1. science
2. social science
3. history
4. archaeology

 © The Ashmolean Museum, 2003
Texts by Tom Hardwick, Judith McKenzie, Andres Reyes, Christina Riggs, Andrew Shortland,
and Helen Whitehouse
SACKLER GALLERY OF
EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES
Egypt from the 1st Dynasty to the
Byzantine Period, 2950 BC to AD 641
A Virtual Visitor’s Guide
Note to Readers
This is a copy of the information panels and labels written for the Ashmolean
Museum’s Sackler Gallery of Egyptian Antiquities. It is a searchable PDF file
which can be used with the appropriate software. Readers can search any
terms of interest to them such as object types, materials, names, and
historical periods.
The display cases are numbered in order according to their position in the
current arrangement of the Sackler Gallery. Cases 34 to 66 are arranged
chronologically, beginning with the Early Dynastic Period; cases 67 to 74
house thematic displays on writing, drawing, and daily life in the New
Kingdom and the Roman Period.
The following abbreviations are used in the provenance information: BSAE –
the British School of Archaeology in Egypt; EEF – the Egypt Exploration Fund
(later, Society); ERA – the Egyptian Research Account. Museum numbers for
the objects are prefixed with ‘AN’.
Department of Antiquities
March 2009
Egyptian Galleries Floor Plan
Gallery 4 – Petrie Room
Gallery 5 – Chester Room
Gallery 6 – Sackler Gallery of Egyptian Antiquities
Gallery 7 – Griffith Gallery
Case 34 Pottery in Transition
Early Dynastic–Old Kingdom
1st–8th Dynasties,
about 2950–2125 BC
The technical skill and creativity shown in the hand-made vessels and
modelled figures of prehistory began to disappear in the Early Dynastic
Period. Craftsmanship in stone, metal, and faience now became more
important; pottery became more mundane, sometimes imitating forms such as
cylinder jars which would ideally be made in stone.
The late prehistoric ware with pictorial designs applied in red-brown paint was
now reduced to a repertoire of abstract repeat patterns. Similarly, the wavyhandled jars which had first appeared in prehistory as imports from Palestine
now finished their evolution in domestic production as cylindrical vessels with
a band of wavy decoration faintly modelled in the clay. Together with these
survivors of earlier styles, Early Dynastic grave goods sometimes included
more elaborate versions of the carved bone or ivory spoons found in
prehistoric graves; they were probably used with cosmetics.
Distinctive new forms include large and elaborate pot-stands. The appearance
of spouted vessels suggests the introduction of a new social norm – handwashing before eating. A stand on which to rotate pots while shaping them
was already in use before the end of the Predynastic Period; its technical
advantages can be seen in the better finish given to rims. In the Old Kingdom,
use of a pivoted wheel on which to turn pots became common.
1
Black-topped jar, hand-made
From grave T55, Naqada; Naqada IIIa-b
AN1895.337: Flinders Petrie excavations
2
Jar decorated with grouped ‘commas’, and
small jar with wavy lines
From grave 1710, Naqada; Naqada IIIa-b
AN1895.615, 621: Flinders Petrie excavations
3
Spouted pot, burnished
From grave R 131E, Hu: Naqada IIIa-b
AN1896-1908 E.2897: EEF excavations, 1899
4
Burnished bowl; cylinder jar decorated with
a scalloped relief band and painted lattice
resembling a carrying net; and a spoon of
elephant ivory, the handle carved with
marching elephants
From grave 460, Naqada; Naqada IIIb-c
AN1895.460, 548, 903: Flinders Petrie excavations
5
Multiple pot-stand, hand-made, with a ram’s
head, and legs modelled in relief
From grave 115, Naqada; Protodynastic
AN1895.776: Flinders Petrie excavations
6
Cylinder jar with a scalloped band in relief,
and a bone spoon
From grave 17, Naqada; Naqada IIIa-c
AN1895.546,906: Flinders Petrie excavations
7
Spoon of hippopotamus ivory, the handle
carved with a dog and a lion
From Ballas, ‘found by a woman digging for salt’;
Protodynastic
AN1895.902: gift of Flinders Petrie and the ERA
Figure 1 AN1895.902
8
Storage jar with an incised ‘V’ potmark; potstand; and small travertine bowl
From grave 112, Naqada; Naqada IIIa-b
AN1895.667,665,201: Flinders Petrie excavations
9
Siltstone dish with a handle carved in the
shape of a gazelle-leg
From Saqqara; 1st–2nd Dynasty
AN1887.2428; gift of Thomas Shaw, 1751
Figure 2 AN1887.2428
10
Seated lion on a plinth, polished red ware This
guardian lion, modelled with a mixture of
realism and stylization, is a striking example of
ceramic sculpture. It was found in a deposit
which included a siltstone statue of King
Khasekhem of the 2nd Dynasty (the pair to the
limestone statue in this Museum), and the
copper statues of King Pepi I of the 6th
Dynasty (all now in the Cairo Museum)
From the temple enclosure, Hierakonpolis; Old Kingdom
(6th Dynasty?)
AN1896-1908 E.189; ERA excavations, 1897-8
Figure 3 AN1896­1908 E.189
Case 35 Providing for the Next Life
Early Dynastic – Old Kingdom
1st–8th Dynasties,
about 2950–2125 BC
The need to supply the dead with food and drink for eternity was one of the
most important Egyptian beliefs about the next life. Real food was provided to
stock the tomb at the time of the funeral, and thereafter as offerings. Ideally
these would be continued forever, by endowing a priestly cult service for the
dead person’s funerary chapel.
Tomb goods included storage containers, and tableware for eating and
drinking; the pottery included in burials reflects contemporary household
stock. Ewer and basin sets for hand-washing were essential items, made of
metal or stone, or more cheaply of pottery. Fine tableware of the Old Kingdom
was usually red, with a handsome surface created by applying a slip
containing iron oxide and polishing it before firing. Storage vessels and breadmoulds were made of coarser ware. A distinctive new form is shown by
sharply-curved vessels with a maximum diameter just below their wide rims
(‘Maidum bowls’). They were used for both liquids and solid food, and
together with new shapes of storage jars, they may indicate a shift in diet
towards more consumption of dairy produce.
Figure 4 AN1949.89 Gift of Nina Davies
Funerary priest and offerings: tempera copy by Nina Davies of a painting in
the mastaba-tomb of the 6th Dynasty official Kaemankh at Giza. Kaemankh’s
name is written in the top register, below which are offering tables bearing
vessels and food including bread, cakes, meat, a goose, and figs. Carved or
painted offerings would have been thought to remain perpetually fresh and
available, to sustain the dead – ‘Take your bread which does not grow
mouldy, and your beer which does not go sour’ (Pyramid Texts).
1
Small ewer of polished red ware, with an incised
square potmark
From grave A.13, Abadiya; Old Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.2898: BSAE excavations, 1899
2
Miniature vessels of glazed faience with black
decoration
From mastaba C, el-Kab; 4th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.381-2: ERA excavations, 1897
3
Pot stand of polished red ware
From grave 5328, Badari; 5th Dynasty
AN1925.454: BSAE and ERA excavations
4
Bowls of stone (anorthosite gneiss, ‘Chephren
diorite’) and pottery
From mastaba A, tomb of Kamenu, el-Kab (stone); and
grave M 432, Mahasna (pottery); 4th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.401, E.574: ERA excavations, 1897 and 1901
5
Shouldered jar of polished red ware
From Reqaqna; 4th–5th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.497: Garstang excavations, 1901–2
6
Ewer of polished red ware; although made to hold
water, it was found full of grain
From grave 1085, Qau; 4th Dynasty
AN1923.528: BSAE excavations
7
Jar of fine cream marl clay, for holding beer or
water
From grave 127, Dishasha; 5th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1938: EEF excavations, 1897
8
Ewer and basin of travertine
From the stairway to tomb 2, el-Kab; Protodynastic–Old
Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.403, 468: ERA excavations, 1897
9
Model food: dates of painted wood, and a stone
fig
Not dated
AN1888.378 (date, from Thebes): G.J. Chester Collection; AN1962.803A,B
(fig and date, provenance unknown)
10
Ewer and basin of polished red ware
From grave 1310N, Armant; 4th Dynasty
AN1935.167-8; Mond excavations
Figure 5 Cases 34 to 38 Case 36 Beyond the Pyramids
Early Dynastic – Old Kingdom
1st–8th Dynasties,
about 2950–2125 BC
Provincial Burials of the Old Kingdom
The royal pyramid fields near Memphis – such as Giza, Saqqara, and Abusir
– were the final resting place for the kings of the Old Kingdom and their court
officials. The 3rd Dynasty king Djoser built the Step Pyramid at Saqqara for
himself, rather than being buried at Abydos like most of his predecessors.
After Djoser, almost every king was buried in a pyramid, the largest and most
famous of which is the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza. In the 5th and 6th
Dynasties, pyramids decreased in size, but the pyramid was just one part of a
whole complex serving the soul of the dead king. Near the pyramid
complexes, the nobility and high-ranking officials were buried in flat-roofed,
rectangular tombs called mastabas, from the Arabic word meaning ‘bench’.
Elsewhere in Egypt, provincial towns and villages were home to lesserranking officials drawn from local families. Each town had its own cemetery,
where burials ranged from simple pit graves to more elaborate mastaba
tombs made of sun-dried mud bricks. The dead needed bread, beer, and
meat to sustain them and scented oils and fine linen to adorn their bodies.
Pots of foodstuffs could be left in the tomb, along with stone vessels,
jewellery, copper implements, and other precious objects. Headrests, which
were used like a pillow for sleeping, were also placed in graves. A basin or
stela set up in front of the tomb enabled visitors to make an offering to the
dead, or recite the prayer inscribed on the stela.
1
Diorite bowl
AN1896-1908 E.510
Crescent-shaped flint drill bit, and a string
of faience beads
AN1896-1908 E.690, 4080 (EE 482)
Two copper axeheads and an assortment of
chisels and knife-blades
AN1896-1908 E.680, 672, 676, 681-5, 687, 689
From tomb K 1, Bet Khallaf; 3rd Dynasty
ERA excavations, 1901
2
Faience tiles from chambers beneath the
Step Pyramid of King Djoser. A tenon with
holes in the back of the tiles was used to fix
them to the chamber walls in multiple rows,
creating a shimmering blue frame around
reliefs of the king
From the Step Pyramid complex, Saqqara; 3rd
Dynasty
AN1933.1031: A. H. Sayce Bequest; AN1954.670.a, b: Gift of A. H.
Gardiner; AN1937.115: MacGregor Bequest; AN1942.480: Gift of
Mrs. Woolner
3
Travertine bowl with carved rim, and copper
bowl
AN1896-1908 E.4084, 885
Copper dagger blade and wooden handle
AN1932.926, AN1896-1908 E.890
4
Flint blades and copper tools: an axehead,
chisels, engravers, and needles; and a band
with holes for attachment
AN1896-1908 E.886-7, 891, 893-5, 897-8, 904, 902
All from tomb K3, for a man named Sa-nakht, Bet
Khallaf; 3rd Dynasty.
Dagger blade from grave 586, Matmar; 6th Dynasty
ERA excavations, 1901; dagger: Gift of Guy Brunton
5
Wooden headrest inscribed in black ink with
the name and titles of a man named Shepses
From tomb 226, Tarkhan; Old Kingdom
AN1912.601: BSAE and ERA excavations
At el-Kab in southern Egypt, the British archaeologist James Quibell found
an intact burial in a pit covered by a large pottery bowl known as a majur in
Arabic. Next to the deceased was a decorated, lidded pot containing many
small objects
6
Decorated clay pot with lid, two travertine
bowls, two shells from the Red Sea, and
two ivory bracelets, an ivory disk, a
polished pebble, a necklace with carnelian,
green steatite, and faience beads, a flint
blade, and a green steatite cylinder seal
incised with hieroglyphs
From grave 166 at el-Kab; Old Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.1836-9, 1804-6, 1042, 1044, 1046, 3763, EE 89:
ERA excavations, 1897
7
Polished red pot, travertine cylinder vase,
diorite bowl, and a polished pebble, steatite
cylinder seal, two blue glaze and
carnelian necklaces, and a mirror of
arsenic-plated copper
From the burial of a woman, grave 3540, Mustagidda;
5th Dynasty
AN1930.514-21: Guy Brunton excavations
8
Travertine vases, an ivory spatula, and restrung blue glaze and carnelian beads, all
found with a female burial in a reed coffin
From grave 5535, Badari; 6th Dynasty
AN1925.440-4, 446-50: BSAE and ERA excavations
9
Four necklaces with carnelian, gold and
blue glaze beads and pendants; a carnelian
hand-shaped amulet; an ivory button seal,
and gold pendants
From grave 183, Haragah; 6th Dynasty
AN1914.657-9, 661-2, 664-7, AN1957.15: BSAE and ERA
excavations
Figure 6 AN1914.662
10
Bone spoon, gold pendant, baked clay
bowl, and granite lamp containing the
remains of a charred wick
From grave Q 172, Ballas; Old Kingdom
AN1895.895, 994, 996, and 995: Flinders Petrie and ERA
excavations
11
Painted limestone relief with the head of a
man
Probably from the mortuary temple area serving the
pyramids of kings Sahure, Neferirkare, and Niuserre at
Abusir; 5th Dynasty
Queen’s College Loan.1
12
Pottery model of a granary with twelve
dome-shaped silos
From mastaba A, for a man named Kamenu, el-Kab;
4th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.408: ERA excavations, 1897
Figure 7 AN1896­1908 E.408
13
Pottery mould for baking bread
From el-Kab; Old Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.550: ERA excavations, 1897
Tall pottery vase for storing beer
From tomb K 1, Bet Khallaf; 3rd Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.572: ERA excavations, 1901
Pot and handle, for cooking or serving food
From tomb K 2, for a man named Sa-nakht, Bet
Khallaf; 3rd Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.513-4; ERA excavations, 1901
14
Limestone offering basin. The hieroglyphic
inscription is a prayer for offerings for a man
named Nebishet, whose title was ‘overseer of
the storehouse of the king’s meals’
From Saqqara; Old Kingdom
AN1969.477: EEF excavations
15
Belt or necklace of faience beads
AN1896-1908 E.E. 459: EEF excavations, 1898
Copper model of an altar, with bowls and
tools, including a knife, adze, and axe
AN1896-1908 E.1735-42: EEF excavations, 1898
From the tomb of a man named Mereru, Dendera; 6th
Dynasty
Case 37 Vessels for Eternity
Early Dynastic – Old Kingdom
1st–8th Dynasties,
about 2950–2125 BC
Carving Luxury Goods from Stone
Egyptian craftspeople were skilled at working with all the varieties of stone
that were quarried throughout the country. Stones like pink breccia or creamy
travertine were valued for their rich colours, and black diorite, hard white
limestone, and black-and-white rippled gneiss for their polished shine or for
the way their crystals glittered in the sun.
Vases, bowls, spouted ewers, and tables carved out of these stones were
prized luxury items and were included in wealthy burials. In the Early Dynastic
Period and the Old Kingdom, kings could be buried with thousands of stone
vessels, while local elites in the provinces might take just a few of these
opulent items to the grave. The vessels displayed here are from pit burials or
mudbrick mastaba tombs in provincial cemeteries in Middle and Upper Egypt.
Stone vessels imitated objects that were commonly made as inexpensive
pottery, or more rarely from copper. Both clay and metal were pliable, allowing
vessels to take many forms and have thin walls, curved handles, and spouts.
To achieve the same effect in stone required considerable skill, and
stoneworking became a hallmark of Egyptian craftsmanship.
A stoneworker first hollowed out the inside of a vase or bowl using a
wooden drill with a forked end holding a flint drill-bit . The top of the
drill was weighted with rocks. Rotating the flint, together with
abrasive sand or powder, cleared the inside of the vessel, after which
the surfaces were smoothed with hard stone pounders, grinders, and
more powder. Vessels given as gifts from the royal workshops could
be inscribed with the name of the reigning king. In the Egyptian
language, the hieroglyphic sign for a stoneworker’s drill was used to
write words meaning ‘craft’ or ‘art’.
1
Travertine cylinder vase with rope pattern
carved beneath rim
From cemetery Q, burial 100, Ballas; Early Dynastic
Period
An1895.189: ERA excavations, 1895
2
Copper ewer and bowl, two shapes often
copied in stone
Ewer: From mastaba A, for a man named Kamenu, El
Kab; 4th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.407: ERA excavations, 1897
Bowl: Provenance unknown; Old Kingdom
AN1932.510: ex Sambon Collection
Figure 8 AN1896­1908 E.407
3
Travertine cylinder vase
From burial 418, El Mahasna; Old Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.1868: ERA excavations, 1900-1
4
Travertine vase
From burial 420, El Mahasna; Old Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.1867: ERA excavations, 1900-1
5
Diorite vase with a removable rim
From tomb 40, one of the largest Old Kingdom tombs at
El Reqaqna; 3rd Dynasty
AN1896-190 E.481: Garstang excavations, 1901-2
6
Travertine vase
From burial 613, for a woman, Qaw; 6th Dynasty
AN1923.642: BSAE excavations
7
A travertine table, two bowls of diorite and
travertine, a travertine cylinder vase sealed
with mud, a travertine pot stand, and a
travertine vase with handles. Broken before
they were placed in the burial, these stone
objects were found in fragments between the
coffin and the wall of the grave. The finely
polished pot stand, which has a raised ring
around its middle, may be the only one of its
kind
From burial 102, Matmar; 2nd or 3rd Dynasty
AN1931.398-405: Brunton excavations
8
Diorite bowl
From mastaba A, for a man named Kamenu, El Kab; 4th
Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.406: ERA excavations, 1897
9
Travertine lid inscribed for king Pepi I
Provenance unknown; 6th Dynasty
AN1933.340: Sayce Bequest
10
Travertine vase with pink bands of colour in
the stone
From burial 114, El Mahasna; Old Kingdom.
AN1896-1908 E.1869: ERA excavations, 1901
11
Fluted limestone pedestal, perhaps from a
headrest
Provenance unknown; Old Kingdom
AN1878.193.a: G.J. Chester Collection
12
A diorite-gneiss bowl, a travertine bowl with
an interior ridge, and a shallow breccia bowl.
All three were found in a burial shaft, along
with a stone table and two shells from the Red
Sea
From burial 63, El Reqaqna; 3rd Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.487; E.485; E.486: Garstang excavations, 1901-2
13
A breccia vase with tubular handles, a
travertine bowl, and three travertine cylinder
vessels, which have not been completely
drilled inside
From tomb K2, for a man named Sa-nakht, Bet Khallaf;
3rd Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.502-4, E.4087, E.4104: ERA excavations, 1901
Cases 38/39
Sculpture for Survival
Old Kingdom
4th–8th Dynasties
about 2575–2125 BC
Preservation of a dead person’s physical image was fundamental to their
continuing existence in the afterlife. The mummification and decorated
covering of the body was one element in the strategy for bodily survival.
Another was the provision of sculpted images which a dead person’s spirit or
ka could inhabit, and through which the dead could receive food offerings.
According to this ideology, presenting incense or food and drink to a statue
was futile, unless the image had been through a kind of birth process which
enabled it to breathe and feed. The ritual of ‘Opening the Mouth’, attested
from the Old Kingdom onwards, was the means by which this was
accomplished. It included a symbolic parting of the lips which, in later
representations, is shown being performed on the dead person’s mummy by a
funerary priest with a carpenter’s adze.
Both cult statues and images of the dead were subject to this ritual, which
seems to have been repeatedly performed, so that they could continue to
receive sustenance. Model sets of the vessels and implements needed for the
ritual were included in Old Kingdom tombs, perhaps with the same idea of
perpetuation.
Provision of the food which the dead needed was likewise ensured by means
of sculpture. Models of servants who worked on for eternity, grinding corn and
mixing dough, would magically ensure that sustenance was available, even if
the supply of real offerings should fail.
