappropriate use or incorrectly diluting a chemical for application.
According to the GCSAA, pesticide production is one of the most highly regulated industries in the United States. Before a product is registered by the EPA, it
must be rigorously tested for potential human health and environmental eﬀects.
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This process can take up to 10 years and involve more than 120 diﬀerent tests and
studies. Today, manufacturers often invest up to $50 million in product safety and
testing before a new pesticide ever comes to the market.
The GCSAA notes that pesticides help limit the damage that can be caused
by insects, weeds, and plant diseases. Insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are
used very selectively to protect the health of turf, trees, and other living things on
the course. Fertilizers provide much-needed nutrition for the course’s plant life.
It is very important to note that pesticides and fertilizers are not used primarily
for aesthetic reasons. First and foremost, they are tools that help ensure a healthy
playing surface for the game. Furthermore, they help protect a valuable and ecologically important piece of land.
Virtually all golf courses employ at least one state-licensed pesticide applicator who is trained in environmentally sound pesticide use. Exhibit 12 shows a
sample job description for a pesticide applicator.
There is no scientific evidence that golfers face any chronic health risks from
the pesticides used to maintain courses. Once a liquid pesticide product is applied
and the turf is dry or the product has been watered in, there is very little chance of
exposure to golfers or others who enter the area.
Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary Program
Many golf clubs are making eﬀorts to practice environmentally sound principles.
To recognize and support these eﬀorts, Audubon International grants certificates
of achievement for conservation projects that golf courses undertake. The Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary Program (ACSP) helps golf courses—including private
clubs, public and municipal courses, PGA sites, 9-hole facilities, resort courses,
and golf residential communities—to protect the environment.
Audubon International will provide a site assessment and environmental
planning form to help a club take stock of its environmental resources and potential liabilities. The assessment is then used to help develop an environmental plan
that fits the course’s unique setting, goals, staﬀ, budget, and time. Audubon will
provide a site-specific report and help the course implement its plan.
Audubon will designate a golf course as a Certified Audubon Cooperative
Sanctuary after it meets standards in the following five areas:
•
Wildlife and habitat management
•
Chemical use reduction and safety
•
Water conservation
•
Water quality management
•
Outreach and education
Since the program began in 1991, more than 2,300 golf courses have become
certified as cooperative sanctuaries.
Golf Course Maintenance
Exhibit 12
569
Sample Job Description for Pesticides Application Specialist
I. Position
Pesticides Application Specialist
II. Related Titles
Chemical Technician; Chemical Application Specialist; Spray Technician
III. Job Summary (Essential Functions)
Select and appropriately apply all pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers associated with grounds and golf course maintenance.
IV. Job Tasks (Additional Responsibilities)
1. Inspects turf, shrubs, lakes, and other outdoor areas to determine pesticide,
herbicide, and fertilizer needs.
2. Applies pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers at appropriate times to maintain
excellent condition of grounds and golf course; documents all applications.
3. Selects suppliers, products, and equipment for such application and maintenance.
4. Purchases products and equipment as needed within budget limitations.
5. Maintains proper inventory of products.
6. Performs preventive maintenance on and keeps accurate records for all equipment.
7. Maintains safety records; performs routine safety training and emergency drills.
8. Keeps pesticide storage facility in a clean and orderly manner; secures under
lock when not present.
9. Maintains direct communication with golf professional and golf course superintendent.
10. Attends applicable training seminars and classes to maintain current knowledge.
11. Assists golf course superintendent with duties when necessary.
12. Maintains current MSDSs in convenient location.
13. Attends staff meetings.
14. Performs other appropriate tasks assigned by the golf course superintendent.
V. Reports to
Golf Course Superintendent
VI. Supervises
No supervisory duties are included in this position.
Wildlife
Other factors aﬀecting the golf course are insects and animals. Both hold the potential to damage the turf either by feeding oﬀ the grass and roots or by aﬀecting the
sod underneath the course.
Pests that negatively aﬀect golf courses can include grubs, sod webworms,
cinch bugs, earthworms, gophers, ants, mole crickets, and crayfish.
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Environmental concerns about pesticide led to new methods of pest management. One integrated pest management (IPM) method is to rotate the application
of pesticides on a calendar basis. The objectives of IPM are to:
•
Preserve natural resources.
•
Protect endangered species.
•
Always be aware of actions and how they aﬀect the environment.
•
Properly use pesticides and fertilizers.
•
Be aware of possible ground water contamination.
•
Enforce licensing of pesticide applicators.
•
Time chemical treatments more precisely at vulnerable pest stages and thereby
more eﬀectively and economically control pests.
