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Individual Differences and Personality Types
Muhammad Reza Islam Panah1, Muhammad Amini2
1
2
Student of Doctoral Degree in Psychology at Bojnourd Branch, Islamic Azad University
Graduated of Master Degree in Consulting Psychology at Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad
University
ABSTRACT
Difference is one of the natural phenomena seen in the very structures of human
societies. A healthy, humane, and efficient society receives and understands
these differences in natural form of strength capacities. Awareness of individual
differences may be as old as creation of man. Individual differences is what
attracted many scientists working in behavioral science. Members of a society
are different in many aspects which makes it more difficult to identify their
motives and behaviors. One of the fundamental variables of individual
differences is their personality traits that many factors such as physiological,
cultural, familial characteristics and also factors related different economical
class, race and local factors play different roles in its formation. Therefore due
to the importance of personality traits within individual differences, talking
about individual and personality differences concepts besides, in this paper we
have tried to research individual differences and personality traits and impact of
personality traits on human behavior.
KEY WORDS: natural, phenomena, scientists, personality, human behavior
Introduction
Human behavior has several aspects that has caused him to be known as
complex existing and has made it difficult or impossible to predict his behavior.
This failure is more due to lack of sufficient knowledge about the nature of their
personality and individual differences; personality which has formed in
childhood and puts human behavior in its form. The complexity of this form is
in such an extent that causes a variety of behaviors and raises new challenges to
the experts and psychologists. Because the awareness of individual and
personality differences, can help the experts in solving many issues. For this
reason, in the current era, understanding individual differences and personality
traits in many life situations is necessary. Efficiency in business, success in
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education, effectiveness of medical methods and in general human adaptation in
all life situations is related to his personal characteristics (Nekuei Moghaddam
and Pirmorady Bezznjany, 1389), so in this article due to the importance of the
issue , it has been tried to examine the personality traits and individual
differences.
The concept of individual differences and personality
This fundamental discovery that human beings are different with each other is
part of the heritage of modern psychology. Although it has been discussed by
philosophers whether individual differences in behavior and talent is innate or
acquired, it was clear to everyone that there is a difference among human beings
(Khani, 1391). One specialized branch of the modern psychology, psychology
of individual differences, like other branches of psychology has its subject,
purpose and special method. Psychology of individual differences studies
differences in individuals and groups. Differences can be divided into two
categories: (1) individual differences; (2) interpersonal differences. People in
terms of physical characteristics such as height, weight and eye color and
psychological characteristics such as intelligence and personality are different
from each other, the differences between them is called individual differences.
Individual differences appear in different fields, and have a major impact on
labor and human functions and therefore, in the field of educational and
occupational success are also important. Different talents of one individual are
not equivalent, and every person is highly talented in some fields and weak in
some other. The differences in abilities and talents in one individual are called
interpersonal differences. For instance, an individual may have a good talent in
learning English, but having a hard time learning mathematics. In general we
can say that what individual differences psychology studies, is the study of
interpersonal and individual differences (Ganji, 1392).
In other words, the term individual differences, is that each person is unique
and exceptional such that everyone's hair building fibers to grooves on the one's
finger is unique. Maybe people have a lot of similarities to one another, but with
no doubt, they are not resemble and equal and we can say confidently they are
different in personality and understanding, those differences include views ,
notions and trends as well. So we can say, individuals are different in body
shape and organs, face and beauty, muscle strength and physical forces, general
mental abilities and special talents, stability and excite, emotions and trends and
adoption to social environment that in general all these differences affects an
individual's behavior and ability and causes that after knowing him, have certain
expectations. In a certain situation, each person's characteristics and individual
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differences make him behave properly. Because characteristics and individual
differences can be formed in completely different orders, thus different
reactions can be expected and that is exactly where personality gets involved.
Personality is one of the contributing factors in the development of individual
differences (Nikooei Moghadam and Pirmorady Bezanjany, 1389). Individuals
differ in terms of personality traits and are different from each other. Individual
differences has been examined in the field of personality traits by personality
psychologists. Individuals are different in traits such as introversion or
extroversion, resilience and so on. (Khani, 1391).