1
Head of a life-size statue. The head, badly
weathered but retaining traces of red paint, has
been roughly cut from the body. The cemetery in
which this head and the foot (no. 2) were found
had been plundered for reusable wood and linen
From the cemetery at Dishasha; 5th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1950: EEF excavations, 1897
2
Foot of a statue, plastered and painted wood;
made as a separate piece for attachment by
means of a peg to the leg of a statue of a man
From Dishasha; 5th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1970: EEF excavations, 1897
3
Statue of a man wearing a kilt; the weathered
wood retains traces of plaster and paint
From Dishasha; late 6th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1881: EEF excavations, 1897
4
Wooden statues from the grave of
Nebemhenennesu
Two plastered and painted statues of
Nebemhenennesu, whose name and titles –
‘royal noble, overseer of craftsmen’ – are painted
on the base
AN1921.1418-19
Models of food preparation: a woman grinding
corn on a saddle-quern; a man kneading dough
on a board (the tool in his hand is lost); a woman
preparing dough for beer-making in a bowl; and a
man preparing a cake of dough
Figure 9 AN1921.1418­19
AN1921.1420-23
All from shaft-grave 604, Maiyana cemetery, Sidmant;
6th Dynasty
BSAE and ERA excavations
Figure 10 AN1921.1423
5
Head of painted wood from a statuette of a man
From the tomb of Pepi-ankh, Meir; 6th Dynasty
AN1914.39: gift of Aylward M. Blackman, from his excavations
6
Statuettes and model funerary equipment
Travertine statue of a seated woman; painted
ivory statuette of a man; and a limestone tray
holding models of the vessels and implements
required for the ‘Opening of the Mouth’ ritual –
vases and cups for oil and incense, a forked flint
knife (missing), and a pair of flint blades
From grave E 21, Abydos; 6th Dynasty
AN1910.486-8: EEF excavations
Case 40 From Table to Tomb
1st Intermediate Period to Middle Kingdom
9th–13th Dynasties,
about 2125–1640 BC
The political division of Egypt in the 1st Intermediate Period is reflected in
diverse regional pottery styles, which gradually disappeared with the
centralisation of power in the 12th Dynasty. Much of the surviving pottery
comes from tombs and seems to have been made specifically for funerary
use. Although it broadly reflects the types of vessels and tableware in
domestic use, it was often made of coarser ware and forms did not change as
rapidly as the styles of everyday pottery.
Because tables were not a common household item, except in elite homes, it
was not necessary for pottery to have flat bases. Net bags were used for
carrying pots and for hanging them on pegs or poles. Sometimes the pots
themselves were pierced with holes below the rim so that they could be hung
on cords.
Storage jars were generally made with somewhat pointed bases; they were
placed in racks, or holes in the hardened mud floor. Serving dishes for food
and jars for beer, milk, or water were placed on pot stands made in a variety
of materials.
The regular parallel lines produced by wheel-turning are often visible on the
upper part of pots, but the roughly cut surface of the lower part shows that
excess clay was trimmed away after the pot had been removed from the
wheel and dried. The most common forms of surface decoration were incised
lines and coloured washes; painting was rarer, and simple linear designs were
the norm. Occasionally vessel shapes echo plant forms, such as flowers,
seed capsules, or the undulating profiles of bean pods.
More care was lavished on the production of small faience vessels, which
were glazed a rich blue and often decorated with plant motifs in black. Small
cosmetic jars were produced in faience, wood, and especially stone: the
distinctive, hard stone known as blue anhydrite, from a quarry not yet
identified, was first used as a luxury material for kohl-pots in the Middle
Kingdom.
1
Large storage jar, the mouth covered with
cloth, tied with string, and sealed with a lump
of clay bearing a seal impression. On the
outside, the remains of a rope carrying-net;
inside, the residue of a small amount of liquid
From tomb 67, Beni Hasan; 9th–10th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2525: John Garstang excavations, 1902-4
Figure 11 AN1896­1908 E.2525, detail
2
Jar of cream marl clay with quatrefoil mouth
From Ballas, North Town; 1st Intermediate Period
AN1895.661: ERA excavations
Spouted jar, red slipped ware, with applied
knobs
From grave 1637, Qau; 9th Dynasty
AN1923.477: BSAE and ERA excavations
Jar of white marl clay
From Ballas, North Town: 1st Intermediate Period
AN1895.780: ERA excavations
Jar with quatrefoil rim, decorated with
painted dots and zigzags
From grave 528, Qau; 9th Dynasty
AN1923.585: BSAE and ERA excavations
3
Bowl of white marl clay, and a small jar with
the clay crudely cut around the lower half,
pierced with two holes below the rim
From Ballas, North Town; 1st Intermediate Period
AN1895.674, 788A: ERA excavations
Bowl with five lips
From Sidmant; 1st Intermediate Period
AN1921.1256: BSAE and ERA excavations
4
Miniature stela of painted limestone, showing
the deceased man, Sisebek, seated before a
table laden with food offerings. Under the table
are sealed wine-jars in wooden stands
From el-Lahun, town site; 12th Dynasty
AN1889.1550: Flinders Petrie excavations, gift of H.M.Kennard
5
Drinking cup, with a red wash
From grave 491, Matmar; Middle Kingdom
AN1932.913: Guy Brunton excavations
Bowl of red slipped ware with random
splashes of white paint
From grave 106, el-Kab; Middle Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.2078: ERA excavations, 1897
Bowl with a crinkled rim decorated with red
slip and black paint, probably derived from a
Minoan prototype
From grave 326, Haraga; Middle Kingdom
AN1914.684: BSAE and ERA excavations
6
Jars of marl clay, one with a broken rim, the
other with incised potmarks
From graves 108 and 44, el-Kab; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2082, 2088: ERA excavations, 1897
Spouted jar, red slipped ware
From Riqqeh; 12th Dynasty
AN1913.502: BSAE and ERA excavatons
Jar with incised lines, coloured red over rim
and neck; tall jar with a flat ring base and red
and black decoration around the neck
From graves 326 and 327, Haraga; 12th Dynasty
AN1914.689-90: BSAE and ERA excavations
7
Small shouldered jar, red slipped
From grave 13, el-Kab; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2102: ERA excavations, 1897
Small jar decorated with incised lines
From grave 10, el-Kab; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2105: ERA excavations
Small jar of marl clay with incised decoration
and four holes pierced below the rim, and a jar
with incised wavy lines and two holes
From graves 26 and 76, el-Kab; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2025, E.2114: ERA excavations, 1897
8
Tall pottery stand (rim missing) to hold a dish,
decorated with an applied figure of a man
From Beni Hasan; 9th–11th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2527: Garstang excavations, 1902-4
Tall pottery stand
From el-Kab; 6th–11th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2091: ERA excavations, 1897
9
Basketwork ring, possibly for carrying a pot
on the head
From el-Lahun, town site (?); 12th Dynasty
AN1889.1189: Flinders Petrie excavations, gift of H.M.Kennard
Faience pot stand, inscribed for a man
named Hekeku
Provenance unknown; 12th Dynasty
AN1971.950: ex Bomford Collection
Figure 12 AN1971.950
10
Pottery flasks with undulating necks, with red
wash and red slip, and a flask decorated with
incised lines
From grave 10, el-Kab; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2096-7, 2019: ERA excavations, 1897
11
Juglet of Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware (restored)
with white-filled impressed and incised
decoration
From grave 354, Haraga; Middle Kingdom
AN1914.644: BSAE and ERA excavations
12
Two faience vases, kohl-pots of blue
anhydrite, and a fragment of Tell el-Yahudiyeh
ware
From grave 644, Haraga; Middle Kingdom
AN1914.651-4, 655.a: BSAE and ERA excavations
13
Faience vases with petal decoration in black
From Qena, and grave 7, Haraga; 12th Dynasty
AN1922.80: gift of Sir Arthur Evans, ex MacGregor Collection
L.94: on loan from Newbury Museum
14
Faience kohl-pot
From grave 1648, Hammamiya; 9th–10th Dynasty
AN1923.489: BSAE and ERA excavations
15
Jar of blue anhydrite
From grave E 244, Abydos; Middle Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.2222: ERA excavations, 1900
16
Limestone vase with a flower-shaped neck,
and kohl-pot of green limestone
From grave 361, el-Kab; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2132, 2149: ERA excavations, 1897
17
Kohl-pot with an integral stand, serpentine,
and obsidian kohl-pot with a haematite stick,
capped with gold
From graves E 231 and E 234, Abydos; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2200-02: ERA excavations, 1900
18
Circular loaf of bread
From cemetery 2100, Sidmant; 9th Dynasty
AN1921.1395: BSAE and ERA excavations
Conical vase of coarse ware, probably a
bread mould
From el-Kab; 9th–11th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2080: ERA excavations, 1897
Oval bread mould with incised decoration,
red-coated ware with some white decoration
From grave E 325, Abydos; Middle Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.2279: ERA excavations, 1900
Case 41 Central Weakness, Local Strength
1st Intermediate Period
9th–11th Dynasties
about 2125–1975 BC
Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the centralized economy controlled from
Memphis began to change its character. The 90-year reign of Pepi II near the
end of the 6th Dynasty may have led to political stagnation in the capital.
Regional governors (‘nomarchs’), who had previously regarded themselves as
members of the Memphite elite, now began to be buried in the provinces, and
to pass their offices to their children. This created powerful families with a
strong sense of local identity.
As the nomarchs became more powerful, their subjects also enjoyed an
increase in prosperity. Regional cemeteries contained rich grave goods, and
there is a marked increase in the distribution of precious gold objects. At the
same time, changes in religious practice and belief gave ordinary people a
chance for an afterlife. One result of this was that protective amulets became
more widely worn. One form of amulet introduced in this period is the scarabseal. Later Egyptian literature characterized the 1st Intermediate Period as an
era of anarchy. While the nomarchs did fight for power amongst themselves, it
was also a time when people from more lowly backgrounds had increased
access to goods that had been beyond the reach of their ancestors.
1
Wooden headrest, the headpiece carved in
the shape of a pair of cupped hands
From grave 86, Haraga; 1st Intermediate Period
AN1914.673: ERA and BSAE excavations
Figure 13 AN1914.673
2
Necklace of black faience and shell beads,
with carnelian and gold amulets
From grave 87, Mahasna; 7th–9th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.E.458: Garstang excavations, 1901
3
Five gold amulets in the shape of the god
Heh; two carnelian leg amulets, placed at the
ankles; gold beads with amulets; glazed
steatite stamp-seal in the form of a frog
From grave 1981, Hammamiya; 7th–8th Dynasty
AN1924.381, 378, 382.a: BSAE and ERA excavations
Figure 14 AN1924.381
Figure 15 AN1924.378
4
Travertine vase; two gold bracelets; gold
beads and Heh amulet; carnelian necklace
From grave 7762 (burial of a child), Qau; 7th–8th
Dynasty
AN1924.369-373: BASE and ERA excavations
Figure 16 AN1924.370­1
5
Travertine vases; fragmentary flint blade;
travertine kohl-pot; bronze blade; flint knife;
carnelian and faience beads
From the tomb of Intefiker, Dendera; 11th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1955-6, 1959-60; 1964, 1957, AN1896-1908 E.E.15960, 199: EEF excavations, 1898
6
Travertine miniature vases; travertine kohlpot with contents; gold, carnelian and green
faience beads; carnelian and black faience
beads; copper model adze blade
From grave Y250, Hu; 10th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1773-5, 1777, AN1896-1908 E.E.462-3: EEF
excavations, 1898-9
7
Faience beads in the form of fists,
hippopotamus heads, tjet-knots, and flies.
These formed part of two strings of amulets
found around the head of a child. Blue and
black faience beads; blue and black faience
beads decorated with ‘crumbs’ of blue faience
From graves 306 and 401, Matmar; from grave 2080,
Qau; 7th–8th
Dynasty
AN1931.256-9, 261: Brunton excavations; 1924.385: BSAE and ERA
Excavations
8
Travertine miniature vases; pink limestone
vase; two scarab-seals; gold bracelet; strings
of faience, carnelian and shell beads and
amulets
From grave 5207, Badari; 9th–10th Dynasty
AN1924.341-3, 344.a-b, 353, 355-7: BSAE and ERA excavations
9
Five necklaces; two bead bracelets or
anklets, and an anklet with a carnelian leg
pendant; two copper catches and faience
inlays from a decayed wooden box; copper
mirror disc, found in the box; limestone
headrest, repaired in antiquity; two travertine
vases; gold beads and amulets; a quartzite
grinder
From grave 1316 (burial of an old woman), Matmar; 7th–
8th Dynasty
AN1932.935-6, 938-9, 937, 940-2, 934, 933, 932, 931, 928-9, 943,
930: Brunton excavations
10
Pink limestone vase
From grave 3114, Badari; 7th–8th Dynasty
AN1924.352: BSAE and ERA excavations
11
Necklace of shell, glazed steatite and
carnelian beads
From grave 87, Mahasna; 7th–9th Dynasty
An1896-1908 E.E.457: Garstang excavations, 1901
12
Copper model hoe
From grave Y14, Hu; 1st Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.1909 EEF excavations, 1898-9
13
Copper dagger, with remains of a wooden
handle
From grave 308, Qau; 9th–10th Dynasty
AN1923.534: BSAE and ERA excavations
Figure 17 Cases 41­46 Case 42 Sculpture in the Middle Kingdom
Middle Kingdom to 2nd Intermediate Period
11th–17th Dynasties
about 1975–1540 BC
King Nebhepetre Mentuhotep, who reunited Egypt in the 11th Dynasty, came
from Thebes (modern Luxor), and the sculpture produced during his reign had
a distinctive, local style. The kings of the 12th Dynasty were also from a
Theban family, but they ruled the country from a new capital in the Faiyum,
where they were inspired by the art of the nearby pyramid complexes of the
Old Kingdom.
The power and wealth of the Middle Kingdom allowed kings to sponsor large
building projects and royal workshops for artists. When sculptors trained in
these studios travelled to work for the king, they influenced styles throughout
the country. As a result, statuary made for non-royal people closely imitated
royal sculpture. For instance, the high cheekbones, deep-set eyes, and large
ears used for images of Kings Senwosret III and Amenemhat III in the 12th
Dynasty were copied in sculpture for private men and women, giving many
statues the appearance of realistic portraits.
During the Middle Kingdom, sculptors became adept at carving the hard, dark
stones that were quarried in the Eastern Desert, in addition to working with
limestone and wood. Although some high-ranking individuals could dedicate
statues of themselves in temples, most statues were made for individual and
family tombs. Tomb statues were inscribed with a prayer asking the king and
the gods to give food and drink to the deceased.
1
Head from a limestone canopic jar
From tomb D 110, Abydos; 13th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2377: EEF excavations, 1900
2
Head of a man, from a black granite statue
Provenance unknown; 13th Dynasty
AN1965.879
3
Head of a king, from a limestone statuette
From Deir el-Bahri, Thebes; late 12th or 13th Dynasty
AN1933.1456: Mrs. G.H. Pope Bequest
4
Statuette of the steward SenwosretSenbebu, son of Ankhti-en-Mentu. On the back
of this statuette, which is made of igneous rock,
a hieroglyphic inscription identifies SenwosretSenbebu and his mother.
Probably from Thebes; early 13th Dynasty
AN1888.1457: Chambers Hall gift, 1855
Figure 18 AN1888.1457
5
Yellow sandstone statuette of three people.
On the left is the attendant Neferpesed, son of
Sit-Hathor, in the middle is a woman named
Dedetnub, and on the right is her son, the
attendant Kemau
From mastaba D 109-11, Abydos; late 12th or 13th
Dynasty
AN1913.411: EEF excavations, 1913
Figure 19 AN1913.411
6
Head of a man with a clean-shaven head, from
a serpentine statuette
From the ruins of House 530, Haragah, near the Fayum;
13th Dynasty
AN1914.748: BSAE and ERA excavations, 1914
7
Two wooden statuettes, representing men
with clean-shaven heads. One had moveable
arms that were made separately and attached
at the shoulder with a thin dowel
From a tomb at Deir el-Bahri, Thebes; early 12th
Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.4163-4: EEF excavations, 1907
Female figurines were placed in both male and female tombs. In contrast to
representations of elite women, these figurines have loose or plaited hair
instead of elaborate wigs, and their breasts and genitals are revealed. They
symbolized fertility and rebirth
8
Statuettes of women, steatite and painted
limestone
Naked women: possibly from Asyut (limestone), and
provenance unknown (steatite); Middle Kingdom
AN1892.1013: G.J. Chester Collection; AN1891.91: G.J. Chester
Collection
Harp player: from Thebes; Middle Kingdom
AN1922.212: MacGregor Collection
9
Two clay figurines, with holes for insertion of
hair and jewellery
From Gebelein (left) and the tomb of Idu II, Dendera;
Middle Kingdom
AN1890.330: G.J. Chester Collection; AN1896-1908 E.1920: EEF
excavations, 1898
10
Two wooden statuettes of women, one with
a peg for attaching hair separately
From Thebes (left) and Akhmim; Middle Kingdom
AN1892.850 and AN1888.533: G.J. Chester Collection
Women from the upper classes wore long, tight dresses and heavy wigs.
Some were honoured with their own statues, but more often they appeared
with a male relative.
11
Serpentine statuette of Hety, daughter of
Neferu, dedicated by her son Renefseneb
Provenance unknown; late 12th or 13th Dynasty
AN1985.152
Figure 20 AN1985.152
12
Copper statuette of a woman
From tomb E 107, Abydos; late 13th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2208: ERA excavations, 1900
13
Head of a woman from a granite pair statuette
Possibly from Giza; late 12th Dynasty
AN1872.86: G.J. Chester Collection
14
Images of non-Egyptians gave an ‘exotic’
appearance to objects like this faience seal
and an ivory spoon handle depicting a Nubian
woman and child
From el-Kab (seal) and grave 521, Dendera (spoon
handle); 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1807: ERA excavations, 1897; AN1896-1908 E.1803:
EEF excavations, 1898
Small figures of animals, which had religious associations, could be buried
with the dead
15
Limestone statuette of three monkeys
From burial 1, el-Kab; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2135: ERA excavations, 1897
Ivory statuette of a raging lion
From burial D 84, Abydos; 17th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2221: EEF excavations, 1901
Two hippopotamus figures, blue frit and
faience
From grave 7, Haragah (frit): 1st Intermediate Period;
and burial M 560 (faience), el-Mahasna: 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1784: ERA excavations, 1901; AN1949.353: BSAE
and ERA excavations
Egyptian children in elite families often wore a braid on the right side of the
head, known as a ‘Horus lock’ after the god Horus. On images of children who
had died, the lock might have protected the deceased.
16
Limestone statuette of a boy in a short kilt
From burial Y 471, Hu; 17th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1968: EEF excavations, 1899
Blue faience statuette of a shrouded boy
From burial 1, el-Kab; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.3788: ERA excavations, 1897
Figure 21 AN1896­1908 E.3788
17
Limestone statue of Mentuhotep and
Nefermesut, found in their mastaba tomb.
Inscriptions on the sides of the statue pray for
Mentuhotep (the man) to be honoured before
the god Osiris, and Nefermesut before the
goddess Hathor
From Dendera; 11th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.1971: EEF excavations, 1898
Figure 22 AN1896­1908 E.1971
18
Offerings for the pharaoh Senwosret II, in
painted limestone relief
From the mortuary temple of Senwosret II, Lahun; 12th
Dynasty
AN1914.701: BSAE and ERA excavations
19
Fragment of painted relief depicting bound
captives from Syria-Palestine
From the funerary temple of king Nebhepetre
Mentuhotep at Deir el-Bahri, Thebes; 11th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.699: EEF excavations, 1907
Case 43 Abydos and the Cult of Osiris
Middle Kingdom
11th–13th Dynasties
about 1975–1640 BC
The site of Abydos in southern Egypt was revered as the burial place of
Osiris, the god of the dead. The cult of Osiris absorbed a local deity named
Khenti-amentiu, whose name literally meant ‘the foremost of the Westerners’.
These ‘Westerners’ were the dead, who went to the west like the setting sun,
and Osiris ‘Khentiamentiu’ was their chief.
According to Egyptian beliefs, Osiris had been a mythical king who was
murdered by his brother Seth, the god of disorder and chaos. Mummification
restored health to the body of Osiris, and the magic of his wife and sister Isis
returned his procreative powers to him. Osiris sailed in triumph to his home
town of Abydos, while the royal throne passed to his son Horus and to all the
kings of Egypt.
In the Middle Kingdom, the worship of Osiris became more widespread and
influential. The 12th Dynasty kings built a temple to Osiris Khenti-amentiu
near the funerary enclosures of the Early Dynastic kings. Non-royal
cemeteries sprang up nearby, with hundreds of tombs for both local families
and those from elsewhere in Egypt who wanted to be buried in this sacred
area. Other people dedicated stelae and small shrines to praise Osiris and
ask him for blessings in the afterlife.
Osiris’ victory over death set an example for the Egyptians to follow. By
mummifying the body, performing funerary rites, and making offerings of
incense, food, and drink, the Egyptians empowered their dead with everything
required for eternal life.
An intact tomb at Abydos
Tomb E3, with several burials of children and adults, was one of the largest
tombs excavated by the Egyptologist John Garstang at Abydos. Each
undisturbed burial included beads, kohl-pots, and palettes for grinding
eyepaint. Sometimes a mirror was placed in front of the face, wrapped in cloth
to hide or protect the polished surface.