Audubon International encourages golf courses to determine a threshold level
for the insect and disease problems that occur on a course. This is done by deciding how much damage can be tolerated and how large the pest population can
grow before it causes that level of damage. The superintendent can then establish
treatment methods that keep the pest population small enough so that it doesn’t
cause an unacceptable level of damage. Part of establishing threshold levels also
involves monitoring regularly for insect and disease pressures as well as keeping
an eye on weather conditions that favor the growth of problems.
Golf courses are also increasingly nurturing their role as a wildlife habitat and
active participants in wildlife conservation. This role can range from providing
safe passages for birds to naturalizing areas of the golf course.
Naturalization—in particular of golf course roughs—can help the environment in many ways. It helps to maintain diversity in plants and animals while
protecting ecosystems and ecological communities. It can improve water quality
and minimize erosion. It also maintains the gene pool of the wildlife and plant
species in the area, promotes stewardship of the environment, contributes to the
conservation of local wildlife species, and supports an aesthetic appreciation of
natural beauty. While these benefits may be a hard sell to some golf committees,
there are also financial and labor savings, including:
•
Lower maintenance costs.
•
Reduced equipment wear and tear.
•
Reduced need for gasoline, pesticides, fertilizers, and water.
•
Increased ability for staﬀ to concentrate where it really counts—the playing
surfaces.
There are several environmental practices that enhance wildlife and habitat management. Golf course superintendents take into account the golf course
location, size, layout, and any wildlife species and habitat considerations when
planning how to promote wildlife and biodiversity conservation.
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571
Preparing the Course for a Tournament
When a club hosts a tournament, the golf course must undergo special preparations.
Some tournaments have specific requirements that the superintendent will need to
meet, but all tournaments will require the course to be in top condition.
Jonathon L. Scott, CGCS, director of agronomy for the PGA Tour, offered these tips
to prepare for a major professional tournament in the July 1998 issue of Golf Course
Management in an article entitled “The Big Show.”
First steps
•
Serious and frank inventory of the golf course and its operational capabilities
•
Regular series of meetings with key club and tournament personnel
•
Contact with the tournament agronomist
Preparing your resources
•
Evaluate the maintenance staff and ensure there are sufficient numbers of
people
•
Evaluate the maintenance equipment, get loaners or lease equipment as
needed
•
Inspect the facility’s maintenance and repair center
Course preparations
•
Bunkers: Must be firm, well drained, free of stones and other debris, and promote fair lies away from the edges
•
Car and service paths: Should be at least 8-feet wide and composed of a
weatherproof surface capable of handling heavy loads under any conditions
•
Tees: Tee decks need to be evaluated for potential wear; Par 3s are especially
vulnerable; should be checked for excessive thatch that can lead to puffiness
and soft footing; institute a regular program of core aerification, verticutting, and
topdressing at least two months before the tournament
•
Fairways: Need to be relatively tight, firm fairways that maximize ball roll and
spin control; regular and frequent core aerification and verticutting should begin
as early as possible; fairway drainage also plays a major role in course quality
during wet tournaments; soil settlement needs to be systematically addressed
•
Roughs: Need to be inspected for problem areas that could affect play or spectator safety; thin turf should be overseeded and fertilized to increase density;
any potholes or depressions that could result in poor footing must be filled and
covered with turf; good rough will have a uniform height and density that will
allow a ball to nestle, but not disappear, into the turf
•
Greens: Inspect carefully and thoroughly to ensure they will produce a professional standard of smoothness and pace and also survive tremendous stress;
the greens’ root zone should show a clean, consistent profile with deep root
penetration; use aggressive corrective cultivation techniques; initiate or continue
(continued)
572 Chapter 15
an alternative spike policy on the putting greens right up to the beginning of the
tournament
•
Fertilization: Fertilizer programs are geared toward gradually achieving the
desired turf density and consistency about one month before the tournament
•
Pest control: Pesticides will be part of the preparation, but they will not replace
sound integrated turf management strategies
•
Course distances: Need to have accurate distance measurements around the
golf course
Final preparations
•
Greens speed: Take a series of Stimpmeter readings on all greens to determine
quickness and consistency; begin the process of greens preparation several
months prior to the event; may need mechanic to perform special grinding on
the bedknife of the mower and to maintain sharp reel blades
•
Irrigation: Examine irrigation practices in the final phase of tournament preparations; must have regular examination of the soil moisture levels
•
Rough mowing: Maintain tournament-height roughs without losing control; stop