Each individual is a combination of three traits, generic traits, cultural traits and
personal traits which form a unique whole that is considered by personality
psychology. The general concept and also its complexity led to the term
personality to be defined in different ways. Allport (1949) has collected and
noted about fifty different definitions, that of course, these differences are not
about the subject's personality but indeed about the concept they made out of it
that are some noticed to biochemical and physiological aspects of the character,
some to interactions between individuals and the role they play in the society
and have defined the character on the same basis. Therefore, the definition
domain is ranged from internal process of organism to the known behavior
caused by the interaction of individuals. But personality in its general sense
needs to include production of unique action of individual and common rules
between individuals, stable and less changing aspects of human actions and
unstable and determinable aspects of it, aspects of cognitive (thinking
processes) and emotional aspects (excitements) and behavioral aspects of
individual and this is what makes it impossible to deliver a comprehensive
definition agreed by all thinker in the field of personality psychology. Below we
mention some of these definitions of personality which have different
approaches: Allport, one of the great researchers in personality field, says
organization of the physiological and psychological systems as behavioral and
intellectual traits in an individual is called personality. In this definition
organization of forming elements of personality has been mentioned as an
important factor but behavioral and intellectual aspects have been differentiated
though it is contradictory to the concept behavior in psychological view (Pervin
& Jan, 1381).
Sheldon proposes the idea of personality being dynamic and defines it as:
Personality is the organization of dynamic in intellectual, emotional and
physiological aspects. Pervin highlights unitization with different aspects in the
definition. That is, personality is the unitization of the whole individual with
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permanent separable traits such as intelligence, caprice and behavior (Karimi,
1392).
Cattell mentions operational aspect of personality and defines it as: personality
is what allows us to predict what a person will do in a certain situation, it means
what his action will be. Some issues have been seen in evolutionary systems
that evolution process is false in it, for example Freud believes personality has
no psychological aspect in levels and thus defers its completion to future years
where “Wallon” demotes personality crisis to age three. In spite of this
personality can be reviewed in the evolution frame. There is only one process
from beginning to end, in this case it will include all component of the evolution
and if consider all this component are along adoption to environment, adoption
in an specific aspect and situation is something partial but if its adoption is
suggested it can be the concept personality. In this case personality can be
defined as: personality is all of comprehensive capacities of an individual in
adoption to the environment (Pervin and Jan, 1381).
Different nation perspective and scientific studies about individual
differences
Awareness of individual differences may be as old as creation of man, because
primitive human that used to live in caves and jungles were was aware of
individual differences phenomenon among people and allocate tasks based on it;
for instance some were responsible for hunting and some other for cooking. The
issue of individual differences were existed in ancient Iran and various nations.
For example, Iranian Aryan people divided into three groups: warriors, farmers,
and the Magi. Plato, based on talent categorized people into three groups in
terms of gold, silver and copper each. He mentions the individual differences by
classification. Thus, different nations were aware of individual differences in
times and were classifying them, but this classifications were not precise, vivid
and scientific, so there was no choice but measuring capacities scientifically and
determining individual differences and choose suitable person for every task.
For this, some improved the psychology of individual differences by their
genius. There are so many disagreements about the beginning of scientific study
of individual differences. Some argue that the scientific study of individual
differences began by the "Darwin" theory of evolution. In his book Darwin
explicitly refers to individual differences and says: "members of a specific
living, have different personal characteristics and favorable personal
characteristics results in survival. “Darwin” calls the remaining of those with
favorable characteristics, natural selection. Some believe that the initiator of
scientific studies of individual differences is the French "Jean-Jacques
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Rousseau" and that is why he is called the father of modern education.
Rousseau, proposed ideas about education and because of his ideas he
presented, education system changed from teacher-centered to student-centered.