1
Two bronze mirror disks and the top of
a wooden handle
AN1896-1908 E.2182, 2186, and 2182.a
2
Faience staff head and kohl-pot, and
three vases of travertine, serpentine, and
faience
AN1896-1908 E.2172, 2160, 2171, 2189, 2176
3
Faience lion and weight
AN1896-1908 E.2183, E.4272
4
Ivory box decorated with a snake and
protective gods, and two faience
necklaces
AN1896-1908 E.2169, AN1896-1908 E.E.478, AN1896-1908
E.E.480
5
Eight kohl-pots of travertine, serpentine,
steatite, and pale blue anhydrite, and two
travertine vases
AN1896-1908 E.2170-71, 2173-4, 2187, 2190, 2159, 2175,
2188, 2142, 2185
6
Quartzite grinder and silver disk, on
which grains of eyepaint were found, two
lids of sandstone and limestone,
serpentine palettes and pestles, for
mixing eyepaint, and two spatulas made
of bone and siltstone
AN1896-1908 E. 2163-4, 2167-8, 2177-81, 2184, 2165-6
7
Beads of faience, garnet and carnelian
AN1896-1908 E.E.479, E.E.481-3
All from tomb E3, Abydos; late Middle Kingdom
ERA excavations, 1900
Connections between Egypt and Crete
Tomb 416 consisted of six burial shafts, which were damaged when the walls
between them collapsed. Discovered in 1907, the tomb was an important
source for the chronology of the Minoan culture of ancient Crete, because the
grave goods include a Minoan jar imported to Egypt and two cylinder seals
inscribed with the names of the 12th Dynasty kings Senwosret II, Senwosret
III, and Amenemhat III.
8
Bridge-spouted, decorated pottery jar
from Crete, an example of Classical
Kamares ware from the Middle Minoan
period (restored)
AN1896-1908 E.3295
Figure 23 AN1896­1908 E.3295
9
Bronze mirror with serpentine handle,
clay pot and steatite vase with lid. The
mirror surface has traces of cloth on one
side and hair on the other, from being
wrapped in cloth and placed near the
head of the deceased
AN1896-1908 E.3283, 3301, 3296
10
Three travertine kohl pots, two bone
hairpins, limestone palette for
eyepaint, and faience necklace
AN1896-1908 E.3271-3, 3290-1, 3284, AN1896-1908 E.E.628
11
Faience figurines of a hedgehog, lion,
and baboon; two faience vases;
fragments of a vase and bowl
AN1896-1908 E.3274-5, 3299; 3276-8; 3280
Figure 24 AN1896­1908 E.3274
Figure 25 AN1896­1908 E.3299
12
Man playing a stringed instrument, and
two men wrestling; limestone statuettes
with painted details
AN1896-1908 E.3298, 3297
Figure 26 AN1896­1908 E.3297
13
Steatite palette and pestle, and beads
of carnelian, garnet, amethyst, and
faience
AN1896-1908 E.3300, AN1896-1908 E.E.679
14
Two cylinder seals with the names of
12th Dynasty kings, and beads of
carnelian, garnet, amethyst, and faience
AN1896-1908 E.4249-50, AN1896-1908 E.E.630-1
All from tomb 416, Abydos; late Middle Kingdom
Garstang excavations, 1907
Stela of Khent-ekhtay-emhat
Khent-ekhtay-emhat was a temple official who dedicated this stela at Abydos
in order to honour Osiris and be close to the god’s cult. The limestone stela
depicts Khent-ekhtay-emhat at the left, with his arm raised as if he were
addressing an audience. The nineteen lines of hieroglyphs are a hymn to
Osiris, which reads in part:
Praising of Osiris, recited by the Attendant of the Chamber of henket
offerings, Khent-ekhtay-emhat, justified. He says:
‘Hail to you, Osiris, foremost of the Westerners,
On this beautiful day when you have arisen.
...Revered in the hearts of men, gods, the blessed, and the dead,
...Greatly beloved upon the earth,
...Great of appearances in Abydos,
Who has been justified before (his father) Geb and the Nine Gods
...Because of the magnitude of the reverence for you.
Such is Osiris, the heir of Geb, sovereign of the gods,
Power of heaven, prince of the living,
And king of those who are in the beyond.’
From Abydos; late 12th Dynasty or 13th Dynasty
Queen’s College Loan.1109
Headpiece for the mummy of a woman
Found, together with a sandal, in a grave
which contained no body or coffin, it
seems that this headpiece was ever used.
As a result, it has survived better than
others from the same cemetery which has
been placed over mummies buried with
wooden coffins, all of which had been
affected by damp.
The headpiece is made of cartonnage
formed of linen and plaster. A curious
feature is the sand adhering to the
painted surface, which suggests that it
was dropped into the empty grave while
the decoration was still wet
From grave 2114, Sidmant; late 1st Intermediate
Period
AN1921.1435, from Petrie’s excavations
Figure 27 AN1921.1435
Case 44 Abydos and the Cult of Osiris
Middle Kingdom
11th–13th Dynasties
about 1975–1640 BC
1
Painted clay rattle with a baboon head.
Seeds or clay pellets move inside if the
rattle is shaken
AN1896-1908 E.2240
2
Three pottery dishes, and shells from
the Red Sea
AN1896-1908 E.2238, 2248, 2252, 2225-7
3
Travertine kohl-pot, wooden kohl-stick,
and greywacke vase
AN1896-1908 E.2228-9, 2232
4
Two ivory wands incised with protective
animals and knife-wielding deities
AN1896-1908 E.2223-4
All from tomb D 79, Abydos; late Middle Kingdom
or 2nd Intermediate
Period EEF excavations, 1901
5
Copper mirrors
AN1913.400, 409
6
Blue anhydrite bowl, travertine kohl pot
with lid, shell-shaped electrum pendant,
and silver ring with rotating faience
scarab
AN1913.410, 401, 407, 406
All from tomb D 166, Abydos; Middle Kingdom
Egypt Exploration Fund, 1913
7
Serpentine vase, faience vase, and
faience statuette of the god Horus
From grave E 303, Abydos; late Middle Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.2153, 2198-9: ERA excavations, 1900
8
Five travertine vases, travertine kohlpot, and serpentine shabti inscribed for
the superintendent of the Delta, Nakht.
This is an early example of the
mummiform statuettes placed in burials to
perform manual labour for the deceased
in the afterlife
AN1896-1908 E.2122-6, 2129, 2128
9
Travertine eyes from a coffin or mask,
with a hollow for inlay
AN1896-1908 E.E.474; AN1896-1908 E.2127
10
Faience cylinder, and faience necklace
with a gold, turquoise, and carnelian
pendant in the shape of a shen-ring, the
hieroglyphic sign for ‘eternity’
AN1896-1908 E.E.472
Figure 28 AN1896­1908 E.E.472
All from the burial of Nakht, grave E 105, Abydos;
12th Dynasty
ERA excavations, 1900
11
Two faience cylinders; bronze mirror
with wooden handle; serpentine palette
and grinder; travertine vase; blue
anhydrite kohl-pot; and two kohl-sticks
of wood and faience
AN1896-1908 E.2149-50, 2140, 2131, 2137-9, 1751
12
Amethyst necklace; gold pendants in the
form of falcons, fish, and beak-to-beak
birds; and two strings of garnet and
carnelian beads, with pendants of jasper,
feldspar, lapis lazuli, turquoise, and
faience. The amethyst necklace was
wrapped around the neck of the
deceased, the gold pendants lay on the
chest, and the garnet and carnelian beads
encircled the wrists
Figure 29 AN1896-1908 E.4238,
E.4240, E.4243-4, E. 4241-2
AN1896-1908 E.4238, E.4240, E.4243-4, E.4241-2
All from tomb E 30, Abydos; 12th Dynasty
ERA excavations, 1900
The burial of Senebhenaf in tomb D 25 at Abydos dates to the end of the
Middle Kingdom or the 2nd Intermediate Period. His wooden coffin was
discovered in fragments, due to damage from ants and woodworm. The burial
included one canopic jar to hold the internal organs removed from the mummy
13
Canopic jar with human-headed lid.
Pottery decorated with paint; the yellow
and wavy red stripes imitate a stone
vessel, and the hieroglyphic inscription,
written in blue, names Senebhenaf ’s
father Sa-amun and his mother Ib-iaw
AN1896-1908 E.3541
14
Fragments from a wooden coffin
coated in plaster and inscribed in red and
blue on a yellow background. The
hieroglyphic signs representing birds and
animals have been drawn without any
legs, to prevent them from magically
coming to life and moving around
AN1896-1908 E.1952.a-c
15
Fragment of painted wood with faience
inlay, perhaps from the beard of a coffin
or mummy mask
AN1896-1908 E.3519
16
Mourning woman, on a fragment from a
painted wooden coffin. Female mourners
performed ritual laments at funerals, just
as the goddesses Isis and Nephthys had
mourned their brother Osiris
AN1896-1908 E.1953
All from tomb D 25, for a man named Senebhenaf,
Abydos; late Middle Kingdom or 2nd Intermediate
Period
EEF excavations, 1900
Figure 30 Cases 44 to 46 Case 45 Bread and Beer
1st Intermediate Period to Middle Kingdom
9th–13th Dynasties
About 2125–1640 BC
Model Scenes of Egyptian Life
Bakeries, breweries, and butcher shops supplied the food and drink offerings
that nourished the dead. In some Middle Kingdom tombs, these activities
were represented by carved wooden models so that the production of
offerings would continue in the afterlife. The models depict men and women at
work, or else carrying baskets of food to the tomb.
Bakeries and granaries are the most common types of model, since bread
was the staple food of the Egyptian diet. It was made from emmer wheat or
barley, which was milled into flour by women. The flour was sifted, mixed into
dough, and baked in pottery moulds in an oven fired from below. Extra grain
was stored in domed silos or in a partitioned granary.
Barley and emmer were also mixed with water and fermented to make beer,
the most popular beverage in Egypt. The fermented grain mixture was
strained and stored in large pottery jars. The strength of the beer could be
adjusted by adding more water, and the mash left after straining could be
eaten.
Pottery models of houses were also used in Middle Kingdom tombs, where
they were left in a chapel accessible to visitors. Known as ‘soul houses’, they
might have been used like a basin for libations in honour of the dead. The
models show the two-storey construction of a typical house, with a staircase
leading to a flat roof used as extra living and working space. Placing model
houses in tomb chapels might reflect the idea that the tomb was a ‘house’ for
the soul of the deceased.
1
Model brewery, painted wood
The men at the right are taking sheets of
bread dough from a stack on the floor and
adding them to a pot, where the dough
was fermented to make mash for beer. In
the next stage of the brewing process, two
men standing at a tall vat sieve the mash
from the beer liquid
Possibly from Deir el-Bersha; 11th or 12th Dynasty
AN1933.1446: gift of Mrs. G. H. Pope
2
Pottery model of a domed granary with
a hinged door
From grave Y518, Hu; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.2006: EEF excavations, 1899
Figure 31 AN1933.1446
3
Model granary, filled with emmer wheat,
barley, and tiger nuts
Inside the granary are two labourers and
two scribes. Emmer wheat and barley
were the chief grain crops, used to make
both bread and beer. Tiger nuts are a
sweet-tasting tuber from the sedge plant
From the tomb of Khety, Beni Hasan 575; 11th or
12th Dynasty
Figure 32 AN1896­1908 E.2310
AN1896-1908 E.2310: John Garstang excavations, 1903
4
Pottery ‘soul house’
From Rizeiqat; Middle Kingdom.
AN1890.657: G. J. Chester Collection
Figure 33 AN1890.657
5
Model bakery, painted wood
Two women grind grain and a third tends
a small oven, while a man standing at a
waist-high workspace makes flat loaves of
bread dough
From tomb 420, Beni Hasan ; 11th or 12th
Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2305: Garstang excavations, 1903
6
Models of offering bearers: a dwarf
balancing a package on his head, and a
young woman carrying a basket; painted
wood and linen
From the tomb of Khety, Beni Hasan 575; 11th or
12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2308 and E.2306: Garstang excavations, 1903
7
Model showing baking, brewing, and
butchering activities; painted wood In
addition to the milling of grain and brewing
of beer, this model shows a calf being
held down with its legs tied together while
a butcher slits its throat. Although meat
was expensive, Egyptians ate beef as well
as duck, goose, and fish from the Nile
From the tomb of Khety, Beni Hasan 575; 11th or
12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2312: Garstang excavations, 1903
Painted details on the wooden coffin of
Nefru, including granaries, a scribal
palette, tools, basketry, and weapons
Figure 34 AN1896­1908 E.2312
Tempera copy by Nina Davies of the coffin of
Nefru, from her tomb at Deir el-Bahri (TT 318),
11th Dynasty
AN1939.587: gift of Nina Davies
Case 46/47
1st Intermediate Period to Middle Kingdom
9th–13th Dynasties
about 2125–1640 BC
Model boats
Boats were the principal means of travel in ancient Egypt. The river Nile
served as a highway along which boatmen could row northwards with the
current, or sail south with the prevailing wind. The representation of boats in
the tomb was intended to ensure the mobility of the dead person in the next
life, but boats also had specific funerary meanings. In an ideal funeral, the last
voyage of an Egyptian was the transport of the mummy from the east bank of
the Nile to the west, the territory of the dead. Within their lifetimes, Egyptians
aspired to make the pilgrimage by boat to Abydos in Upper Egypt, to visit the
sacred area belonging to the god Osiris, who ruled the Underworld.
The journey of the sun itself was envisaged as a voyage from east to west
during daylight, then a night-time crossing through the Underworld to emerge
again at dawn in the east. Even the game of senet, being played aboard one
of the models displayed here, could have a funerary meaning: the players’
progress via the hazardous moves of the gaming pieces was like the passage
of the deceased through the dangerous points in the Underworld.
The boats shown here are made of plastered and painted wood, with linen
used for the sails and the crew’s clothing. Such models were included in large
numbers in elite tombs of the 1st Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom. A
full set would include boats being rowed (for travel north) and under sail (for
travel south).
Model of a funeral boat
Four mourners sit beside the mummy,
which is sheltered by a canopy. Behind
the lookout man, four crew members hoist
the sail; a set of oars is lashed to the
gunwales. The piece of wood attached to
the prow like a bow-strip may have served
to take the mooring-rope. This is one of
two funeral boats from the tomb of the
Overseer of Land, Ma; the other was a
rowing boat.
From tomb no.500, Beni Hasan; 12th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2296, from Garstang’s excavations, 1902-4
Figure 35 AN1896­1908 E.2296
Model of a military transport boat
One of four boats from the tomb of a man
named Tjau. In addition to the crew, the
figures on board include a bowman
standing beside the lookout man. Fixed to
the canopy over the deck are animal-hide
shields, and a bowcase lies under the
canopy. In front, two officers sit playing
senet (‘passing’: a board-game similar to
modern draughts). The helsman sits at the
stern beside the large steering-oar
From tomb no.186, Beni Hasan; 9th–11th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2301, from Garstang’s excavations, 1902-4
Figure 36 AN1896­1908 E.2301
Case 48 A Land Divided
2nd Intermediate Period
14th–17th Dynasties
about 1640–1540 BC
Immigrants from Western Asia had begun to settle in the eastern Nile Delta
during the Middle Kingdom, and from about 1640 a line of foreign kings
established themselves in the north. Known as the Hyksos (the Greek form of
the Egyptian expression ‘rulers of foreign lands’), they exerted control over the
greater part of Egypt. Their names are preserved on many of the numerous
scarab-seals of the time.
A distinctive style of black pottery with incised decoration, known from its
typesite as ‘Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware’, is particularly associated with this period.
Found all over the Eastern Mediterranean and as far south as Nubia, it first
appeared in Egyptian contexts in the late Middle Kingdom. Small jugs are the
most typical form, and the widespread distribution of these vessels testifies to
extensive trade during this period of change and movement. Although the
pottery is foreign in style, analysis of the clay has shown that particular styles
of jug were being produced in Egypt from local clay.
Egyptian control over Lower Nubia weakened at the beginning of this period,
and the rulers based at Kerma above the Third Cataract extended their power
northwards. The presence of semi-nomadic people from Lower Nubia living –
and perhaps also serving as mercenaries – in Upper Egypt is signified by the
cemeteries of ‘pan-graves’ in the south of the country. These shallow graves
contained goods and personal ornaments characteristic of a cattle-herding
culture with simple material needs. The fine hand-made pottery in these
graves included the beautiful ‘Kerma ware’, reminiscent of the black-topped
vessels of Predynastic Egypt.
‘I sit united with an Asiatic and a Nubian, each man in possession of his share
of this Egypt...’: a stela of Kamose, last of the Theban rulers of the 17th
Dynasty, records early skirmishes in the campaign to expel the Hyksos from
Egypt. Some two decades later, his successor Ahmose achieved the
reimposition of unified Egyptian rule and initiated the 18th Dynasty.
‘Pan grave’ goods from Upper Egypt
1
Kerma beakers, with blackened top and interior,
hand-made; jar of polished red ware, decorated
with comb impressions, and a faience vase
decorated with spirals
From grave O4, Abydos; 13th Dynasty
AN1910.692-3, 517-18: EEF excavations
2
Large bowl of incised black ware, filled with fat
and sherds; small bowl with punctuate
decoration; and kohl-pots of breccia and blue
anhydrite
From grave X 36, Hu; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.2016, 2029-30, 2037, 2214: EEF excavations, 1899
3
Decorated bovid (goat?) skull and horns
From grave 5477, Badari; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1925.492: BSAE and ERA excavations
4
Decorated bovid skull and horns
From grave X 23, Hu; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.2603: EEF excavations, 1899
5
Horn of an oryx (Oryx beisa), pierced with holes
as though to make a flute
From Hu; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.1922: EEF excavations, 1899
6
Copper snake; similar examples in extended
form have been identified as magic ‘wands’, but
the bent shape of this one suggests it may have
been worn as a neck ornament
From grave Y.458, Hu; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.1907: EEF excavations, 1899
7
Jewellery and other goods from the burial of
an adolescent boy
Found beside the head: pottery jar containing
pieces of bone and other residue, remnants of
rope network outside; copper axehead, and
Spatha shell containing eyepaint (1930.492-4)
Found on the body: silver torc and beads on the
neck, beads on the elbows, shell bracelets, glazed
blue beads around the waist, and bead anklets
AN1930.492-4, 1930.495, 504, 506-9, 511, 501, 499, 502, and 498
All from grave M 3170, Mostagedda; 2nd Intermediate Period
Guy Brunton excavations
8
Faience pot stand and pottery bowl
From grave 1303, Qau; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1923.560-61: BSAE and ERA excavations
9
Pottery bowl with incised decoration
From grave Y.323, Hu; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.2018: EEF excavations, 1899
10
Bronze tweezers on a wooden block pierced for
suspension
From grave Y.434, Hu; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.1779: EEF excavations, 1899
11
Jug of Cypriot Bichrome ware, faience juglet and
limestone kohl-pot
From grave 1270, Mayana cemetery K, Sidmant; late 2nd
Intermediate Period
AN1921.1373-4, 1376: BSAE excavations
12
Jar with a plain dish used as a lid, decorated in
the style of Cypriot Bichrome ware
From grave 902, Qau; late 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1923.578: BSAE excavations
13
Ivory fly pendant
From grave 7196, Qau; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1924.407; BSAE and ERA excavations
14
Flasks, one with incised decoration and applied
knobs, one with an undulating neck
From graves E159 and 21E, Esna; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.754, 782: ERA excavations
15
Juglet of Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware, decorated jug,
pot stand of red ware
From grave 37, Tell el-Yahudiyeh; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.3499, 3491, 3536: BSAE and ERA excavations
16
Juglet of red slipped ware
From Tell el-Yahudiyeh; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.3473: BSAE and ERA excavations
17
Jug with painted linear decoration, and cup of red
ware
From grave 43, Tell el-Yahudiyeh: 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.3484, 3485A: BSAE and ERA excavations
18
Vessels of Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware
Juglet in the shape of a double duck body with a
single head
Provenance unknown; 2nd Intermediate Period.
AN1971.946: ex Bomford Collection
Juglet with impressed white-filled zigzags, made
of Nile clay
From Tell el-Yahudiyeh; 2nd Intermediate Period.
AN1888.268: EEF excavations
Juglet with impressed white-filled lines
Provenance unknown; 2nd Intermediate Period.
AN1892.1039: G.J. Chester Collection
Jug with white-filled incised decoration including
spirals, made of Nile clay
Provenance unknown; 2nd Intermediate Period.