mowing the week before the event then top the rough with rotary-type mowers
•
Striping: Mow stripe patterns into the golf course landscape; mow them either
crosswise or diagonally in alternate passes through the fairway to avoid negative ball-roll effects
•
Bunker grooming: Give special attention to bunkers the week before the tournament to ensure they are fair, consistent, and attractive accents to the design
features; perform handwork to firm up perimeters, smooth the surface contours
and remove stones and other debris
•
Divots: Make daily repairs to turf; go over each hole and dress divots with a
good, screened topsoil in the fairways and a sand-peat mixture on greens and
tees, along with a matching seed mixture
•
Rolling: Turf rolling is a standard practice during tournaments to smooth the surface of the greens for a more consistent ball roll; because it can create grain it is
best to hold off on rolling until the turf has reached tournament-mowing height
•
Cup cutting: One of the most important assignments just before and during
the tournament is cup placement; reserve space for tournament pin settings to
avoid wear and old plugs near the cup; repair ball marks daily and set previous
cup plugs flush to the surface with no scalping or settling; paint the cup rim
People skills
There will be numerous people that the club must work harmoniously with:
•
Tournament personnel: Advance teams for a tournament’s governing body, various office trailers and officials, volunteers
•
Television crews
•
Outside personnel: Subcontractors, corporate tents, vendor areas, portable
toilets, scoreboards
Golf Course Maintenance
•
573
Spectators: Place perimeter fencing and gallery roping on the course
Tournament maintenance routine
•
If someone connected with the event suggests a change in the maintenance
procedures, discuss it thoroughly with the tournament agronomist and the rules
official before making the change.
•
Drag a hose on fairways to remove dew in the morning. Fill the hose with sand
or water to avoid the appearance of ripples.
•
Be prepared to syringe the course if there is frost.
•
Be prepared for storms by having adequate equipment (pumps, squeegees, for
example) on hand.
•
Keep adequate staff on hand.
According to Audubon International, the following tasks can help superintendents make wildlife–related decisions:
•
Identify core habitats, such as mature woodlands, wetlands, or stream corridors, and special habitat concerns, such as endangered or threatened species,
on the property.
•
Train the staﬀ to understand that management practices may positively
enhance or adversely aﬀect wildlife species and habitats on the property.
•
Identify the dominant native plant community and ecological region in which
the golf course is located.
•
Maintain an ongoing written inventory of bird and mammal species to document and track wildlife use of the course.
•
Maintain natural wildlife habitat in at least 50 percent of all minimally used
portions of the property.
•
Connect small and large natural areas as much as possible to improve wildlife
movement throughout the golf course and from the course to neighboring
natural areas.
•
Maintain or plant varying heights and types of plants, from ground cover to
shrub and tree layers.
•
Maintain a water source for wildlife with aquatic plants and shrubbery or
native landscaping along the shoreline.
•
Naturalize at least 50 percent of out-of-play shorelines with emergent-aquatic
and shoreline plants.
•
Choose flowers or container plants that will provide nectar for hummingbirds
or butterflies.
574 Chapter 15
•
Maintain nesting boxes or other structures, when appropriate, to enhance
nesting sites for birds or bats.
•
Protect wildlife habitats and any endangered or threatened wildlife or plant
species from golfer disturbance. Use buﬀers, signs, or fencing as needed.
•
Establish and maintain at least 80 percent of the landscaped trees, shrubs,
and flowers, excluding turfgrass, with plants that are indigenous to the native
plant community of the ecological region of the property.
•
Purchase landscape plants from locally grown sources to support the genetic
integrity of local native plant communities.
•
Avoid disturbing known bird nests or den sites until after young have
dispersed.
•
Stake or flag such areas when needed.
•
Restore degraded habitats, such as eroded slopes, compacted soils, polluted
water sources, or areas overrun with invasive exotic species.
•
Confine roads, cart paths, trials, and necessary vegetation removal to the edges
of existing habitats to minimize habitat disturbance and fragmentation.
Endnotes
1. Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, “The Truth & Consequences of
Green Speed,” available on-line at www.gcsaa.org/resources/facts/greenspeed.asp.
Key Terms
bench setting—The height at which the bedknife on a mower is set above a firm,
level surface.
bermudagrass—A very aggressive turfgrass. It is the most common warm season
grass.
bunkers—Hazards on a golf course where the ball goes oﬀ the playing part of the
course. They are usually built with sand.
compaction—The compression of soil particles resulting in loss of pore space in
the soil profile.
cool season grasses—Turfgrasses that grow rapidly in the spring and enter dormancy when it gets too hot.
core aeration—A process that corrects soil layering problems by removing cores of
turf and soil. It creates more air and space in the soil and promotes deeper roots.
creeping bentgrass—A turfgrass that produces a superior quality playing surface.