In addition, some other people also expanded the knowledge of individual
differences. One of these "Francis Galton," which today is considered as the
father of psychology of individual differences. Galton was studying geniuses,
and he believed that genius is hereditary in humans. Well-known men most
often had known ancestors; however he believed two factor, heredity and
environment, are effective in forming individual differences. "McLean Cattell"
measured time and level of reaction by introducing the first tests, and based on
ten tests measured the individual differences. “Alfred Binet” provided the
intelligent test and since then others could examine individual differences
scientifically and precisely (Ghanji, 1392).
The causes of individual differences
Many factors are involved in the development of individual differences, to
include heredity and environment can be noted. Take a newborn as an
illustration, family shows two completely different reactions, some try to shape
traits in him/her that reminds of his/her ancestors and some other try to find
unique traits in him/her and emphasize the differences, but because similarities
impress us more than differences, our emphasis is more on similarities,
especially similarities between child and parents. There is no doubt by
observing physical similarities we say what traits this person will have and how
our behavior toward him/her should be. Unfortunately in public perspective,
heredity is the main factor in forming individual differences, but psychologists
disagree with this idea and believe that interaction between heredity and
environment plays the main role in forming individual differences. For example,
sperm can’t keep growing without environment and environment without
heredity is not able to grow a human. So each of heredity and environment
factor has fundamental role in forming individual differences and discovery of
an interaction between those should be sought (Ghanji, 1392).
Origin of individual differences and person determiner factors
Origin of individual differences should be searched in person heredity and their
environment. In 1953, Cluck and Murray concluded that two crucial factors
rarely could be separated after environment activation. These two are: Which
potential genetic capacity will be activated in result of specific life events in
supposable physical, social and cultural environment? Which limitations in
personality improvement generated by genetic structure?
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In other words, in personality discussion, researchers rely on heredity,
environment and also interaction between these two. Along this, Royce consider
personality as a combination of physical and mental traits, that give an identity
to individual and this traits or characteristics such as perspective and emotions
are results of hereditary and environment factors. In conclusion could be said
that every personal quality shaped through interaction of hereditary and
environment. Differences between people could be caused by environmental
differences hereditary differences or in result of both, so differences in eye color
refer to hereditary. Differences in social perspective caused by environment and
differences in people intelligence is related to both of them. In behavioral
matters, five major subjects are considered as personal quality determiner:
1.physiological determiners: factors such as length, weight, healthiness, sex, etc.
influence on personality evolution. For example, most tall people are tend to be
domineering. In addition, they are more self-confident than short people. Or
men are more active and bold than women. However women are more passive
than men.
2. Cultural determiners form a huge amount of culture improvement. Basically
different culture grow people with different traits and qualities. For example,
Capitalist societies are typically train progressive, independent and selfconfident people where training group-centered and group-law obeying persons
is mostly emphasized in Socialist cultures and societies or respecting to work
and activity among Japan’s society different shells is highly appreciated.
3. Family determiners: perhaps the most important factor in personality
improvement are family and group determiner. For example, individuals who
grew up in liberal families tend to emotional verification and are socially more
successful and also like controversial discussions.
4. Determiners relevant to factors like economical, social and racial
classification which person belongs to it, is also specifically important in
personality improvement.
5. Situational determiners: personality improvement is affected by situational
determiners. This factor is unpredictable. Situations such as divorce or death of
a family member and so on are some instances of this determiners. As has been
mentioned before, determiners of personality traits themselves are instances of
individual differences. Therefore some parts of individual differences are
caused by personality differentiation which is affected by determiner introduced
earlier (Khani, 1391).