AN1896-1908 C.96: G.J. Chester Collection
19
Fragment of jug with incised white-filled lotus
design
From Harageh: 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1914.671: BSAE and ERA excavations
20
Juglet, cream slipped, with painted red-brown
linear decoration
From grave 2, Tell el-Yahudiyeh; 2nd Intermediate Period
AN1896-1908 E.3554: BSAE and ERA excavations
21
Scarab-seals of steatite and glazed faience, with
typical designs – an ibex, illegible hieroglyphs, a
bird with solar symbols, and coiled rope pattern;
scarab-seals of glazed steatite with the names of
Hyksos rulers – Sheshi, Sekhaenre Yakbim, and
Yakbim
From graves 1 and 6, Tell el-Yahudiyeh; 2nd Intermediate
Period
AN1896-1908 E.E.634-5 and 637-8: BSAE and ERA excavations
Provenance unknown; 15th and 16th Dynasty
AN1892.52, 193, 209: G.J. Chester Collection
Figure 37 Cases 48 to 50 Case 49 The Tomb of the Lady Maket
New Kingdom
18th Dynasty
about 1540–1292 BC
Egypt and the Aegean in the Early New Kingdom
From the late Second Intermediate Period onwards, trade flourished between
Egypt and the Mediterranean, especially the Mycenaean culture of mainland
Greece, the Minoan civilization on Crete, and the commercial centres of
Cyprus and the Syria-Palestine coast. These trade links contributed to the
wealth of a newly reunified Egypt and brought the country into wider contact
with its neighbours. Distinctive pottery made in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus
was imported to Egypt, where it inspired Egyptian potters to imitate the
unusual shapes and designs of the foreign vessels.
Both imported and locally-made pottery was discovered in a house at the
abandoned workers’ village of el-Lahun. The house had been converted into a
tomb containing twelve coffins and at least 40 bodies, which were buried over
two or three generations at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. One of the
coffins held the body of the ‘Mistress of the house’ Maket, according to the
inscription on her silver ring. This honorary title was given to women from elite
families. The tomb also contained headrests, cosmetic jars and mirrors,
unusual faience vessels, and a wooden throwstick used for hunting birds.
1
Pithos-shaped pottery jar, imported
from Greece (Mycenaean II)
From the tomb of Montu-her-khepeshef (TT 20),
Thebes; early 18th Dynasty
AN1911.446: EEF excavations; gift of Norman de Garis Davis
2
Two pottery juglets, one imported from
Greece (Mycenaean IIIA), the other from
Cyprus or the Levant
From graves 53 (left) and 1289, Sidmant; 2nd
Intermediate Period or 18th Dynasty
AN1921.1436.a, 1392: BSAE and ERA excavations
3
Vase imported from Crete (Late Minoan
IB), and a handle decorated in similar
style
From grave 137, Sidmant (vase) and probably
from Sidmant (handle); early 18th Dynasty.
AN1921.1342-42.a: BSAE and ERA excavations; EEF
excavations
Figure 38 AN1921.1342
4
Pottery juglet of Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware
From grave 1279, Sidmant; 2nd Intermediate
Period
AN1927.1390: BSAE and ERA excavations
5
Pottery juglet, travertine vase, and
lump of pumice
From grave 1262, Sidmant; 2nd Intermediate
Period
AN1921.1318-20: BSAE and ERA excavations
6
Two pottery jars, a travertine kohl-pot,
two travertine ear studs, and pottery
model boat with miniature pots
From grave 1806, Abydos; late 17th or early 18th
Dynasty
AN1926.159, 161-2, 172, 173.a-b, 169, 164-5, 167: BSAE and
ERA excavations
7
Pottery pot stand
From grave 190, Abydos; late 17th or early 18th
Dynasty
AN1926.191: BSAE and ERA excavations
8
Wooden throwstick
AN1890.831
9
Faience bead incised with a god; two
scarabs and a gold ring with a scarab;
faience seal with the names of King
Thutmose II; gold earrings; faience
leopard heads used as necklace
terminals; and a necklace of beads and
scarabs
AN1890.771, 777-8, 764, 784-5, 787.a, AN1912.155
Figure 39 AN1890.764; detail of seal
10
Two travertine vases and an ivypatterned juglet imported from Greece
(Late Mycenaean II)
AN1890.812, 867, 822
Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H. Martyn Kennard
All from the tomb of Maket at el-Lahun; early 18th
Dynasty
Figure 40 AN1890.822
11
Pottery figurine of a woman on a bed;
serpentine kohl-pot with a woman
carved on one side; and three serpentine
vases
AN1890.825, 801-4
12
Faience vase, shallow bowl, and hornshaped vessel
AN1890.815, 821, and 823
Figure 41 AN1890.823
13
Bronze mirror; wooden comb; a
pumice stone; faience beads; stone
bowl; a shell from the Red Sea; three
kohl-pots of wood, travertine, and
serpentine; bronze and wood kohl-sticks;
two wooden kohl-tubes; and a bronze
knife and two whetstones
AN1890.792-3, 790-91, 798-99, 806, 808, 814, 820, 824, 8267, 885, AN1896-1908 E.E. 531
All from the tomb of Maket at el-Lahun; early 18th
Dynasty
Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H. Martyn
Kennard
14
Five pottery vases and a lid; two
spindle bottles inspired by Syrian pottery
forms; and four bowls, all of local
manufacture
AN1890.882, 875, 863, 848, 849, 846, 860, 852, 840-3, and
878
15
Three wooden headrests. The headrest
in the middle has ivory inlays, and the
headrest in front could be folded in half for
storage or travelling
AN1890.828-30
16
Two flasks, one of travertine and the
other of painted pottery
AN1890.818, 833
17
Pottery bowl, vase, and juglet with
painted decoration
AN1890.838, 837, 831
18
Four pottery juglets, one with a double
body; imported from Cyprus (Late
Cypriote I)
AN1890.855, 857, 887, 861
From the tomb of Maket at el-Lahun; early 18th
Dynasty
Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H. Martyn Kennard
Case 50 The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom
New Kingdom
18th–19th Dynasties
about 1540–1190 BC
In the reign of Ahmose, first king of the 18th Dynasty, the Hyksos were
expelled from Lower Egypt and the country was reunited. The military origins
of the New Kingdom, and the acquisition of an Egyptian ‘empire’ during its
course, created a new model of kingship, as well as economic prosperity.
Ahmose extended Egyptian influence in Nubia, breaking the power of the
rulers based at Kerma. His immediate successors Amenhotep I and
Thutmose I also campaigned in Nubia and the Near East, extending Egyptian
control as far as the Euphrates river in Syria. The king began to be depicted
as a warrior, leading his troops into battle from his chariot and returning
victorious to give thanks to Amun, the local god of Thebes.
Dedicating part of their revenues to Amun, the pharaohs of the New Kingdom
extended his temple at Karnak, and his priesthood became one of the most
powerful institutions in Egypt. Rulers strove to surpass the achievements of
their predecessors; kings whose ambitions exceeded their resources usurped
the monuments of others, whose names they replaced with their own.
The pharaohs of the New Kingdom built for themselves, as well as for the
gods. Although royal burials became less visible, hidden away in the Valley of
the Kings, imposing funerary temples were erected on the western bank at
Thebes. These ‘mortuary temples’ ensured the survival of the king’s ka (soul)
through the regular provision of worship and offerings from the royal estates.
The portrayal of the king as victorious warrior reached its climax in the 19th
Dynasty with Seti I and his son Ramesses II, the greatest builder of all. It was
reprised in the following dynasty by Ramesses III, but in reality, Egyptian
domination of foreign territory was already beginning to crumble.
1
Bronze sword blade and socket
The blade is inscribed with an extended
titulary of Kamose, the last ruler of the
17th Dynasty, headed by a falcon sphinx
trampling a prisoner. The ring at the top of
the socket, which held a now-missing
wooden handle, is inlaid in gold with a
floral pattern and the cartouche of
Kamose
AN1927.4622: John Evans Collection
Figure 42 AN1927.4622
2
Bronze axehead, inscribed with the name
of Ahmose, successor of Kamose and
founder of the 18th Dynasty
Possibly from a tomb at Dra abu el-Naga, Western
Thebes; 18th Dynasty
AN1927.4623: John Evans Collection
Figure 43 AN1927.4623
3
Two wooden cramps, inscribed with the
names of Seti I. These were used to
strengthen the joints between blocks of
stone; the powerful name of the king gave
further protection
From the cenotaph of Seti I, Abydos; 19th Dynasty
AN1933.1447, 1448: Sayce Bequest
4
Part of the royal titulary of Thutmose II,
from the back pillar of a peridotite statue
Probably from Medinet Habu, Western Thebes;
18th Dynasty
AN1965.881: G. J. Chester Collection
Hatshepsut and Deir el-Bahri
After the death of Thutmose II, his wife Hatshepsut first acted as regent for
her stepson, Thutmose III, then declared herself ruler. In the eighth year of
her reign she began construction of her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri,
situated next to that of King Nebhepetre Mentuhotep, the most significant
monument on the west bank at Thebes. She also moved the local cult of
Hathor from the older shrine to her own. By appropriating and surpassing the
past, she hoped to legitimize her usurpation of the throne
5
Limestone block. The carved and
painted decoration forms a rebus of one.of
Hatshepsut’s names, Maatkare: the
horned sun-disk can be read Re, the
uraeus-serpent Maat, the upraised arms
ka. After Hatshepsut’s death, an attempt
was made to remove all memory of her
rule from history. By chiselling out the ka
sign, her name was made illegible and
she would be denied sustenance in the
afterlife
AN1896-1908 E.4303: EEF excavations, 1906–7
6
Painted limestone fragment, depicting a
marine with a shield and axe
AN1961.399: Gift of Miss P. J. Walker, from the collection of
Howard Carter
Figure 44 AN1961.399
7
Faience menit fragments, inscribed with
the name of Hatshepsut
AN1896-1908 E.2729: EEF excavations 1903–4, 1964.221
All objects from Deir el-Bahri; 18th Dynasty, reign
of Hatshepsut
Objects from a foundation deposit
The objects displayed here come from one of the 16 deposits placed in the
foundations of Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahri, Western Thebes. The
construction of a new temple was accompanied by many rituals, beginning
with the marking-out of the site. Foundation deposits were placed at the
corners of the structure, and also at significant points within it. These typically
consisted of food, pottery and stone vessels, jewellery, amulets, and model
building tools. Many objects were inscribed with the name of the temple’s
royal founder
8
Travertine vase and lid; model adze of
wood, copper and rawhide; wooden
model adze, representing the
hieroglyphic sign setep; wooden model
of a rocker for moving stone blocks;
wooden model hoe; basketwork pot
stand; reed mat, one of several used to
cover the pottery in the deposit. Some of
these objects are inscribed with the name
of Hatshepsut ‘beloved of Amun of Djeserdjeseru’ (the name of her temple at Deir
el-Bahri)
From Deir el-Bahri; 18th Dynasty
AN1895.146-49, 150-52: EEF excavations
Case 51 Pottery and the Decorative Arts in the New
Kingdom
New Kingdom
18th Dynasty
about 1540–1292 BC
The growing prosperity of Egypt in the 18th Dynasty is reflected in a new
fashion for fine pottery, especially miniature forms. Contemporary graves
have preserved a range of objects which were probably treasured
possessions in life, as well as necessities for the well-stocked tomb.
Beautifully crafted vessels were made for personal use, probably as
containers for scented oil or cosmetics. Figure-vases were made by shaping
the clay in a mould, and covering it with a slip which was polished before
firing. Additional details could be added in brown or black paint.
Both wild and domesticated animals were popular subjects for pottery and the
decorative arts in general. A cosmetic dish in the shape of a duck, or a kohlpot adorned with a monkey, made playful references to the natural world, but
also related these objects to the imagery of rebirth and sexual attraction.
Craftsmen were inspired by foreign imports as well as traditional Egyptian
themes. Ceramic shapes from Greece and Cyprus were copied in pottery or
stone. Vases made exclusively for the tomb were sometimes decorated after
firing with colourful painted designs recalling the floral garlands placed on
wine jars for festive occasions. Another, but less successful, innovation was to
coat pottery and stone vessels with a glossy resin similar to that used on
painted coffins and walls.
1
Fish-shaped vase, moulded pottery
From grave 166, Rifa; 18th Dynasty
AN1909.128: BSAE and ERA excavations, 1907
2
Pottery bowl with white dots, and a
travertine vase with one handle
From grave E 187, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2446, 2345: ERA excavations, 1900
3
Vase in the form of a pouncing lion,
moulded pottery with painted details
From tomb D 9, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2440: EEF excavations, 1900 o
4
Decorated pottery juglet of Mycenaean
IIIA type, and a double vase, made of two
pieces of pottery joined before firing
From grave 20, Rifa; 18th Dynasty
AN1909.130, 126: BSAE and ERA excavations, 1907
5
Pottery vase in the form of a resting ibex,
serpentine vase, and green jasper
kohl-pot
From grave 1910, Hammamiya; 18th Dynasty
AN1924.416, 414-5: BSAE and ERA excavations
6
Bronze jug with a lotus-shaped handle
From mastaba 340, Dendera; 18th or 19th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2438: EEF excavations, 1898
7
Flask with hinged lid, made of a tin and
lead alloy similar to pewter
From grave G 70, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2442: EEF excavations, 1902
Figure 45 AN1896­1908 E.2442
8
Pair of green leather shoes for a child
AN1896-1908 E.2430
Pottery vases in the form of a female
offering bearer, who carries a lidded
basket, and a kneeling woman; two
painted pottery vases; and a complex
vase made as a ring with several small
‘vases’ opening into the top
AN1896-1908 E.2431-5
Figure 46 AN1896­1908 E.2432
Six strings of glass and faience beads,
with a carnelian pendant
AN 1896-1908 E.E.287-9, 423, 556-7: EEF excavations, 1904
All from grave W 1, Abydos; late 18th Dynasty
9
Vase in the form of a calf, and upper part
of a vase in the shape of a woman;
moulded and fired pottery
From grave D 29D, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2670, 2669: EEF excavations, 1900
Figure 47 AN1896­1908 E.2670
10
Vase in the form of a hedgehog, red
polished pottery with painted details;
fragment of stone bowl incised with
lotuses
AN1896-1908 E.2775-6
Figure 48 AN1896­1908 E.2775
Travertine vase, juglet, and kohl-pot;
limestone kohl-pot; steatite kohl-pot
with monkey
AN1896-1908 E.2770-4
All from grave D 11, Abydos; early 18th Dynasty
EEF excavations, 1900
11
Model stone vase with painted
decoration and carved heker-ornaments
Provenance unknown; 18th Dynasty
Queen’s College Loan.1131
Pottery vase with a coating of plaster and
Pistacia resin, inscribed in hieratic, ‘words
spoken by Nekhunefer’.
Probably from the tomb of Iuya and Tuya, Thebes;
18th Dynasty
AN1955.462: Gift of M. Cassirer
12
Spindle vase and two flasks with
handles. The square shape of one flask
imitates a leather pouch.
AN1896-1908 E.2410, 2404-5
13
Vase in the form of a naked woman, and
a frog-shaped vase; moulded
pottery
AN1896-1908 E.2426-8
14
Three decorated pottery vases, pottery
vase with two handles, serpentine vase
with wooden stopper, and the double neck
of a decorated vase
AN1896-1908 E.2407, 2416, 2418, 2415, 2424, 2428
15
Faience bowl decorated with lotus
blossoms, wooden bowl, and part of a
limestone bowl with residue from a
scented resin inside
AN1896-1908 E.2412, 2421, 2411
All from grave E 178, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
ERA excavations, 1900
16
Pottery drinking cup with a handle; lid
from a small basket; limestone kohl-pot
and wooden kohl-stick; and wooden lid
in the shape of a trussed duck, from a
cosmetic dish; limestone kohl-pot with a
fish incised on its lid; and a reed basket
AN1921.1284, 1271, 1292, 1288, 1270, 1266, 1269
17
Duck head and wing from the lid of a
cosmetic dish, wood with ivory inlay; and
fragment of a fish-shaped vase,
moulded pottery with painted details. The
fish’s open mouth becomes a lotus
blossom, which was the spout of the vase
AN1921.1269, 1291
All from the burial of the scribe Men-kheper,
Sidmant 263; 18th Dynasty
BSAE and ERA excavations
18
Two Egyptian copies of Cypriot basering juglets, in red polished ware, and a
travertine juglet in the same form
From Medinet Ghurab (pottery) and Saqqara
(travertine); 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2455-6: ERA excavations, 1904; AN1886.113:
G. J. Chester Collection
Case 52 Koptos and Sinai
New Kingdom
18th–19th Dynasties
about 1540–1190 BC
Harvesting the Riches of the Desert
The desert had negative aspects for the ancient Egyptians: it was the arid and
chaotic ‘red land’, inhabited by nomads and wild animals. But it was also a
valuable source of stones and minerals, exploited throughout the Dynastic
Period.
Koptos (modern Qift) is situated on the east bank of the Nile at the mouth of
the Wadi Hammamat, a dry river bed leading into the desert. Natural roads
like this were used as corridors to the Red Sea, the point of departure for
trading expeditions. In the desert around Wadi Hammamat were stone
quarries and mineral deposits including gold-bearing quartz and lead ore. The
local deity of Koptos was Min. He became the guardian of the eastern desert,
with epithets such as ‘lord of the desert land’ and ‘he who finds the metal’,
showing that his guidance was vital to mining expeditions. He was rewarded
by the construction of a temple that remained in use throughout the Dynastic
Period, and Koptos itself prospered as a result of its importance to trade and
mining.
The mountainous Sinai peninsula contains significant deposits of copper ore
and cuprous stones such as turquoise and malachite. The area was under the
protection of the goddess Hathor in her aspect of ‘Mistress of Turquoise’. Her
temple at Serabit el-Khadim was founded in the Middle Kingdom and enlarged
by successive mining expeditions. Offerings made there to Hathor ensured a
good outcome for the expedition: they included glass vessels and faience
objects. The blue-green colouring, mimicking that of turquoise, may have
been intended to encourage the goddess to reveal the location of rich veins of
stone.
The temple of Min at Koptos was enlarged in the New Kingdom by Thutmose
III. Little of the temple was left above ground by the time of its excavation, but
there remained several of the foundation deposits, buried at significant parts
of the temple during its construction. Seven were discovered, and a
representative selection of objects is displayed here.
1
Clay double vases
AN1896-1908 E.4292, 4312
2
Clay vessel containing fragments of
faience
AN1896-1908 E.4504
3
Faience beads: menit-necklace, with fishshaped beads; string of ‘melon’ beads; six
strings of beads
AN1896-1908 E.E.641-42, 238
4
Clay bread mould; clay pot
AN1896-1908 E.4500, 4519
5
Model grinders in travertine and
sandstone, inscribed with the name of
Thutmose III ‘beloved of Min of Koptos’
AN1896-1908 E.4296, 4295
6
Travertine vase and bowl, inscribed with
the name of Thutmose III; faience model
fig
AN1896-1908 E.4293-94, 4532
7
Complex clay vase made of five joined
vessels, painted and decorated with cows,
scorpions, and breasts
AN1896-1908 E.4291
8
Metal objects: copper adze, knife, and
axehead, inscribed with the name of
Thutmose III; bronze arrowheads; bronze
chisels.
AN1896-1908 E.4297, 4299, 4298, 4533-4534, 4535-4538,
4639
9
Clay bowls, one containing flour; clay
vase
AN1896-1908 E.4503, 4508, 4524
10
Scarabs and amulets of faience, glazed
steatite, and blue frit
AN1896-1908 E.E.669
All objects from the Temple of Min, Koptos; 18th
Dynasty
Petrie excavations, 1894
The minerals of the Sinai peninsula were exploited from the Early Dynastic
Period onwards, first at Wadi Maghara. Once this site was exhausted during
the Middle Kingdom, mines were opened at Serabit el-Khadim, and a temple
erected there to Hathor. This was not built to the typically rigid plan of most
Egyptian shrines, but took the form of a long series of small chambers, added
to by each mining expedition
11
Column capital in the shape of a Hathor
head, made of local sandstone
Probably early Middle Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.3942
12
Faience votive offerings; fragments of
plaques depicting spotted cats; plaque
with a Hathor head; bowl fragments with
running ibexes and the forepart of a griffin;
fragments of model throwsticks, inscribed
for Seti I and Ramesses II
AN1896-1908 E.3343, 3345, 3354, 3337-38, 3320-21
13
Glass fragments, from vessels offered in
the temple
New Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.4486
14
Lumps of turquoise in sandstone matrix
AN1896-1908 E.3360
15
Pottery crucible fragment with a residue
left from copper smelting, and a lump of
slag, a by-product of copper smelting
AN1896-1908 E.4484A, 4484
16
Faience sistrum handle, inscribed with
the name of Thutmose III; faience head of
a cat
New Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.4462A, AN1911.614
17
Faience bowl fragment, decorated in
black with lotus flowers and deer
New Kingdom
AN1912.57
18
Travertine vessels: fragments with the
names of Ahmose Nefertari and
Thutmose I; vase in the form of the god
Bes, with cartouches of Ramesses II;
fragment of a vessel in the form of a
hippopotamus or bull, with cartouches of
Merenptah, vase in the form of a dwarf
carrying a vessel
New Kingdom
AN1911.408, 409, 406, 411, 407
19
Fragments of votive statues, dedicated
by members of mining expeditions.