It is a cool season grass.
cutting height—The distance above the soil line that grasses are clipped.
drainage—The process of removing water from a golf course.
Golf Course Maintenance
575
eﬀective cutting height—The actual height at which grasses are cut.
eﬄuent water—Also known as gray water. It is partially treated wastewater from
community sewage or industry. It is cleansed of major pollutants but still contains
enough trace amounts of salt, minerals, and bacteria to render it undrinkable.
fertilization—Feeding the grass with supplements that help maintain the grass’s
healthy appearance.
golf course superintendent—The manager in charge of the maintenance of the
golf course. He or she is responsible for the playing conditions.
Golf Course Superintendents Association of America—The association in charge
of setting standards for golf superintendents. It is the certifying body of the industry.
green speed—A measurement of how fast a golf ball will travel on the greens.
greens—The portion of the golf course where the hole, flagstick, and cup are
located.
irrigation—The ability to deliver and remove water from courses.
Kentucky bluegrass—Used to be one of the more common types of turfgrasses. It
is a cool season grass.
mist applicators—A sprinkler head with a nozzle that is designed to create a fine
mist.
overseeding—Seeding into an existing turf.
poa annua—An annual bluegrass that is prone to seeding.
rough—Those areas of a golf course that are outside the fairways where the grass
is not cut as low.
seed beds—An area of soil prepared for seeding.
sodding—The process of laying down already grown grasses that are rolled out
with their root systems like carpet.
sprigging—The process of planting runners, rhizomes, or vegetative segments of
plants.
sprinkler heads—Hardware located at the terminals of a piping system.
stimping—The process by which green speed is measured. The stimpmeter was
invented by Eddie Stimpson.
syringing—The process of applying small amounts of water to help the turf avoid
heat stress.
tee—The starting place on the golf course for the hole to be played.
thatch—Living and dead plant material that is the middle layer of turfgrass.
topdressing—A prepared root zone mix added to a turf surface and worked in by
brushing or irrigation.
576 Chapter 15
turfgrasses—Grass covering a course that can tolerate frequent, close mowing,
that forms a contiguous or dense surface and can withstand a great deal of traﬃc.
warm season grasses—Turfgrasses that grow more vigorously than cool season
grasses. They are tolerant to drought, heat, and wear.
zoysiagrass—A warm season turfgrass that has a low cutting height.
Review Questions
1. What position is generally responsible for the playing conditions of the golf
course and its general upkeep?
2. What are some of the key staﬀ positions in the grounds department?
3. What are some of the major factors that aﬀect grounds department budgets?
4. What are the diﬀerences between warm season grasses and cold season
grasses? Name some of the major types and characteristics of both.
5. What are the diﬀerent sections of a golf course?
6. What types of turfgrass management practices are important for a healthy
course?
7. What type of environmental concerns must be managed when it comes to
water, chemicals, and wildlife?
Additional Reading
Christians, Nick, Fundamentals of Turfgrass Management, 2nd ed., Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
Golf Course Management Magazine, Golf Course Superintendents of America.
Grigg, Gary. “An Educated Response, Preparation is the Key in Creating a Program-Based Budget.” Golf Course Management, March 2003.
Gustafson, Catherine and Redman, Bridgette, Assistant Manager in Development:
Recreation and Sports Management, Alexandria, Virginia: Club Managers Association of America, 2000.
Ross, K. Bunker Quality Factors: Highly Manicured Bunkers with Great Sand Quality
are Becoming Almost as Important as Greens Management. Golf Course News,
2004.
Stipanuk, David M., Hospitality Facilities Maintenance and Design, 3rd ed., Lansing,
Mich.: Educational Institute of AH&LA, 2006.
Witteveen, Gordon and Bavier, Michael, Practical Golf Course Maintenance: The
Magic of Greenkeeping, 2nd ed., Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
Golf Course Maintenance
577
Internet Sites
For more information, visit the following Internet site. Remember that Internet
addresses can change without notice. If the site is no longer there, you can use a
search engine to look for additional sites.
Golf Course Maintenance Directory
www.golfcoursemaintenance.com/
index.htm
Golf Course News
www.golfcoursenews.com
Golf Course Superintendents
Association of America
www.gcsaa.org
MSU GDD Tracker (Growing Degree
Days)
www.gdtracker.net
The First Tee
www.thefirsttee.org
Turfgrass Management at Penn State
http://turfgrassmanagement.psu.edu
Turfgrass Management and Use
http://plantanswers.tamu.edu/turf/
turf.html
Turfgrass Science
www.turf.msu.edu
Turfgrass Weed ID
www.msuturfweeds.net
World Golf Foundation
www.wgv.com/hof/foundation.php