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Characteristics and personality types
Characters is examined from different views and theorists like Freud , Yung,
Adler, Horney, Allport , Erikson , Maslow , … Had examined it from different
views and all of these theories is assumed on people with the features and
attributes have stability and continuity in different situations over time (Schultz
and Schultz, 1391). Maddi (1989) knows that character is a stable set of interest
and traits that determine people’s behavioral- psychological (thoughts, feelings
and doings) similarities and differences and may be easily determined, as a
result of biological stress and social time, not understandable. On the other
hand, individual differences may be the result of genetic factors have a strong
influence on the character and thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals
(Donnellan al., 2008). Psychologist represent alternative views aspects of
personality, including the views of the Costa and McCrae pointed to. Costa and
McCrae (1992) in their study reached the conclusion that there are five basic
factors of the character like neuroticism, extroversion, flexibility, agreeableness
and conscientiousness which is a solid and comprehensive basis to account for
differences provides the individual personality (John and Srivastava, 1999). In
view of these tendencies are inherent and underlying biological factors are the
main factors to the behavioral changes of genes, brain structure, and other
factors related. Latest studies have been conducted on this issue as the fivefactor model that environmental influences on personality factors influence
(Asendorof & Van Aken, 2003).
Neuroticism (N):
Neuroticism or negative affectivity is concerned to the number of strong
stimulus are necessary to evoke strong negative emotions in a person. The
negative emotions refers to a person's ability to cope with stress and bear it.
This factor has also been named as emotional stability. Continuum, reactive,
responsive, resilient person. Responsive persons are the persons who experience
negative emotions more than others and are less satisfied with life than most of
people. Reactive person react to any stimulus. Reactive person have higher N
score. At the other end of the continuum neuroticism are resilient person. These
person neuroticism mental factor scores are low, such individuals to experience
life in a more reasonable level than others and tend to what is happening around
them are not impressible .resilient person are those less cumbersome others.
During the continuum N (negative affectivity) from being reactive to being
resilient continues, there is a range in the middle of it as a responsive person
that we mention as a sensitive or impressionable. These people are combination
of reactive and responsive attributes. In general, public interest in public
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emotions such as fear, sadness, confusion, anger, guilt and hatred of the scope
of N form. Probably fragile factors are hindering adjustment factors. Men and
women with high scores in neuroticism are prone to irrational beliefs and less
able to control their impulses and much weaker to cope with stress than others.
Patients who have been diagnosed neurotic has a relatively had obtained high
score in N .Research shown that patients with eating disorders was significantly
higher than the control group the five-factor personality questionnaire are in
Bdnvrvzgrayy (Qadri Vaskat, 2000 ; Hyun, Mulligan, Myrylyz, .fayrvz Woods,
2000). High scores in neuroticism may be a sign of high probability of
developing certain psychiatric problems, but the scale of N, should not be
considered as a measure for mental disorders. It is possible to get a high score of
N without a detected psychological disorder. However, all of the mental
disorders with high scores on N is not associated, for example, a person may
have antisocial personality disorder without having a high scores in N. Iriguchi ,
Mira, Igarashi, Ishikawa, Shoji et al. (2007) researches shows the weak against
stressful factors _between alexithymia and neuroticisms_ with higher level of
danger this persons psychiatric disorders associated psychosomatics. Those
scores are low in neuroticism are emotionally stable and generally quiet, mild
and comfortable and able to cope with stressful situations, without the mess and
fuss face (Haghshenas, 1385).
Extraversion (E):
This factor describes the person's comfort level in communication.
Extroversion refers to a number of relationships which the person feel
comfortable in. High degree of high extraversion associated with restlessness
and feel the joy of it is clear. Extraversion continuum includes extroverted
person, double wing or the wing inside oriented. On the one hand extroverted
tend to spend a lot of their time with communicating and enjoy it. Eccentric to
the majority of people tend to take leadership and be more friendly and social
and be more active in physical language. At the other end of the continuum,
introverts, whose relations are less and spend less time to it. Their independence
and tend to be reserved and uniform and feel more comfortable by being alone
than other people. The end of the spectrum are ambivalent that feel comfortable
with changing between social status and isolation. Extraversion are communityoriented, but social ability is just one of the traits of extroversion. In addition,
like people, prefer large groups and gatherings, courage and chatty are traits of
extraversion. They like sexual and movement arousal and tend to be cheerful.