Some are carved from the local
sandstone, but others are of higher quality
and must have been made in Egypt
before the expedition set out. Royal
statues were also discovered in the
temple
Middle Kingdom to New Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.4471-72
14 and 15 from Wadi Maghara; all other objects
from the Temple of Hathor, Serabit el- Khadim
EES excavations, 1905
20
Travertine lotus chalice, restored, and a
fragment of another. Both are inscribed
with the names of pharaoh Amenhotep III,
and a dedication to Hathor, Mistress of
Turquoise. The horizontal line of
hieroglyphs at the bottom records that the
chalices were offered by the treasury
scribe Panehesy, who led a mining
expedition to Sinai in year 36 of
Amenhotep’s reign
From the Temple of Hathor at Serabit el-Khadim;
18th Dynasty
AN1911.414, 413.a: Petrie excavations, 1904-5
Figure 49 Cases 49 to 52 Case 53 State Religion and Private Belief
New Kingdom
18th–19th Dynasties
about 1540–1190 BC
The gods of Egypt were worshipped in temples to which ordinary people had
no access. Within these worlds in miniature, gods lived a kind of daily life,
tended by the priests: their images were clothed for the day, offered food,
incense and praise, and put to rest at night in their shrines. When they
travelled outside the temple for the great religious festivals, the images were
still concealed in their shrines, carried in procession on model boats. On these
occasions, however, worshippers could present oracular requests to the
hidden divinity: the answer, conveyed by the movement of the shrine, would
be interpreted by the priests.
Such oracles were used to resolve all kinds of personal problems and legal
disputes. A written request for an oracle could also be transmitted via the
temple priesthood, and votive offerings and inscribed prayers, often in the
form of miniature stelae, were deposited within temples and at more informal
shrines in order to obtain a personal benefit, such as healing or protection.
Within the home, lesser gods like Bes often figured more prominently than the
major divinities. They were thought to influence life’s crucial events, such as
childbirth or serious illness. Occasionally, revered human figures attained
divine status and were seen as ready listeners to prayers and requests for
help.
Throughout the New Kingdom, state religion was dominated by the god
Amun-Re and other Theban divinities such as Hathor, the goddess who
protected the necropolis of Western Thebes. For two decades in the later 18th
Dynasty, they were all displaced by the Aten, the divine power embodied in
the sun’s disk. Favoured as sole god by Pharaoh Akhenaten, who came to the
throne in about 1353 BC as Amenhotep IV, the Aten was presented with food
and incense at altars in the open courts of a new style of temple. The cult
barely outlived its founder, and in the reign of his successor Tutankhamun,
Amun-Re and his divine relatives reassumed their position.
1
Small votive stelae of steatite and
painted limestone, carved with ears to
ensure that the donor’s prayer would be
heard; and a miniature stela painted with
a figure of the god Ptah
Provenance unknown; New Kingdom
AN1983.185: ex Wellcome Collection
From Saqqara; New Kingdom
AN1892.1093: G.J. Chester Collection
From the North Suburb, el-Amarna: 18th Dynasty
AN1932.1138: EES excavations
Figure 50 AN1892.1093
2
Votive models in faience: ears, eyes,
Hathor heads, a Hathor cow’s head, a
fragmentary terracotta of a woman breastfeeding, and a fragmentary faience bowl
showing a donor
From the temple of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep, Deir
el-Bahri; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2731, 2735, 2737, 2739, 2741-2, 2762, 871:
EEF excavations, 1904
3
Stela of painted limestone, showing an
unidentified couple adoring ‘The Cat of the
god Re’, and ‘The Great Cat, the peaceful
one, in his perfect name of Atum’ – two
aspects of the same solar divinity.
From Deir el-Medina; 19th Dynasty
AN1961.232: ex Armytage Collection
Figure 51 AN1961.232
4
Wooden model phalluses
From the Hathor chapel of Thutmose III, Deir elBahri; 18th Dynasty or later
AN1926.400-1: gift of Mrs G.D. Hornblower, from the EEF
excavations of 1893-1908
5
Pottery jar, probably for milk, with applied
modelled decoration: a Hathor face, and
arms holding breasts
From Qurna; 18th Dynasty
AN1892.1066: G.J. Chester Collection
Figure 52 AN1892.1066
6
The royal family worshipping the Aten:
fragment of limestone column showing
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Princess
Meretaten offering to the sun-disk
From the Great Palace, el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
AN1893.1-41 (75): Flinders Petrie excavations
Figure 53 AN1893.1­41 (75)
7
Bronze situla for liquid offerings,
inscribed with the names of the god ReHarakhte, and Akhenaten
From the Great Temple, el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
AN1927.4104: EES excavations
8
Bronze tongs in the shape of hands, and
a fragmentary pottery bowl containing
lumps of incense (Pistacia resin) mixed
with charcoal
From el-Amarna, Main City (tongs) and vicinity of
the Great Temple (bowl); 18th Dynasty
AN1924.84, AN1893.1-41 (397), EES and Flinders Petrie
excavations
9
Oracular petitions inscribed in hieratic on
limestone ostraca; the smaller ostracon
asks –
As for the dreams one shall see, will
they be good?
– and the reverse side has a drawing of
an eye.
The text of the larger ostracon invokes the
help of the deified pharaoh Amenhotep I
in a matter concerning the theft of clothes
From Thebes: 19th–20th Dynasty
ANAshmolean H.O. 1010, ANAshmolean H.O. 4: gift of Sir Alan
Gardiner
10
Pottery stela incised with the figure of a
pharaoh
From Medinet Ghurab; 18th Dynasty
AN1925.639: gift of F. Ll. Griffith
11
Fragment of pottery jug inscribed in
hieratic, ‘Nofretari to her husband
Ahmose’ – the deified Queen Ahmose
Nofretari, wife of Ahmose and mother of
Amenhotep I, was revered as the patron,
together with her son, of the Theban
necropolis
Provenance unknown; 18th Dynasty
Figure 54 AN1924.84
AN1896-1908 E.2654
12
Fragments of limestone vase dedicated
to the deified Amenhotep I by a man
named Ipwy
From Thebes; 19th Dynasty
AN1960.1285.a,b: gift of Nina Davies
Case 54 Egypt and the Wider World
New Kingdom
18th–19th Dynasties
about 1540–1190 BC
The Hyksos domination of Lower Egypt from about 1640 to 1540 was the first
time that Egypt had been occupied by a foreign power, but it also brought
innovations that were beneficial. The horse and chariot were perhaps the
most significant of these innovations. They became essential for hunting and
warfare, and the favourite means of royal display. The portrayal of the king in
his chariot, drawing his bow to shoot down an enemy or wild beast, was a
typical image of the New Kingdom pharaohs. The chariot was also the vehicle
for more peaceable appearances, conveying Akhenaten and his family along
the road which linked the royal palace and Great Temple of the Aten at elAmarna. Grooms and inferior persons were most typically shown riding
horseback, but the warlike Syrian goddess Astarte retained her image as a
rider as well as a charioteer when her cult was introduced to Egypt.
The expansion of Egyptian power in the course of the New Kingdom brought
a wide range of foreigners into Egypt. Syrian, Hittite and Mitannian princesses
joined the royal harems in marriages intended to cement diplomatic relations.
Foreign personal names, transliterated into Egyptian hieroglyphs, are found
inscribed on coffins and other funerary equipment. They testify to the
absorption into Egyptian society of outsiders who enjoyed high status in life,
and adopted the funerary beliefs of their new country. Despite this reality, the
depiction of ‘the foreigner’ – especially as a captive – remained a constant
symbol of pharaonic power. Personal features, such as beards or distinctive
physiognomy, or the cut and pattern of clothing, marked these stereotypical
figures out as ‘non-Egyptian’ in artistic representations.
1
Kohl-stick of bone, ending in a bearded
foreign head, and a dolphin with
attachment ring, of hippopotamus ivory.
From a large deposit of bones (human
and hippopotamus) and worked ivory,
dumped in the shaft of an Early Dynastic
tomb; most of the carved ivories were
cosmetic accessories
From the bone deposit, tomb 562, Qau; 19th
Dynasty
AN1923.619, 620: BSAE excavations
2
Double shabti of Pakharu (‘The Syrian’)
and his wife, Henwetshenu, limestone
Provenance unknown; 18th–20th Dynasty
Queen’s College Loan.65
Figure 55 Queen's College Loan.65
3
Faience shabti of a foreigner with beard
and curly hair
Provenance unknown; 21st–22nd Dynasty
AN1968.776
4
The Syrian goddess Astarte, miniature
stele of painted limestone dedicated by a
woman shown kneeling in front of two
offering stands; and a sketch of a woman
riding sideways on horseback, probably
Astarte, on a limestone ostracon
Stela: from the Ramesseum, Western Thebes;
19th–22nd Dynasty
Ostracon: from Thebes; 18th–20th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.3897: ERA excavations; AN1942.59, gift of
Nina Davies
5
Bearded face (leg of a pottery tripod),
pottery bottle (Mycenaean IIIA2)
containing oily residue, and a limestone
mould for casting metal jewellery, from a
large suburban house at el-Amarna. The
excavators called this ‘the Mycenaean
house’, believing that its architecture and
contents might indicate the presence of a
Greek trader. The layout is not untypical
of other houses in the city, however, and
the ample storage area and finds related
to small-scale manufacture suggest a
combination of workshop and commercial
activity. Although the bearded face is that
of a foreigner, the clay of which it is made
is Egyptian (Nile silt)
From house T.36.36, North Suburb, el-Amarna;
about 1340 BC
AN1931.485, 490, 483: EES excavations
Figure 56 AN1931.490
6
Fragment of a chariot wheel: the six
composite spokes are made of elm wood
and glued back-to-back. In order to
prevent the wheel wobbling on its wooden
axle, the nave formed by the spokes has
dovetailed extensions of tamarisk wood
on either side. Over the wood are the
remains of rawhide binding and plaster
From the tomb of Amenhotep III (West Valley
no.22), Valley of the Kings, Thebes; about 1353
BC
Figure 57 AN1923.663
AN1923.663: gift of Almina, Countess of Carnarvon
7
Limestone block showing part of a
chariot wheel, carved in relief and
painted. The linch pin holding the wheel
on the axle is decorated with the figure of
a captive foreigner. The bound covering
shown on the spokes was probably birch
bark, and the wheel has a rawhide tyre.
Behind the spokes is part of the chariot
body of decorated wood, with the lower
end of a bow-case shown at the left. The
block would have formed part of a scene
showing the royal family and officials
visiting the temple of the Aten. Although
the block is finished work, there are traces
of the gridlines – made with a string
dipped in red paint – which were used to
draft the scene before carving
From the sanctuary of the Great Temple, elAmarna; about 1353–1335 BC
AN1927.4087: EES excavations
8
Bronze snaffle-bit, with barbed sidepieces to control a temperamental horse
From house O.47.16 (surface find), el-Amarna;
about 1353–35 BC
AN1933.1209: EES excavations
Figure 58 AN1933.1209
9
Galloping horse: rim sherd from a bowl
of blue-painted pottery
From el-Amarna; about 1353–1335 BC
AN1924.74: EES excavations
Figure 59 AN1924.74
10
Grazing horse, carved on a wooden
comb
From ‘burnt group’ 4, Medinet Ghurab; 19th
Dynasty
AN1890.1101: Flinders Petrie excavations
Case 55 An Enigmatic Discovery at Medinet Ghurab
New Kingdom
19th Dynasty
about 1292–1190 BC
The settlement of Kom Medinet Ghurab at the opening to the Faiyum was
excavated by Petrie in 1889-90. The ‘Kom’ (city mound) was the site of a
series of palace and ‘harem’ complexes from the mid-18th Dynasty to the end
of the 19th. Buried beneath the New Kingdom floor level, Petrie found several
deposits of goods. Many of these artefacts had been damaged by fire, and
they became known as the ‘Burnt Groups’. Their contents resemble grave
goods, but there were apparently no human remains with them, and they were
buried within the living-quarters.
They have been variously identified as ritual deposits, robbers’ plunder, or
rubbish pits, but no explanation is entirely satisfactory. There is no Egyptian
evidence for burnt deposits of everyday objects, and most of these items were
still usable and would not have been considered rubbish. The simplest
explanation is that they represent the poorly-documented remains of shallow
graves, dug in the ruins of one of the harems, and subsequently damaged by
a fire. A recent alternative theory is that they may be the possessions of Hittite
women in the harem, burnt after their death according to their law code. Later
excavations at the site also revealed a number of more conventional tomb
groups.
1
Objects from the ‘burnt group of
Amenhotep III’, so called by Petrie
because it contained a fragment of a kohltube inscribed with the name of
Henuttawyneb, a daughter of Amenhotep
III. Other objects are later in date.
Faience vessel; faience bowl decorated
in black with a leaping calf; vessel in the
shape of a cucumber; pilgrim flask
decorated with a figure of Bes; fragment
of a kohl-tube decorated with a dancing
figure; fragment of a kohl-tube of
Henuttawyneb; travertine bag-shaped
vessel
From Medinet Ghurab; 18th and 19th Dynasty
AN1890.901, 898, 899, 897, 905, 906, 895: Flinders Petrie
excavations
All objects from tomb 605, in a cemetery
south of the town. It was a small chamber
at the bottom of a shaft. It contained three
burials: a wooden coffin with two bodies,
and a third body wrapped in matting.
Fragments of plaited hair; tall pot with
painted decoration; Mycenaean stirrup
jar
AN1921.1332, 1322, 1321: BSAE and ERA excavations
Strings of beads and amulets; red
faience, cornelian, and red jasper
earrings; faience scarab; cornelian Besamulet, on its original piece of string
AN1921.1333, 1335, 1331, 1330, 1324-1329, 1334, 1336:
BSAE and ERA excavations
From tomb 605, Medinet Ghurab; 19th Dynasty
4
Objects from tomb 217, in a cemetery
north of the town. It was probably a child’s
burial, disturbed by robbers. The contents
were found in a basket.
Travertine miniature vases; wooden
kohl stick; faience imitation of a
Mycenaean stirrup jar
From tomb 217, Medinet Ghurab; 18th or 19th
Dynasty
AN1921.1312-13, 1311, 1310: BSAE and ERA excavations
Objects from ‘burnt group’ 4
5
Bronze bowl; travertine lid; wooden
bowls
AN1890.980, 977, 974-75
6
Wooden combs; wooden pins; bone earstuds; ivory and faience spacing beads
from necklaces; red jasper earrings;
strings of beads and amulets; cornelian
pendant in the form of a crouching royal
child
AN1890.1103, 1102, 1112, 1136A, 1109, 1134, 1133, 11141116, 1108, 1107, 1131
7
Pottery cup; travertine and pottery
vessels
AN1890.947, 939, 940
8
Ivory ear-studs, glass bead, and shell
AN1890.1110, 1118, 1136
9
Duck-shaped travertine bowl with a
painted wooden lid
AN1890.938
10
Travertine spoon in the form of a naked
girl holding a bowl
AN1890.937
11
Pottery jar; faience and pottery pilgrim
flasks
AN1890.952-53, 957
Figure 60 AN1890.953, 957, with others from the burnt groups
12
Bronze mirror disk; copper and bronze
tweezers; two tattooing needles or awls;
bronze razor; bronze knife; copper kohl
stick; bronze needles; stone whetstone
AN1890.979, 1122, 1121, 1119, 1120, 1129, 1123, 1127, 1124,
1125, 978
13
Pottery bottle with three handles,
possibly an Egyptian imitation of a
Mycenaean vessel form
AN1890.948
Figure 61 AN1890.948 with others from the burnt groups
14
Painted wooden fragments, possibly
from a box
AN1890.1130
All from ‘burnt group’ 4, Medinet Ghurab; 19th
Dynasty
Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H. Martyn Kennard
15
Wooden figure of Sobek, local god of
the Faiyum
AN1889.1067
16
Two wooden figures of naked women.
The curled and plaited wig of one may
associate her with Hathor, goddess of
dance and fertility. If their now missing
bases were inscribed, statues such as
these could represent the tombowner.
Uninscribed, they had a more general
symbolism, expressing their owners’
hopes for fertility in the afterlife
AN1889.1064-65
Medinet Ghurab; early 19th Dynasty
Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H. Martyn Kennard
All objects from tomb N, in a cemetery outside
the town
Objects from ‘burnt group’ 1
17
Bone bobbins; bronze mirror disk;
travertine lid; ivory ear-studs; two
pieces of wooden inlay
AN1890.1006, 1003, 999, 1007, 1009
18
Pot with incised potmark
AN1890.1048
19
Pottery and faience bowls
AN1890.1005, 1004
20
Faience, stone, and glass beads and
amulets; beads in the shape of poppy
heads, characteristic of jewellery of the
19th Dynasty; red jasper wedjat-eye
amulet
AN1890.1019-1025, 1013
21
Mycenaean stirrup jar, and an Egyptian
imitation made of travertine; travertine
and pottery vessels
AN1890.990, 997, 995, 1045
Figure 62 AN1890.990, 997 with others from the burnt groups
22
Faience, travertine, and pottery pilgrim
flasks
AN1890.986, 987, 1027
Figure 63 AN1890.986­7 with others from the burnt groups
23
Steatite dish inscribed with the name of
Seti II. The other sides are decorated with
a figure of the god Ptah, a scarab, and a
king smiting a prisoner
AN1890.1017
24
Faience rings, with bezels in the form of
a wedjat-eye and an ibex; faience or
clay ear-studs; a shell
AN1890.1014-15, 1010, 1016
All from ‘burnt group’ 1, Medinet Ghurab; second
half of the 19th Dynasty
Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H. Martyn Kennard
Case 56 Wine, Oil and Incense
New Kingdom
18th–20th Dynasties
about 1540–1070 BC
The prosperity of Egypt at the peak of the New Kingdom is reflected in the
variety of surviving pottery containers. These once held commodities – many
of them imported – which were valued for both domestic and temple use.
Occasionally, some residue of their original contents remains, and scientific
analysis can identify the substance.
Large amphorae were used for shipping and storing wine and other liquids.
They could be stamped to indicate the place of origin or storage, and
inscribed with details of their contents. Good wine was produced in the Nile
Delta, but fine vintages were also procured from further afield.
In the later 18th Dynasty, an exuberant new style of blue-painted pottery
appeared. It has been found in particularly large quantities on the royal palace
sites at Malqata (Western Thebes) and Amarna, and it continued in
widespread use until the 20th Dynasty. The decoration is based on floral
motifs – perhaps a reminder of the festive garlands placed on wine-jars. Many
blue-painted vessels are large containers for liquids. The rich blue colour was
derived from cobalt, applied before firing.
The olive was probably introduced into cultivation in Egypt during the New
Kingdom, but large quantities of olive oil were also imported from the Eastern
Mediterranean. Oil from Mycenaean Greece travelled in distinctive pottery
‘stirrup jars’. Smaller versions of these decorated jars contained costlier
perfumed oil; the narrow spouts and ‘stirrup’ handles ensured controlled
pouring and no wastage.
Incense for the gods was one of the luxury commodities which the Egyptians
sought to obtain by trade with East Africa, Arabia, and the lands of the
Eastern Mediterranean. One variety was the fragrant resin tapped from the
bark of trees of the Pistacia family, growing in the coastal areas and islands of
the Eastern Mediterranean.
1
Wine-jar, inscribed in hieratic ‘Year
7/Very good wine of the house of the
Aten/The inspector Tu’. The ‘carrot’ shape
and the fabric are typical of the jars in
which wine was transported from the
oases in the western desert of Egypt –
celebrated for their vineyards and fine
wines throughout antiquity
From el-Amarna; c.1353–1335 BC
AN1893.1-41 (268): Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H.
Martyn Kennard
2
Storage jar (restored), decorated with a
hippopotamus standing on a plinth in front
of a papyrus clump - probably a sacred
animal. The drawing may indicate that the
jar was destined for temple use, or was a
votive dedication
From el-Amarna; c. 1353–1335 BC
AN1893.1-41 (286): Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H.
Martyn Kennard
Figure 64 AN1893.1­41 (286)
3
Blue-painted jar, decorated with flowers
and grapes; and a jar-lid
From el-Amarna; c. 1353–1335 BC
AN1893.1-41 (277) with (281): Flinders Petrie excavations; gift
of H. Martyn Kennard
4
Bes-face, relief decoration from the neck
of a blue-painted vessel; the god Bes,
lion-masked and feather-crowned, was
associated with music and dancing, as
well as the protection of mother and child
at the time of birth
From el-Amarna; c. 1353–1335 BC
AN1893.1-41 (292.a,b): Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H.
Martyn Kennard
5
‘Pilgrim flask’ with a slipped and polished
surface. Egyptian craftsmen copied the
shape of these lentoid vessels from
Mycenaean Greece or Syria-Palestine,
mostly for small cosmetic containers in
pottery, faience, or glass.
This large example could have held a
substantial quantity of liquid, and the hard
clay fabric and surface treatment would
have prevented evaporation.
The name ‘pilgrim flask’ was borrowed
from the early Christian use of small flasks
of this shape as souvenirs containing holy
water
From el-Amarna; c. 1353–1335 BC
AN1893.1-41 (309): Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H.
Martyn Kennard
6
Amphora inscribed in hieratic with the
validation of an Amarna official. The text is
incomplete, but of the type associated
with nhh-oil (possibly to be identified as
sesame oil), usually transported in this
kind of vessel. The shape and fabric of the
vessel denote a place of origin on the
Syrian coastline, probably Ras Shamra
From el-Amarna; c. 1353–1335 BC
AN1893.1-41 (271): Flinders Petrie excavations; gift of H.
Martyn Kennard
7
Two Mycenaean ‘stirrup jars’ for oil, and
an Egyptian imitation of a Mycenaean
jar: late 18th–mid–19th Dynasty
Tall jar (Mycenaean IIIB): from a disturbed grave in
cemetery E, Riqqa
AN1913.493: BSAE and ERA excavations
Squat jar (Mycenaean IIIB): from grave 053,
Medinet Ghurab
AN1896-1908 E.2452: ERA excavations, 1904
Egyptian imitation: provenance unknown (‘from a
rock tomb’)
AN1896-1908 E.2463: source unknown
8
Fragmentary wallpainting showing part
of an olive tree, restored
From the North Palace at el-Amarna, 1353-1335
BC
AN1927.4086: EES excavations, 1927
Figure 65 Cases 53 to 58 Case 57 New Kingdom Faience and Glass
New Kingdom
18th–20th Dynasties
about 1540–1070 BC
Faience is a glazed ceramic-like composition with a crushed quartz core. The
Egyptians were masters at producing delicate shapes and colours in this
material. In the earlier periods faience is mostly blue-green and black, but at
the beginning of the New Kingdom new colours were added to the palette,
including yellow, white, and dark blue. The use of these new colours in
faience coincided with the manufacture of glass for the first time, and it is
probable that these two inventions are in some way linked.
Glass is a homogeneous material and can be manipulated in a molten state to
fill moulds and create rings and beads. However, by far the most famous use
of this early glass is in the production of core-formed glass vessels. Coreforming involves taking a core of clay and dung and dipping it in glass to
create the body of the vessel. Thin rods of glass in contrasting colours are
then wrapped around this body and smoothed flat, a technique known as
‘trailing and marvering’. Several examples of such vessels can be seen in this
case.
Faience was a common material in the New Kingdom, and it is likely that most
people in settlements like el-Amarna owned an object made of faience –
perhaps a ring or some beads. Glass, however, was extremely precious,
rating only just below the stones lapis lazuli and turquoise in value. Ownership
of a glass vessel was largely limited to the royal court and the elite; the
contents – exotic oils and perfumes – were probably as costly as the vessels
themselves.
Core-formed and moulded glass
Core-forming and moulding were the main techniques used to produce glass
objects until glass blowing was discovered in the 1st century BC.
1
Chalice of turquoise-blue glass
From grave O58, Medinet Ghurab; late 18th
Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2451: ERA excavations
2
Bunch of glass grapes on a hooked
‘stem’ of bronze and wood (restored).
Probably made for suspending as an
ornament
From el-Amarna; about 1353–1335 BC
AN1924.69: EES excavations
Figure 66 AN1924.69
3
Kohl-tube in the shape of a column with a
palm-capital
From Medinet Ghurab; 18th–19th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2578: ERA excavations
4
Vases with swagged decoration
Provenance unknown; 18th–19th Dynasty
AN1920.56: gift of P.E. Newberrry, ex Bateman Collection
AN1965.294: ex Spencer Churchill Collection
5
Cosmetic scoop in the shape of a tilapiafish, symbol of rebirth; the apple-green
colour is an innovation of the late 18th
Dynasty
Provenance unknown; 18th Dynasty
AN1989.85
Figure 67 AN1989.85
6
Necklace of ball and drop glass beads
(restrung)
From tomb 2017, Sidmant; 19th Dynasty
AN1921.1309: BSAE and ERA excavations
Faience vessels, sculpture and inlays
7
Vase of blue frit
From grave 48, Tell el-Yahudiyeh; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.3558: BSAE and ERA excavations
8
Triple kohl-tube: the horizontal bands
holding the tubes bear textile impressions
derived from the placing of wet faience on
drying cloths before firing
From Tell el-Yahudiyeh; 20th Dynasty
AN1872.301: G.J. Chester Collection
9
Marbled kohl-pot, miniature pilgrim
flask decorated with mandrake fruits, and
a copy of a Mycenaean ‘stirrup jar’
Kohl-pot from Thebes, flask of unknown
provenance, jar from Tuna; New Kingdom
AN1886.283.e, AN1879.365: G.J. Chester Collection;
AN1922.77: gift of Sir Arthur Evans, ex MacGregor Collection
Figure 68 AN1922.77
10
Lotus chalices, one with petals moulded
in relief, the other decorated in black
From Medinet Ghurab and Maidum; late New
Kingdom – 22nd Dynasty
1890.896: Flinders Petrie excavations, gift of H. Martyn
Kennard
AN1910.576: BSAE and ERA excavations
Figure 69 AN1910.576
11
Faience bowls decorated in black with
marsh and water scenes
Gazelle with her fawn: from Medinet Ghurab
AN1890.1137: Flinders Petrie excavations, gift of H. Hughes
Pool with lotus flowers: provenance unknown
AN1947.289: ex Cook Collection
Fish and lotus: provenance unknown
AN1896-1908 E.2764: gift of J. L. Strachan Davidson, 1903
Faience vessels, sculpture and inlays
12
Polychrome faience shabti of a man;
and blue-glazed shabti of Seti I, restored
from fragments of two different figures
From grave 317, Qau el-Kebir; 19th Dynasty
AN1923.605: BSAE excavations
From the tomb of Seti I, Valley of the Kings; c.
1280 BC
AN1952.445: gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
13
Figure of a man carrying a gazelle
From temple fill, Kafr Ammar; 25th Dynasty
AN1912.607: BSAE and ERA excavations
14
Pectoral in the shape of a shrine with Isis,
Osiris and a jackal-headed figure
Provenance unknown; 18th–20th Dynasty
AN1936.195; gift of Miss E.M. Cochrane
15
Faience inlays, jewellery, and tiles:
mandrake flower inlay, lotus necklace
terminal, head and wing fragments of
duck inlays, and fragments of tiles with
bucolic scenes
From el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
AN1924.115A,128,115C: EES excavations; AN1892.680: G.J.
Chester Collection; AN1929.407A-C: EES excavations
16
Faience rosette inlays with bronze nails
for attachment
From the palace(?) of Ramesses III, Tell elYahudiyeh; 20th Dynasty
AN1871.34: G.J. Chester Collection (from Chester and Eaton’s
exploration)
17
Glass and faience manufacture
Material from the glass-making area at elAmarna, mostly excavated in 1893 by
Petrie, one of the first archaeologists
interested in the crafts and industries of
ancient cities; this was one of the earliest
excavations to record such material
Pieces of glass with pincer marks
AN1893.1-41 (404), (407)
Glass rods
AN1893.1-41 (406)
S-shaped glass rod
AN1935.593.d
Fragments of finished core-formed glass
vessels
AN1893.1-41 (395)
All from Flinders Petrie and EES excavations
18
Core-formed glass vessel
Provenance unknown
AN1965.293; ex Spencer Churchill Collection
19
Glass pilgrim flask
Provenance unknown; 18th Dynasty
AN1939.36: gift of H.S. Whitaker
20
Fragments of a lid made of moulded
glass
From grave D29D, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2679: EEF excavations
21
Pottery moulds for making faience beads
and rings, one with the faience still
impacted; and moulded faience objects:
ring, inscribed ring bezel, rosette bead
From el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
AN1893.1-41 (626), (663), (748) and (876);
AN1924.154,110A,148: Flinders Petrie and EES excavations
Figure 70 AN1893.1­41 (626)
22
Fragments of polychrome inlaid
faience: tile with royal name; lozenge
patterned bowl; and vessel with the
names of Akhenaten and Nefertiti
From el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
AN1942.80: gift of Nina Davies
AN1924.114: EES excavations (Main City, M.50.33)
AN1893.1-41 (470): Flinders Petrie excavations
23
Fragment of pottery vessel with glassy
overspill, and bowl containing blue frit
AN1893.1-41 (396A),(398)
Fragment of large frit vessel inscribed with
royal names
AN1893.1-41 (392)
Quartz pebbles with traces of blue frit
AN1893.1-41 (400)
All from el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
Flinders Petrie and EES excavations
24
Fragments of vessels inscribed with
royal names
From el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
Inlaid faience bowl with the names of
Akhenaten and the Aten
AN1893.1-41 (472)
Inlaid faience vase with the names of
Akhenaten and Nefertiti
Figure 71 AN1893.1­41 (471)
AN1893.1-41 (471)
Blue glass vessel with white-filled incised
inscription including the name of
Akhenaten
AN1893.1-41 (484)
Base of a blue frit bowl with the names of
Amenhotep III and his daughter Sitamun
AN1893.1-41 (485)
25
Faience bowl decorated with lotuses in
black; the glaze has not coated the
surface evenly, perhaps because it was
fired at too high a temperature
From Thebes; New Kingdom
ANFortnum C.1: Fortnum Collection
26
Blue and black spherical beads: the
marks inside the broken bead show how it
was formed on a ball of plant fibres
Provenance unknown; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.E.227: John Henderson Collection;
AN1892.670: G.J. Chester Collection
27
Raw materials for making glass and
faience
All glass of this period was made of three
raw components: a source of silica, a flux
to lower the melting point of the silica, and
a colorant.
Figure 72 AN1893.1­41 (485) and others from Amarna
Basic ingredients
Silica, in two forms:
sand (from the Wadi Natrun)
quartz pebbles (from the Nile
valley)
Flux, in two forms:
evaporite ‘natrun’ (mineral name
burkeite: from the Wadi Natrun)
plant ash (from the annual shrub
Salicornia)
Colorants
Deep blue:
cobalt-bearing alum (pink veins of
pickeringite in a siltstone matrix):
(from the Dakhleh Oasis)
Blue and blue-green:
malachite (copper ore: from area
1400–1500, Armant; Predynastic)
Queen’s College Loan.1227: Mond excavations
Yellow and green:
lead (with antimony)
galena (lead ore), from grave G18,
Abydos (Predynastic)
AN1896-1908 E.923: EEF excvations
lead bar, from house N49.13, elAmarna (18th Dynasty)
AN1921.1147: EES excavations
Case 58 Rulers from Libya and Nubia
3rd Intermediate Period
21st–25th Dynasties
about 1070–715 BC
The end of the New Kingdom was marked by poor harvests, the loss of
Egyptian influence abroad, and a gradual decline in central authority. The
kings of the 21st Dynasty ruled Lower Egypt from Tanis, while the High
Priests of Amun – the Theban branch of the ruling family – controlled the
South. Rulers had increasingly relied on nomadic mercenaries from Libya to
bolster the strength of the army, rewarding them with land in the Western
Delta and Middle Egypt. By the 21st Dynasty, Libyan families had married into
royal and priestly lines. They retained their clearly Libyan names, such as
Osorkon and Shoshenq, and used titles which referred to their tribal
groupings.
Perhaps as a result of the nomadic background of the Libyan ruling class,
burials in this period became less rich. Decorated tombs were no longer built,
and New Kingdom tombs were often reused for mass graves. The coffin
became the main focus of funerary attention. The yellow-varnished coffins of
the 21st Dynasty are covered with vignettes of the hereafter, becoming in
effect a miniature universe centred on the occupant. Female goddesses such
as Sekhmet and Isis grew in importance, as did child gods such as the infant
Horus. Metalwork became more complex; elaborately inlaid hollow-cast
bronze statues were made in large numbers and exported throughout the
Mediterranean, and iron was increasingly used for weapons.
During the Libyan 22nd Dynasty, the power of the Nubian kingdom of Kush
increased, and under Shabaka and Taharqa of the 25th Dynasty it took direct
control of the whole country. The Nubian pharaohs were careful to minimize
the shock to the Egyptians of being dominated by ‘vile Kush’. In many aspects
they were more Egyptian than the Egyptians, ruling from the ancient site of
Memphis, restoring dilapidated shrines, and creating works of art in an
archaizing style recalling the work of the New Kingdom and the Old Kingdom.
1
Yellow-varnished coffin fragment
painted with a sacred boat carrying gods,
towed by human-headed ba-birds
Probably from Thebes; 21st Dynasty
AN1969.531
2
Faience ring with a projecting bezel,
decorated with a seated child god
Provenance unknown; 22nd–25th Dynasty
ANFortnum R.25: Fortnum Collection
Intense glossy blue faience is characteristic of the Third Intermediate
Period. Large numbers of shabtis – ideally, for each person, one for each of
the 360 days of the year, and an overseer for every 10-day week – were
found in the mass burials of the royal and priestly families of the 21st Dynasty
3
Faience shabti of Masaharta (a Libyan
name), High Priest of Amun; faience
shabti of Pinedjem, High Priest of Amun
From the royal mummy cache, Thebes; 21st
Dynasty
AN1884.38, 60: Gift of Gaston Maspero, through J. L.
Strachan-Davidson
4
Faience shabti of Amenemopet, a priest
of Amun, and chief draughtsman of the
House of Amun; nemset-vase used for
pouring libations, naming the same man
Probably from Thebes; 21st Dynasty
AN1964.705, ANFortnum C.2; Fortnum Collection
Figure 731964.705 (left) and ANFortnum C.2 (right) 5
Faience shabti of the divine adoratrice
Henuttawy. This post – sometimes
translated as ‘god’s wife of Amun’ – was
held by a celibate woman of the ruling
house. In the 3rd Intermediate Period it
became second in importance only to the
king; Henuttawy’s name here is enclosed
in a royal cartouche
From the royal mummy cache, Thebes; 21st
Dynasty
AN1933.502: Mrs G. H. Pope Bequest
6
Bronze shabti of the general Wendjeba-en-Djedet. An important member of
the royal court, he merited burial in one of
the chambers of the tomb of King
Psusennes I at Tanis
From Tanis; 21st Dynasty
AN1956.313
7
Iron spearhead
From Lahun, tomb 602; 3rd Intermediate Period
AN1914.702: ERA and BSAE excavations
8
Fragmentary limestone stela. It contains
an almost identical text to a complete
stela now in the Cairo Museum. This was
found during excavations at Medinet Habu
in Western Thebes, the site believed to be
the location of Djeme, the primordial
mound and burial place of the Ennead
(the nine deities of creation). The text
records the Pharaoh Taharqa’s restoration
of the wall encircling the shrine of the
Ennead. A number of orthographic
peculiarities, such as the writing of plurals
with three singulars, are very oldfashioned. The Nubian rulers used
archaisms like these to ally themselves
with the rulers of the past.
The text:
Regnal year 3 under the majesty of the
Dual King Khu-Nefertum-Re, the Son
of Re Taharqa, given life like Re for
eternity. He made as his monument for
his fathers the six [maybe a mis-writing
of nine] gods of Djeme, renewing the
wall which the ancestors had made for
the six gods of Djeme, surrounding
their temple with a brick wall, a
splendid work for eternity. For His
Majesty had found it fallen into ruin, so
that one could enter and leave the holy
place over its northern side. He made
the holy place holy (again) for its lord,
who gives him life, strength and
dominion like Re eternally.
Probably from Medinet Habu; 25th Dynasty
AN1941.1132: gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
9
Serpentine shabti of Taharqa
From Pyramid I, Nuri, Sudan; 25th Dynasty
AN1922.23: Harvard excavations 1916-1918; gift of the
Sudanese government
10
Leopard’s head pendant of blue frit, with
a cartouche on the back containing the
name Menkheperre – one of the names
associated with the Nubian ruler Piye
(about 750–715 BC), who asserted
Kushite control as far north as Memphis
Provenance unknown; 25th Dynasty
AN1983.168: ex Wellcome Collection
11
Glazed steatite disk inscribed with the
name and titles of Montuemhat.
Mayor of Thebes, 4th Prophet of Amun,
and chief steward of the divine adoratrice,
Montuemhat held office in Upper Egypt
during the 25th and 26th Dynasties. He
kept his position during the Assyrian sack
of Thebes and the advent of the Egyptian
26th Dynasty
Probably from Thebes, Tomb 34; 25th–26th
Dynasty
AN1879.349: Henderson Collection
Stamped clay funerary cone of
Montuemhat. During the New Kingdom,
tomb entrances were surrounded with clay
cones inscribed with their owners’ names
and titles. The custom was revived as part
of the archaizing trends of the 25th
Dynasty. The inscribed disk has been
sawn off in modern times
From Thebes, Tomb 34; 25th–26th Dynasty
AN1972.685: Norman de Garis Davies Collection
12
Clay funerary cone of Ramosi, great
scribe of the king and overseer of the
granaries of Taharqa
From Thebes, Tomb 132; 25th Dynasty
AN1972.196:Norman de Garis Davies Collection
13
Faience statuette of a hunchbacked man
playing double pipes
Provenance unknown; 23rd–25th Dynasty
AN1872.81: G. J. Chester Collection
14
Head of a Syrian (?) woman from a
bronze statuette
Probably from Thebes; 25th Dynasty
AN1872.85: G. J. Chester Collection
15
Glazed steatite dyad of Ptah and his
consort Sekhmet, gods of Memphis;
bronze figure of Horus as a seated royal
child; limestone statue of Seth, god of
darkness and confusion; and faience
vessel in the form of Taweret,
hippopotamus goddess of childbirth
From Cemetery B, Riqqa; probably 25th Dynasty
AN1913.503-5, 789: BSAE and ERA excavations
Figure 74 AN1913.789
Case 59 Royal and Private Sculpture
New Kingdom to Late Period
18th–30th Dynasties
about 1540–343 BC
The boom in temple building during the New Kingdom was parallelled by an
increase in the production of private sculpture. During this period, more
private statues seem to have been placed in temples than before, indicating
that the king had lost his role as the sole mediator between gods and mortals.
Different types of statue stressed different aspects of the owner’s character; a
scribal figure emphasized literacy, a standing image strength.
Artistic styles changed considerably over time. Some kings had themselves
depicted with what appear to be personal traits, such as the snub nose and
full, smiling lips of Amenhotep III. Others, such as Seti I in the 19th Dynasty,
and the rulers of the 26th Dynasty, found inspiration in the more formal art of
the 12th Dynasty and the Old Kingdom, commissioning works in an archaising
style. Private sculptures usually showed their owners with the facial type of
the king. To the extent that this does not provide a physical likeness of the
owner, they cannot be called ‘portraits’. The most important part of any statue
was its inscription, without which the owner would be nameless and eternally
denied recognition.
A type of object that is unique to the Late and Ptolemaic Periods is the ‘trial
piece’ or ‘sculptor’s model’. Made of limestone or plaster, these generally take
the form of small slabs carved in raised relief with hieroglyphs, single figures,
or body parts. They frequently preserve proportional grids and preliminary
drawings, and their seemingly incomplete nature suggests they may have
been models used by sculptors. None has been found in what can be
identified as a sculptor’s workshop, however, and the evidence of the few
excavated pieces suggests they were votive offerings. The traces of the
sculptor’s work plainly visible on these objects may have made them suitable
for dedication, the creative work of their maker mirroring the creative powers
of the gods.
1
Head of a man, from a life-size
granodiorite statue. Only part of the
owner’s name, Hor... is preserved on the
back pillar. His titles, ‘Hereditary Prince
and Count’, are not unusual enough to
allow him to be identified
Provenance unknown; 18th Dynasty, reign of
Amenhotep III
AN1958.344: A. G. B. Russell Bequest
2-3
Stone inlays. Wooden objects and the
walls of important buildings were often
decorated with scenes made of stone,
Figure 75 AN1958.344
faience, or glass inlays.
The red jasper inlay of a face has the
distinctive snub nose and slanted eye of
Amenhotep III. The grey steatite inlay is of
the ‘Blue Crown’, a domed helmet-like
crown frequently worn by the king in battle
scenes
Provenance unknown; 18th Dynasty, reign of
Amenhotep III
AN1896-1908 E.3734: Gift of J. L. Strachan-Davidson, 1903
el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty, reign of Akhenaten
AN1925.566: EES excavations
4
Steatite head and torso of a man. When
complete, the statuette was likely to have
shown the owner as a scribe, sitting
cross-legged with a roll of papyrus in his
lap
Provenance unknown; first half of the 18th Dynasty
AN1962.802: Gift of Mrs M. C. Radford
5-6
Two wooden statuettes of women, from
burials.