As well as the optimistic, energetic and optimistic (Haghshenas, 1385). As the
showing the features of extraverts is easy, showing the features of introverted
person is difficult. In some descriptions, introversion is nonexistence of
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extroversion and shouldn’t be considered as anti-extroversion. Thus, the
introverted is more self-contained not unfriendly, independent not a follower
and moderate not a lazy or slow. When is that people prefers to be alone. It can
be argued that these people are shy, introverted person does not suffer from
social anxiety, although they don’t have very happy spirit like extraverts, but
they aren’t sad and pessimism. Said features may in some cases seem weird or
unlikely. But with the help of numerous research results and they cause
conceptual progress of the five-factor model. In general extraversion are loving
and friendly, they genuinely like people and are easily create attachment and
closeness with others. They enjoy gathering with others, and they are happier if
the gather to more peoples. They talk without a doubt and most of the time
become group leader, work fast and spend more energy and power in their
efforts and show energy in continuing to work. The vibrant life and dreams are
stimulating and exciting, they like bright colors and busy and demanding
environment, positive emotions such as joy, happiness and love, it's easy to
laugh cheerful and optimistic (Mac Gary Costa, 1383).
Flexibility (O):
The flexibility or openness to address the range of personal interests. It refers to
attracted interests of the person that they are looking for as well as the intense
interest. Openness to experience, is important element of creativity. Openness
continuum includes probes, moderate and conservative. People who score high
on openness factor (people extremely open) called probe or browser and just
fascinated by innovations. The explorers known as intellectuals. Illuminati
describe themselves introverted and thoughtful than other people. On the other
side of openness range, are conservatives, they have less interest than browsers
and they feel more comfortable in an intimate ceremony and they prefer new
familiar and likely to have a standard behavior and following formality and
traditions. These people tend to keep their view, but not necessarily as a
dominant. The explorer and conservatives, are moderate. Novelty and
innovation from the view of moderate is boring and static modes are also boring
for them. Openness, especially with different aspects of intelligence, such as
divergent thinking, which is associated with a creativity factor. According to
experience openness isn’t synonymous with intelligence. Some very intelligent
people are closed to the experience. In contrast, some people are very open but
have limited mental capacity. In the form of factor analysis, the size of mental
function is the sixth factor that authors have considered it outside the scope of
the character (Haghshenas, 1385).
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Agreeableness (A):
The agreement comes into a person's propensity and tendency to docility and
respect for others is an individual. Agreements continuum include negotiator,
merchant and adaptable persons. People who score high in consensus-oriented
(people with high integration agreement) called as adaptable and they respect
others, including his wife, religious leaders, heads and figures of popular culture
consider to value harmony with others and they appreciate that. Compatible
personality profile can be found in the core role of education, social and
psychological. The end of adaptability is soft temperamental, known as
dependent person which have lost their own existence. Booden and Vegacy
chawski (2004) shows that patients suffering restraint anorexia against over
eating periods patients have meaningfully higher scores on the agreeableness.
At the other end of the continuum consensus oriented, are challengers.
Challenger or those who score low in the integration agreement are more
focused and insist on their needs and norms, to the others requirements and
standards. They are seeking more challenges for power of action and access to
it. Challenging people are known as a tough-minded, narcissistic, antisocial,
paranoid personalities that have lost their feelings for others. In the middle of
the continuum consensus oriented, people are negotiators. Such persons by
position requirements will change the leadership to the impersonator. As
extroversion, agreeableness further integration between individual desires. A
consensus oriented (adjusted) is essentially a philanthropist. He was
sympathetic to others and eager to help and believes that others will help in their
turn. In contrast, non-consensus-oriented (challenger), stubborn, self-centered
and skeptical than others and competitive not cooperative. People tend to agree
oriented as socially desirable trait and mentally healthy state. It’s true that
consensus oriented are more popular and accepted than challengers but it’s
obvious that end of these ranges doesn’t seems good in society and none of
them are good for mental health. Low scores in oriented agreement is associated
with the states of narcissism, antisocial and paranoid personality disorder while
high scores are associated with dependent personality disorder (Haghshenas,
1385).