A slot in the cylindrical headdress of one
may have held a mirror disc. This figure is
shown naked apart from necklaces and a
bead belt. The head of the other is
shaven, apart from a sidelock of hair
indicating her youth; her elongated skull is
characteristic of representations from the
Amarna Period and afterwards
From Group 4, Medinet Ghurab; second half of
18th Dynasty or 19th Dynasty
AN1890.936: Petrie excavations
From tomb E 167, Abydos, second half of 18th
Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2581: ERA excavations, 1900
7
Quartzite head of a prince. The round
wig with a sidelock identifies the owner as
a Priest of Ptah, a traditionally royal post
Provenance unknown; 18th Dynasty, reign of
Thutmose IV
Queen’s College Loan.1203
Figure 76 Queen's College Loan.1203
8
Fragment of a wig. Light and dark
woods, partly plastered and gilded, inlaid
with faience and cornelian. On the interior,
rawhide thongs would have attached it to
another piece. The elaborate diadem
depicted on this complex piece of
woodwork identifies its wearer as a king. It
came from a coffin or life-size statue
Provenance unknown; said to come from the royal
mummy cache, Thebes;
New Kingdom
AN1933.618: Sayce Bequest
9
Mask. Plaster, with traces of paint. The
function of this piece is uncertain, but it is
unlikely to have formed part of a statue,
since it is a finished object with no means
of attachment to a body. It may have
served as a sculptor’s model for a work in
stone or metal
Provenance unknown; early 19th Dynasty
AN1933.895: Sayce Bequest
10
Head and torso of a woman from a pairstatue. Her husband, called a ‘great
craftsman’ on the stela-shaped reverse,
would originally have been carved on her
right-hand side. Their names are now lost,
but his title, and the use of bright white
limestone, may link it to the Theban
tombworkers’ community of Deir elMedina
Provenance unknown; 19th or 20th Dynasty
AN1958.359: Gift of Mrs J. W. Cole
11
Granodiorite head of a king or god.
From the cenotaph of Seti I, Abydos; 19th Dynasty
AN1927.4103: EES excavations
12
Limestone head of a woman. In the
eyes are remains of a blue frit inlay. Late
Period female statuary on as large a scale
as this is rare, suggesting that the owner
must have been someone of considerable
importance
Provenance unknown; 26th Dynasty or earlier
AN1967.849
13
Limestone head of a man with a diadem.
Although the theatrically upwardgazing
eyes are reminiscent of Hellenistic
sculpture, the presence of a back pillar
emphasises the Egyptian origins of this
Figure 77 AN1933.618
piece
Provenance unknown; late Ptolemaic or later
AN1872.365: G. J. Chester Collection
14
Plaster-cast head, of a king or deity, with
black guidelines visible by the ear. It was
found with similar pieces and votive
bronzes, possibly deposited during a clear
out of a shrine. The crown is not
completely carved
Baboon catacombs, Saqqara; early Ptolemaic
AN1971.99: EES Excavations
Figure 78 AN1971.99
15
Trial piece goddess or queen. Limestone
with remains of a grid, used to determine
the proportions of the figure
Superstructures of the Bucheum, Armant;
Ptolemaic
AN1929.416: Mond excavations
16
Trial piece, two swallows, limestone. The
swallow represented the Egyptian word
wr, ‘great’
Probably from Dendera; Ptolemaic
AN1892.1166: G. J. Chester Collection
17
Trial piece, goddess or queen. Limestone
with details drawn in red and partly
carved. The reverse shows part of the
head of a king
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic
AN1919.50: Gift of Sir John Beazley
Figure 79 AN1919.50
18
Trial piece of Harpocrates, limestone.
Probably from Koptos; Ptolemaic
AN1892.1161: G. J. Chester Collection
Case 60 The Cult of the Gods
Late Period
26th–30th Dynasties–Ptolemaic
about 715–30 BC
Personal Religion
From the Late Period onwards, Egyptian religion showed a new personal
emphasis on the relationship between deity and worshipper. A statue or
object dedicated to the god in his temple was seen as a way of procuring a
direct benefit for the donor.
Sculptures of private individuals showed them piously kneeling to offer divine
images, and thousands of cast bronze figures and models were made to be
inscribed and dedicated in temples. Many of them have been found in large
groups buried within the temple precinct; presumably the shrine itself had to
be periodically cleared out to make room for more. Increasingly, the deities to
whom these offerings were made were local gods, and there was also a new
emphasis on the worship of sacred animals.
1
Bronze stand for an incense bowl, the
foot inscribed in demotic with a
dedication by Tawennofre, maidservant
of the Ibises, asking that the great god
Thoth the Ibis may give life to her
children. The hieroglyphs incised on the
rim of the stand repeat the wish for
eternal life
From area H5 (Gallery 16 of the Falcon
Catacomb, North) Saqqara; Late Period
AN1971.137: EES excavations
Figure 80 AN1971.137
2
Painted wooden incense holder, model
of the implement used for offering
incense to a god, usually made of
bronze. Holding the far end of the arm,
the worshipper took pellets of incense
from the central box and dropped them
onto hot charcoal in the cup
Figure 81 AN1968.559
Provenance unknown: Ptolemaic
AN1968.559
Votive instruments and vessels
Mirror, sistrum, and menit-necklace were associated with the cow-eared
goddess Hathor, whose worship was accompanied by music and dancing.
The sistrum was fitted with bars carrying disks which jingled when it was
shaken; the menit necklace consisted of strings of beads and a counterpoise
which served as a handle by which they too were shaken
3
Bronze mirror with a wooden handle
From area 5, bronze cache 5, Saqqara; Late
Period
AN1971.103: EES excavations
4
Bronze sistrum with cat and kittens
Late Period
AN1971.445: ex Ingram Collection
Figure 82 AN1971.445
Fragmentary sistrum of glazed faience
From the palace of Apries, Memphis; Late Period
AN1909.1062: BSAE excavations
Copper menit-counterpoise
From Saqqara; Late Period
AN1971.143: EES excavations
Fragmentary menit-counterpoise,
bronze inlaid with gold, (inscr. hgls.)
Provenance unknown: Late Period
AN1931.644: gift of Knox-Shaw
Bronze menit-counterpoise with the
head and figure of Mut
Late Period (earlier?)
AN1964.287: Gardiner Bequest
5
Two bronze situlae (vessels for liquid
offerings); one is decorated in relief with
scenes of offering to Min and other
divinities, and sun boats
From the sacred animal cemetery, Dendera; Late
Period
AN1896-1908 E.2402 A,B: BSAE excavations, 1908-9
6
Demotic papyrus recording judgements
against two men, delivered in an oracle
given at the temple of Khnum at
Elephantine. The papyrus was found
rolled, with a clay sealing bearing the
symbol of an arm and hand offering a
cup of incense. One man, Petra, has
offended against the god Osiris during
his great festival: he became drunk on
the wine intended for libations, neglecting
the ritual and breaking the holy silence
on the Abaton (the island where Osiris
was buried). The other, the priest
Petosiri, has built houses encroaching on
the property of others. Petra must pray to
Khnum for forgiveness, and Petosiri must
demolish the offending buildings and
perform expiatory cult-service
From Elephantine; Ptolemaic
AN1932.1159, Papyrus Dodgson: gift of the Dodgson family
and Mrs Grosvenor-Talbot
Figure 83 AN1932.1159
Cult servants and model equipment in bronze
7
Offering-bearers with cakes
Late Period
AN1888.169 (from Naukratis): EEF excavations
AN1988.11 (provenance unknown): ex Pomerance Collection
Figure 84 AN1988.11
8
Kneeling figure pouring a libation from a
vase, and a standing offering bearer
From Naukratis; Late Period
AN1888.168, 170: EEF excavations, 1885-6
9
Priest of Thoth carrying a baboon statue
Provenance unknown: Late Period
AN1971.943: ex Bomford Collection
10
Model offering table of bronze, with a
kneeling worshipper, a frog (symbol of
the New Year), and jackals
From area H5, Saqqara; Late Period
AN1971.125: EES excavations
11
Model staff-terminals: left and right,
with the head of Khnum; centre, a ‘Horus
spear’, showing the god as a falcon
carrying the weapon with which he slew
Seth
Late Period–Ptolemaic
AN1888.171 (from Naukratis): EEF excavations, 1885-6
AN1986.14
AN1931.587 (provenance unknown): gift of C. Knox-Shaw
Figure 85 AN1986.14
12
Aegis of Khnum, crown missing, the
eyes inlaid with blue frit
From area H5, Saqqara; Late Period
AN1969.467: EES excavations, 1968-9
Sacred animals and reliquaries in bronze
13
Apis bull on a wooden sledge
From area H5, Saqqara; Late Period
AN1971.100: EES excavations
14
Apis bull, standing on a base inscribed
in hieroglyphs with a dedication by a
priest, the Singer of Osiris-Apis, HarmaKhoros
Probably from the Serapeum at Saqqara; 26th
Dynasty
AN1879.332: gift of John Henderson
Figure 86 AN1879.332
15
Figure of the goddess Bastet, lionheaded, with two cats; the base is
inscribed with a dedication by Paiuenhor,
son of Pasherenbastet
Late Period
AN1971.1004: ex Bomford Collection
16
Animal reliquaries: model coffins for an
ichneumon (empty) and a falcon
(containing linen and mummified
fragments)
From area H5, Saqqara; Late Period
AN1971.130,136: EES excavations
17
Basalt statue of a sacred bull
Provenance unknown: Late Period
AN1947.293: ex Cook Collection
Figure 87 AN1947.293
Case 61 The Greeks at Naukratis
Late Period
26th–30th Dynasties–Ptolemaic
about 715–30 BC
Greek Traders, Mercenaries, and Other Foreigners in Egypt
Naukratis, on the Canopic branch of the Nile, was probably established in the
time of Psammetichus I (664-610 BC) as a port of trade to enhance
commerce between Egypt and the Greek world. The Greek historian
Herodotus, writing in the fifth century BC, reported: ‘In old days, Naukratis
was the only emporion (port of trade) in Egypt. There was no other.’
At Naukratis, Greeks would have imported wine, oil, and metals, amongst
other goods, while Egyptians exported foodstuffs and luxury items. The site
includes several Greek sanctuaries, as well as a factory for the manufacture
of faience. Other objects suggest a lively Hellenic culture which continued in
Egypt into the Roman period. Under the Pharaoh Amasis (570-526 BC),
Naukratis may have undergone some reorganization, but its primary purpose
as a port of trade continued. Recent excavations have shown that Naukratis
continued to thrive throughout the Ptolemaic Period.
Outside Naukratis, Egypt maintained extensive contacts not only with Greeks,
who often served as mercenaries in the army, but also with other foreigners,
among them Persians, Mesopotamians, Syrians and Phoenicians, Cypriots,
Carians, and Nubians. Finds of foreign objects at Memphis, Dafana, Karnak,
and elsewhere testify to the attraction that ancient Egyptian learning and
culture held for other peoples around the Mediterranean and Near East.
1
Clay jar sealing with seal impressions of
Amasis
From the central fort, site 25, Tell Dafana; 26th
Dynasty
AN1887.2506: EEF excavations
Trade and manufacture
The faience factory at Naukratis suggests a trade in jewellery, and there was
probably traffic in precious metals and luxury goods between Greece and
Egypt. Oil and wine were principal imports
2
Bronze plate with floral device, once
inlaid with enamel
From the palace of Apries, Memphis; 26th Dynasty
AN1910.540: BSAE excavations
3
Two silver rings, one showing a winged
bull
From the temple of Proteus, Memphis; Late Period
(? Persian)
AN1909.1091-2: BSAE excavations
4
Glazed faience hawk amulet, and
pottery moulds from the scarab factory,
for making faience beads; Nubian heads
and an Egyptian amulet
From Naukratis; Late Period
AN1888.222, 216.a,b: EEF excavations, 1885-6; and AN18961908 E.4572
5
Basalt and bronze weights, based on a
unit of 9.56 gm
From Naukratis; 26th Dynasty–Roman
AN1896-1908 E.3810, 3812, 3818, 3822, 3824, 3814, 3816:
Hogarth excavations, 1903
6
Tridacna shell decorated with lotus,
imported from Syria or Phoenicia
From Naukratis; Late Period
AN1896-1908 G.451: BSAE excavations, 1899
Greek religion at Naukratis
The Hellenion, a sanctuary dedicated to the various Greek deities, was
established jointly by several Greek cities, and there were separate temples of
Aphrodite, the Dioskouroi, Hera, and Apollo. Offerings of statuettes were
made following Greek custom.
7
Fragment of a Chian cup dedicated to
Aphrodite; woman holding a bird,
limestone; and part of an Egyptian-style
figure of a woman holding a flower
From the temple of Aphrodite, Naukratis; Late
Period
AN1888.218, 220, AN1886.463: EEF excavations
8
Votive terracotta figures: a kouros head
and two women, one holding a feline
From the Hellenion precinct, Naukratis;
Late Period–Ptolemaic
AN1896-1908 G.77, 75, 92: BSAE excavations, 1899
9
Rhodian cup
Found at Naukratis, perhaps from Camirus in
Rhodes; 6th century BC
AN1987.61: gift of P.M. Fraser
10
Fragments of an East Greek vase with a
Dionysiac procession
From Karnak; 540–530 BC
AN1924.264: gift of A.H. Sayce
11
Sherds of Athenian (black figure and red
figure), Corinthian and Rhodian pottery
From Naukratis; 6th–5th century
AN1896-1908 G137.44, 138.31, 11.43, 119.14: D.G. Hogarth
excavations, 1903
Greek theatre and cultural events
12
Wooden tablet inscribed in Greek,
dedicated to the Dioscuri by M. Decrius
Decrianus, an epic and lyric poet,
celebrating his victory in a literary contest
Provenance unknown; 2nd century AD
AN1930.26: gift of Mrs Hunt, ex Grenfell Collection
13
Terracotta Silenus head and theatre
masks
From Naukratis; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1886.477, 478: EEF excavations, 1884-5; AN1896-1908
E.4770-1: probably from BSAE excavations, 1900, or Hogarth
excavations, 1903
14
Silenus head of glazed faience, from a
vase; and mosaic glass inlays
showing theatre masks
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic–early Roman
AN1960.725: gift of Miss P. Walker, ex Howard Carter
Collection; AN1965.322.b, 322.a, 323.a: ex Spencer-Churchill
Collection
Figure 88 AN1960.725
Figure 89 AN1965.323.a
Other foreigners in Egypt
15
Bronze statuette of the Assyrian divinity
Pazuzu, with incised inscription in
Aramaic or Phoenician
From San el-Hagar (Tanis); Late Period
AN1892.43: G.J. Chester Collection
Figure 90 AN1892.43
16
Faience plaque inlaid with a cuneiform
inscription in Old Persian including the
formula ‘King of Kings’
From Saqqara; Late Period
AN1933.720: Sayce Bequest
17
Syrian bronze statuette of a naked
woman, head and arms missing
From Thebes; Late Period
AN1872.83: G.J. Chester Collection
18
Phoenician pottery: jug with a mushroom
lip, and two-handled bottle
From el-Shaghambeh; late 9th–7th century BC
AN1896-1908 E.3472, E.3470: BSAE excavations, 1906
19
Glass pendants in the shape of bearded
heads, Phoenician
From el-Giza, and provenance unknown (larger
head); 7th–4th century BC
AN1896-1908 E.E.357: G.J. Chester Collection; AN965.292
(larger head): ex Spencer-Churchill Collection
20
Sherd inscribed with Phoenician
characters
From the Hellenion precinct, Naukratis; Late
Period
AN1896-1908 G.124: Hogarth excavations, 1903
21
Decorated tridacna shells, imported
from Syria or Phoenicia
From Memphis; Late Period
AN1910.527, AN1910.526: BSAE excavations
22
Cypriot sculpture: bearded male bust,
and limestone heads
From Naukratis; Late Period
AN1896-1908 G.70: BSAE excavations, 1899; AN1888.454,
AN1886.460: EEF excavations
Bearded Cypriot head
From the Faiyum: Late Period
AN1884.363: G.J. Chester Collection
23
Cypriot eye jug
From Naukratis; 6th century BC
AN1987.62: gift of P.M. Fraser
24
Small perfume flasks, probably local
imitations of Cypriot Black-on-red ware
From Tell el-Retabeh, and Thebes (smaller flask);
Late Period
AN1896-1908 E.3468: BSAE excavations, 1906; AN1887.2571:
G.J. Chester Collection
25
Nubian heads in pottery (a stopper), and
faience
From Naukratis, and provenance unknown;
Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1896-1908 G.97: BSA excavations, 1899; AN1966.1102: gift
of J.D. Beazley, ex Warren Collection
Figure 91 AN1966.1102
26
Greek mercenaries at Daphnai and
Memphis
Greeks were renowned as mercenary
soldiers as well as traders. Distinctive
scale-armour and weapons show their
presence at these sites
Iron scale armour
From the palace of Apries, Memphis; 27th Dynasty
AN1933.1435: Petrie excavations, 1908-14, bequest of Mrs
G.H. Pope
Bronze scale armour, and five bronze
arrowheads
From Memphis, Palace of Apries; 27th Dynasty
From the palace of Apries, Memphis; 27th Dynasty
AN1909.1085, 1086: BSAE excavations
Iron scale armour
From the central fort, chamber 18, Tell Dafana
(Daphnai); 26th Dynasty
AN1887.2504: EEF excavations
Two bronze flat arrowheads, and an iron
spearhead
From the camp, Tell Dafana (Daphnai); 26th
Dynasty
AN1887.2498, 2505: EEF excavations
27
Limestone false-door stelae with
Carian inscriptions. Carians from Asia
Minor served as mercenaries in Egypt
from the late 7th century on, and these
stelae in Egyptian style belonged to
Carians who were apparently buried in a
special cemetery at Saqqara
From area H5, Saqqara; Late Period
AN1971.106, 107: EES excavations, via the Griffith Institute
28
Inscribed limestone slab with a
Hadrianic copy of a decree of Ptolemy I
Soter (304–284 BC) honouring the arrival
of new Greek colonists; the Greeks
continued to establish settlements in
Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period
From el-Mansha (Ptolemais); reign of the Emperor
Hadrian AD 117–138
AN1987.56; gift of P.M. Fraser
29
Greek figures in terracotta and stone
Woman (head missing) holding a bird,
painted terracotta
From Damanhur (Hermopolis Parva); Ptolemaic–
Roman
AN1872.1051: G.J. Chester Collection
Limestone kouros, and woman on a
couch
From Naukratis; Late Period
AN1896-1908 G.69, G.1011: BSA excavations, 1899
Lyre player and horse and rider,
limestone
From Naukratis; Late Period
AN1896-1908 G.71, G.1007: Hogarth excavations, 1903
Figure 92 Cases 60 to 64; above, copy of a painting in the tomb of Ramose (about 1390­
1350 BC), showing his funeral procession; tempera copy by Nina Davies, AN1991.1 Case 62 Magic and Religion
Late Period
26th–30th Dynasties, Ptolemaic and Roman
about 715 BC–AD 395
Egypt was renowned in ancient times as the home of magic. Amulets,
figurines, and written spells were used to protect the individual, cure illness, or
attract love.
The most complex images and ritual objects were produced in the thousand
years from the beginning of the Late Period until the coming of Christianity.
Amulets and figurines were generally used in a more personal context than
the kind of objects dedicated in major cult temples. But religion and magic
were closely interrelated, and divinities such as Isis or Thoth were credited
with magic powers.
Their supernatural deeds were the subject of stories, and their help could be
sought to deal with problems in real life. The hippopotamus Taweret (her
name means ‘The Great One’), and the dwarf Bes were the particular
protectors of children and pregnant women. Lion-faced and armed with a
knife, Bes ‘the fighter’ was considered a powerful defender against harm; in
the Roman period he was portrayed as a soldier. The music-making and
dancing with which he was associated were also a means of driving away
harm.
Horus stelae, for protection and healing. When the child Horus was bitten by
a scorpion, Thoth conjured the poison out. The stelae show Horus standing
on crocodiles and holding other harmful animals, under the apotropaic mask
of Bes.