Conscientiousness (C):
Conscientiousness factor refers to the number of goals that the focus is on it, the
integration continuum of conscience, including those focused, balanced and
flexible. A person with high conscientiousness, one focused with targeted ways,
will follow the overall objective. A person who scores are low in
conscientiousness factor, by uniform and scattered, will follow many goals. In
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organizations in general, focused individuals wishing to progress more. But
indulge in it will become the focus of the work will be cautious and flexible
persons will drifts at their task. In organizations, flexible person wouldn’t work
lesser than focused individuals, but their actions are lower directed to specific
purposes. In the middle of the conscientiousness continuum, people are balance
and take place between focused and flexible individuals. In organizations,
managers with flexible personality profile, with the balance individuals equally
and fairly treated, they will target flexible persons, without banishing and help
to their focused employees remember that to rest and enjoy life from time to
time. A number of theories, especially theories of psychological dynamics of
the characters have control impulse and attention. During the period of growing
most people learn how to cope with dreams. Inability to prevent impulse and
temptation are all signs of high (N) in the adults. Control, can also be the power
of very active planning, organizing and carrying out the tasks entrusted to the
ideal as well. The basic difference in this case is the base of conscience. The
conscientious is purposeful, strong-willed and determined to succeed.
Successful persons, great musicians and great intellectuals, have these attributes
at high level and this area is called the desire to succeed. Score high in
conscientiousness is associated with academic success and career, person who
score low in conscientiousness would avoid subtlety, precision and high
cleanliness and cautious. People with high scores in the conscientiousness or
focused individuals, more precise and punctual and reliable people are. But
people with low conscientiousness scores are not necessarily devoid of moral
principles, but not very accurate at using the application of moral principles,
they are not serious in their efforts to achieve the goal. There is evidence that
these people were very fun-oriented and have a keen interest in sexual matters
(Haghshenas, 1385). Eden and partners (2005) studied with purpose of
investigating the relationship between the internal dimensions character and
desired social behavior. This course seeks to work with 374 female employees
with average age 45/5 years in America, has revealed the character of a
conscientiousness is pleasant, extroversion, mental neurosis on the other hand
social significantly predicted behaviors desired. By recognition of attributes,
abilities and disabilities, attitudes and understanding their behavior and
predicting their operation and reactions, we can predict that this person with
these personality type, shows what kind of behavior in different situations.
The relationship between the five-factor models and other personality factor
patterns
The positive aspects of this model can be used to establish a compromise
between the different dimensions of personality assessment tools such as
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personal explanations Edward Table 16 Cattell questionnaire with demographic
factors California. Five-factor pattern make possible compatibility in evaluation
of sentiments dimensions and prepare the base of unitization to different
patterns of between interpersonal signs and also interpersonal differences. In
addition neuroticism and extraversion measures and extraversion in
reconsideration questionnaires of Eysenck and the new five-factor if McGray
and costa have that much overlap that can taking them in to replacement
measuring tools for similar structures evaluation.( Costa, 1983, quoted Karimi,
1392).
Conclusion
Although, society individuals are similar in many ways, but set personality traits
of each person is unique and in this way we can say that there aren’t exactly
same people. The principle of individual differences, is one of the accepted
tenets of behavioral science. By adopting these principles, be physiological
differences, intellectual, mental and behavioral disorders and logical properly
managed and right management will applied when individual differences in
many aspects to be considered, because in this case the of how certain
personality characteristics are transformed into behavior. Recognition and
measurement of personality characteristics for many purposes, such as
education, employment, marriage, and ...is fundamental. Overall compatibility
in all situations of life because of her relationship with personality traits and
understanding of different attitudes, perceptions, mental and physical abilities
and personality traits together, in the full knowledge that will help people,
because of ignorance of reality.
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