1
Fragmentary limestone statuette of a
priest holding a Horus-stela: the figure
was probably set in a basin, so that water
poured over the stela could be collected
and used to cure snake or scorpion bites
Probably from Sais; 26th Dynasty
AN1990.60
Figure 93 AN1990.60
Fragmentary Horus-stela of limestone,
incised on the base with a scene of Horus
as a charioteer hunting lions, ibexes, and
scorpions
Provenance unknown; 3rd Intermediate Period or
later
AN1967.1157
Horus-stela of tamarisk wood
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic or later
AN1874.279.a: Christy Collection
Miniature Horus-stela of steatite,
inscribed on the back with a magic spell
Provenance unknown; 26th Dynasty
AN1983.184: ex Wellcome Collection
Figure 94 AN1983.184
Faience figure of the dwarf god PtahPataikos as Horus-on-the-crocodiles,
protected by winged figures of Isis and
Nephthys
Provenance unknown; Late Period–Ptolemaic
AN1965.183: ex Spencer-Churchill Collection
2
The hippopotamus Taweret, red jasper,
standing on a base of limestone inscribed
with a dedication by a man named Paweher(?)
Provenance unknown; 26th Dynasty
AN1923.662: gift of Almina, Countess of Carnarvon
Figure 95 AN1923.662
3
Bes ‘the fighter’
Miniature stela of limestone
From Benha; Late Period
AN1878.47: G.J. Chester Collection
Terracotta figures of Bes as a Roman
soldier
AN1890.643 (from Abydos): G.J. Chester Collection; AN18961908 E.3716 (from Alexandria): gift of Margaret Murray
4
Magical statuette of black serpentine: the
upper part of a man who may have been
holding a stela or divine image. His
shoulders are inscribed with spells, and
he wears a pendant disk with the image of
a solar god
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic
AN1896-1908 E.3465
5
Heart amulet of haematite, inscribed with
a djed-pillar of Osiris on the front, and
Greek letters on the back
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic
AN1892.1197: G.J. Chester Collection
6
Faience pendant in the shape of a
composite divinity with attributes of the
gods Bes, Min and Anubis, bird and
scarab wings and a crocodile tail
Provenance unknown; Late Period–Ptolemaic
AN1964.702: ex Brummer Collection
Figure 96 AN1964.702
Bronze statuette of a dwarf baboonheaded divinity wearing the atef-crown of
Osiris and bird wings
Provenance unknown; Late Period–Ptolemaic
AN1865.172: ex Spencer-Churchill Collection
7
Limestone bust of Isis with a hole for the
addition of a headdress
Provenance unknown, possibly made outside
Egypt; late 2nd – early 3rd century AD
AN1970.358
8
Votive libation dish of steatite with a
bust of Isis
From Thebes; Roman
AN1941.1250: Evans Bequest
Gold armlet with a bust of Isis in a
medallion
From the temple area, Tukh el-Qaramus; early
Ptolemaic
AN1926.98: C.C. Edgar excavations, 1906; Grenfell Bequest
Figure 97 AN1926.98
9
Isis nursing the young Horus, bronze
figure on a wooden throne and base
inscribed in hieratic
From bronze cache 2, area H5, Saqqara; Late
Period
AN1971.101: EES excavations
Horus as a child, bronze
From bronze cache 2, area H2, Saqqara; Late
Period
AN1971.102: EES excavations
Figure 98 AN1971.101
10
Harpocrates with the club of Herakles
and the atef-crown, bronze
Provenance unknown; Roman
AN1973.569
Figure 99 AN1973.569
11
Terracotta figure of Isis nursing
Harpocrates
Provenance unknown; Roman
AN1887.256: G.J. Chester Collection
Harpocrates in the doorway of a shrine
with festive garlands, terracotta
with traces of paint
Provenance unknown; Roman
AN1889.934: G.J. Chester Collection
12
Osiris Canopus, terracotta
Probably from Hawara; Roman
AN1889.1240: gift of H. Martyn Kennard
Isis with the attributes of Thermuthis,
cobra goddess of the harvest; terracotta
Provenance unknown; 2nd–3rd century AD
AN1956.959: ex Ingram Collection
Figure 100 AN1956.959
Isis and Serapis as snake-divinities,
guardians of the prosperity of Egypt; sunk
relief in limestone
From Naukratis; Roman
AN1888.257: EEF excavations
13
Harpocrates as a priest carrying the
image of Osiris Canopus, terracotta
Provenance unknown; Roman
AN1982.1111: Crowfoot Bequest
14
Limestone bust of Serapis, and
terracotta heads of the god wearing the
modius (corn-measure) headdress
Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1964.301 (provenance unknown): Gardiner Bequest;
AN1872.413 (from Alexandria): G.J. Chester Collection;
AN1982.899 (provenance unknown): ex Wellcome Collection
Serapis enthroned as Jupiter: pottery
lamp handle
Provenance unknown; Roman
AN1948.62
15
Votive libation dishes of steatite, with
Isis, Serapis and Horus
Roman
AN1891.501 (provenance unknown): G.J. Chester Collection;
AN1932.661 (provenance unknown): gift of Sir John Beazley;
AN1941.1251-2 (from Thebes): Evans Bequest
16
Pottery lamps with busts of Isis and
Serapis above an altar; and a bust of
Serapis on the handle
Roman
AN1967.280 (provenance unknown);
AN1888.770 (from Hawara): Flinders Petrie excavations
Case 63 Greek and Roman Faience and Glass
Ptolemaic – Roman Periods
332 BC–AD 395
During the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, there were industrial-scale facilities
producing faience, a glazed ceramic for which Egypt was famous. A wide
variety of colours and techniques were used; many vessels were given a
raised or ‘relief’ decoration, which was produced in a multi-part mould, in just
the same way as modern cups and saucers are made. After moulding, the
faience was painted and stacked, each item separated from its neighbours in
the stack by small clay cones, called ‘stilts’, to stop them sticking to each
other.
The stacks were then put into large vessels known as ‘saggars’, and a
number of these saggars placed in the kiln and fired. Sometimes accidents
happened in the kiln – perhaps it was too hot, or something broke in the
heating. This created large collapses, breaking the saggars and the faience;
since they were so hot, they fused together and to the kiln floor. These
‘wasters’ then had to be chipped off the floor of the kiln, and were thrown
away. Great piles of wasters are often found in excavations of ceramic
workshops.
The glass of this period was different to that produced in the New Kingdom,
both in raw materials and style. All Roman glass is made from a soda-rich
mineral known as ‘natrun’, the major source of which is thought to have been
the Wadi Natrun in Egypt. Egypt was therefore very important to the Roman
glass industry, and several large factories were built.
Two major developments in glassmaking occurred in this period. The more
important was the invention of glass blowing, making the rapid production of
glass vessels possible for the first time. Secondly, mosaic glass was invented:
a picture or pattern was made up of large rods of glass, fused together and
then drawn into a long thin rod, the design thus becoming smaller and
smaller.
Glazed faience vessels, statuettes and amulets
1
Canopic jar, djed-pillar amulets and
wing-appliqués, with traces of gilding
on the larger wings
From cemetery E, tomb 460, Abydos; Ptolemaic
AN1912.528-533: EEF excavations
2
Canopic jar with a hawk-headed lid
From cemetery G, Abydos; 30th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.3462: EEF excavations, 1900
3
Thoth as a baboon holding a wedjat-eye;
and an openwork wedjat-eye bead
Provenance unknown; Late Period and Ptolemaic
AN1964.288: Gardiner Bequest; AN1950.167
4
Amuletic figures: Taweret holding a sasign; seated Osiris; Ptah; and the
dwarf Ptah-Pataikos
Provenance unknown; Late Period
AN1965.177, AN1965.181; AN1965.179: ex Spencer Churchill
Collection; AN1933.1441, Pope Bequest
Figure 101 AN1965.177 Figure 102 AN1933.1441 5
Plaque in the shape of a hawk
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1938.307: gift of A.H. Bird
6
Plaque of blue frit with cartouches
containing the names of Apries
(ruled 589–570 BC)
Provenance unknown; 26th Dynasty
AN1991.293: ex Ernest Brummer Collection
7
Cartouche-shaped plaque with the name
of Philip Arrhidaeus
From the foundation deposit of the temple, Tukh
el-Qaramus; 323–316 BC
AN1888.239: EES excavations
Figure 103 AN1888.239
8
Plaque with a centaur hunting deer
From Akhmim; Ptolemaic
AN1889.505: G.J. Chester Collection
9
Locust with feline features, and cockerel
Provenance unknown; Late Period and Ptolemaic–
Roman
AN1965.178: ex Spencer-Churchill Collection; ANFortnum C.9:
Fortnum Collection
10
Head of an oriental
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic
AN1966.1100: gift of Sir John Beazley
11
Vase with appliqué decoration of leaves
Provenance unknown; 1st century AD
AN1978.739: Reitlinger Bequest
Figure 104 AN1978.739
12
Ring decorated in relief with a wreath of
leaves
From Thebes; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1939.90: gift of P.E. Newberry
13
Alabastron of opaque blue glass
Provenance unknown; Late Period
AN1975.419: gift of John Bryson
14
Mosaic glass inlays with Egyptian motifs,
including the arm of a figure wearing
patterned textile, and a pleated kilt; and
classical motifs
Provenance unknown (except for E.3739); Late
Period–Roman
AN1965.321, 324, 318, 320.a: ex Spencer-Churchill Collection;
AN1983.166: ex Wellcome Collection;
Oldfield coll. 24; AN1896-1908 E.3739 (from Behnesa): EEF
excavations, 1903; Oldfield Collection 26;
AN1965.323.b, ex Spencer-Churchill Collection
Figure 105 AN1965.321
Figure 106 AN1965.324
15
Bars of mosaic glass for slicing into
inlays
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1965.314.a,b: ex Spencer-Churchill Collection
16
Bowls of mosaic glass
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1945.7-8
17
Fragments of moulded bowls
Provenance unknown, Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1925.666: gift of F.Ll. Griffith; AN1927.6214.f, 6214.j, 6215:
John Evans Collection
18
Plaque of mosaic glass with lotus and
other flowers
From Ihnasya; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1910.481: EEF excavations, 1904
Figure 107 AN1910.481
19
Fragment of engraved glass dish
From Thebes; Roman
AN1939.96: gift of P.E. Newberry
20
Glass lens
From Akhmim; Roman
AN1890.493: G.J. Chester Collection
21
Pharaoh making an offering: glass
inlays, probably for the decoration of a
wooden shrine
From a tomb at el-Lahun; Late Ptolemaic– early
Roman
AN1896-1908 E.3745: EEF excavations, 1902
Material from the Memphis faience kilns
22
Pottery stand for a saggar, luting strips
for sealing a saggar
AN1910.568 (Kom Hellul kilns); AN1910.528 (unidentified kiln)
Bowl with stilt marks, and clay stilts for
supporting vessels
AN1922.79 (provenance unknown): gift of Arthur Evans, ex
MacGregor Collection
AN1910.534 (unidentified kiln): BSAE and ERA excavations
Wasters: pile of dishes, and two bowls
AN1896-1908 E.3749 C (Kom Hellul kilns)
Fragment of a jar lined with blue frit, and
pills of blue frit
AN1910.567 (2), 564 A (Kom el-Qalama kilns)
Fragment of a saggar coated with glaze
AN1910.566 (1) (Kom Hellul kilns)
All from Memphis; Ptolemaic–Roman
23
Fragments of a marbled plate with stilt
marks, a dish with vine border, and vase
decorated in relief with a donkey laden
with amphorae
From Memphis; 1st–2nd century AD
AN1913.808, 802; AN1910.544 (Kom Hellul kilns): BSAE and
ERA excavations
Case 64 Alexandria
Ptolemaic and Roman Periods
332 BC–AD 395
Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in 332 BC on the site of the
Egyptian settlement of Raqote (Rhakotis). A natural harbour, located on the
Nile Delta, it was developed as Egypt’s major port. Its lighthouse, Pharos, was
one of the wonders of the ancient world.
From 305 BC, Egypt was ruled by the Ptolemaic kings and queens descended
from Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s generals. After the Battle of Actium in 31 BC
and Cleopatra’s death in 30 BC, it became part of the Roman Empire, and a
key source for its grain. Alexandria’s harbours were perfectly located for
Roman trade between the Mediterranean and the Nile Valley, overland to the
Red Sea, and on to India. The city became the second largest of the Roman
Empire. During the fourth century AD, Christianity became increasingly wellestablished in Alexandria. The last major pagan temple, the temple of
Serapis, was closed in 391.
Alexandria had a grid plan typical of a Greek city, and a colonnaded main
street. Although it had buildings indicative of a Greek cultural life, such as its
famous Museum and Library, the Egyptians influenced other aspects of the
city’s culture, such as religion and architecture. Many of the material remains
are an amalgam of Egyptian and Greek or Roman features; others are
distinctly one or the other.
1
Coins of the City’s Greek Rulers
Alexander the Great (332–323 BC)
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC)
and Arsinoe II (d.270 BC)
Ptolemy III Euergetes I (246–221 BC)
Ptolemy IV Philopator (221–205 BC)
Ptolemy V Ephiphanes (205–180 BC)
Ptolemy I Soter I (305–285 BC)
Arsinoe II, wife of Ptolemy II (d.270 BC)
Berenice II, wife of Ptolemy III (246–221
BC)
Arsinoe III, wife of Ptolemy IV (221–205
BC)
Cleopatra VII (51–30 BC)
Bronze coin of Ptolemy III Euergetes I
(246–221 BC) showing eagle on back
All British Museum electrotypes, except for Ptolemy I (HCR
1956.04.27.01 (14.09 g.): gift of Miss Jean Kirk) and Ptolemy III
(HRC Douce 1001 (74.42 g.):Douce Collection)
Ptolemaic Queens
Under Ptolemy II Philadelphus a royal cult was established for the worship of
the Ptolemaic kings and queens, beginning with his wife Arsinoe. Faience
libation vessels (‘royal oinochoai’) with relief decoration representing a queen
beside an altar were used for cultic purposes. The figures, made separately
for applying to the vessels, often survive as fragments.
2
A complete figure and upper and lower
fragments from three different
vessels
AN1909.347 (from Alexandria): gift of A.J. Evans
AN1892.1025 (provenance unknown): G.J. Chester Collection
AN1896-1908 E.3720 (from Naukratis): Hogarth excavations,
1899
Figure 108 AN1909.347
Trade by land and sea
3
Pilgrim flask of St Menas, showing a
boat
From Alexandria; 5th–7th century AD
AN1889.81: G.J. Chester Collection
4
Stamped jar handles from amphorae
used to ship wine from the Greek islands
Found in Alexandria; Ptolemaic
AN1872.503, 513: G. J. Chester Collection
5
Terracotta camels, saddled, laden with
amphorae, and with a rider (head missing)
From Qift, Nag Hammadi, and the Faiyum; 2nd–
3rd century AD
AN1921.1075: gift of F.Ll. Griffith; AN1892.1176 and
AN1872.409: G.J. Chester Collection
Figure 109 AN1921.1075
Monumental City of Greeks and Egyptians
Both traditional Egyptian architecture and the classical architectural orders
were used in the monumental buildings of Alexandria
6
Model column capitals of faience:
Egyptian papyrus and palm capitals
(fragmentary necks from faience pilgrim
flasks), and a model Corinthian capital
Papyrus and palm capitals: Late Period
AN1998.109 (provenance unknown); AN1933.143 (from Tell
Basta): Sayce Bequest
AN1887.2603 (from Karnak): G.J. Chester Collection
Corinthian capital: Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1989.138 (from Alexandria): ex Moustaki Collection
7
Limestone corner volute from an Ionic
capital
From Alexandria; Ptolemaic or Roman
AN1896-1908 G.1204: gift of Mary Grainger
8
Coloured building stone from Egypt and
the Mediterranean
‘Onyx alabaster’, and red porphyry from
Mons Porphyrites, both Egyptian; green
porphyry from Sparta; Carystian green
from Euboea (‘Cipollino’); grey granite
from Mons Claudianus, Egypt; and
Breccia di Settebasi from Skyros.
From Alexandria; Roman
AN1871.43: G.J. Chester Collection
City of the Living and the Dead
As the modern city of Alexandria expanded at the turn of the 19th and 20th
centuries, construction and roadworks revealed its ancient cemeteries. The
tombs contained objects of daily life, like those displayed here. Early burials in
the Ptolemaic city included cremations, following the Greek custom, as well as
inhumation
9
Hadra vase for burial of the cremated
bones of Nikostratos, a Chian envoy
From Alexandria; probably 209 BC
AN1920.250: gift of J.G. Milne
10
Pottery pyxis with a lid
Alexandria; 2nd century BC
AN1987.63: gift of P.M. Fraser
Faience Vessels
Vessels of faience, a traditional Egyptian material, were made in shapes
reflecting Greek influence, but their decoration combined Egyptian motifs,
such as the god Bes, with classical ones, such as griffins
11
Fragments of faience vessels with
moulded and bichrome decoration
Bes-mask on a jar
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic
AN1924.45: gift of F.Ll. Griffith
Bowl with horseman; neck of vase with a
griffin; and lotus bowl with griffins flanking
a palmette
From Memphis; Ptolemaic
AN1913.552, AN1913.809(1), and AN1910.549(2): BSAE
excavations, 1909-10 and 1912-13
12
Faience vase
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic
AN1888.1455: ex Chambers Hall Collection
Figure 110 AN1888.1455
13
Bichrome bowl and lotus bowl, faience
From Memphis; Ptolemaic
AN1911.356, AN1913.793: BSAE and ERA excavations
Figure 111 AN1911.356 and AN1913.793 with similar bowl
14
Terracotta figures
Alexandrian craftsmen depicted subjects
from everyday life and the theatre, as well
as mythology. Similar figures were also
made in marble and bronze.
Dwarf with a jar, riding a goose
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1944.61: gift of J.D. Beazley, ex Gayer-Anderson Collection
Dwarf carrying a jar
From the Faiyum; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1882.35: G.J. Chester Collection
Old woman with basket
From Hawara; Ptolemaic–Roman
AN1888.783: Flinders Petrie excavations, gift of H. Martyn
Kennard
15
Pottery lamps, mould-made; the
decorative motifs include a torch, and a
lamp on a stand ranging in date from the
2nd to the 1st century BC:
From the Faiyum, attributed to an Alexandrian
workshop;
AN1872.447: G.J. Chester Collection
provenance unknown, attributed to an Alexandrian
workshop;
AN1948.255: ex Sydenham Collection
provenance unknown;
AN1889.1272: gift of H. Martyn Kennard
from Athribis;
ANLamp.245
provenance unknown, attributed to the Alexandria
region;
AN1950.55: ex Rugby School Collection
from Alexandria;
AN1872.448: G. J. Chester Collection
City of Pagans, Jews and Christians
16
Ivory and bone panels and strips of
beading, used to decorate wooden
objects, such as boxes; the figure of
Dionysus is carved on the panels panels
and beading
from Shurafa, attributed to an Alexandrian
workshop
AN1912.608, 610, 613, 611.a-e; 612: BSAE excavations, 1912
bone figure panels, one in reverse,
showing the structure of the bone
AN1963.1395 (provenance unknown): gift of Helen Landon;
AN1949.8 (provenance unknown): ex Cookson Collection
AN1912.609 (from Shurafa: BSAE excavations)
All 3rd–6th century AD
Figure 112 AN1912.608, 610, 613
Bone gaming pieces
From Alexandria, and provenance unknown;
Roman
AN1884.205 and AN1892.870: G.J. Chester Collection
Incised bone roundel with bust of
woman
Provenance unknown; 4th century AD
AN1892.874: G. J. Chester Collection
Incised inlay of a woman
From el-Sheikh Ibada (Antinoopolis); 4th century
AD
AN1914.606: EEF excavations
17
Flasks of St Menas, from the pilgrimage
church of Abu Mina, west of Alexandria,
site of a holy water source. According to
legend, the body of the soldier-martyr
Menas was carried there by camels,
which sometimes appear with him on the
flasks. Other motifs shown in the moulded
decoration include a Nubian head, equalarmed cross, and the Greek inscription ‘Of
St Menas’. These flasks, found in large
quantities in Alexandria, were also taken
home by pilgrims from as far away as
Britain
All 5th – 7th century AD
AN1896-1908 E.3805 (provenance unknown); AN1891.117
(from Akhmim): G.J. Chester Collection;
AN1888.315 (provenance unknown):
G.J. Chester Collection;
AN1882.42 and AN1872.492 (from Alexandria):
G.J. Chester Collection
18
Roman and Late Roman pottery lamps:
the moulded decoration shows motifs
which reflect the variety of religions
practised in Alexandria and the
surrounding area, as well as purely
secular features
1st–2nd century AD:
rosette decoration; three-cornered form;
and a racing quadriga
AN1871.120 (from Alexandria); AN1896-1908 R.323 (from the
Faiyum); AN1872.1107 (from Alexandria): all G.J. Chester
Collection
1st–2nd century AD:
debased scarab motif; lamp handle with
sacred cobra; lamp handle with bust of
Serapis; a foot
AN1878.149 (from the Faiyum); AN1872.491
(from Tell el-Yahudiyeh); AN1872.487 and AN1872.1122 (from
Alexandria): all G.J. Chester Collection
4th–5th century AD:
debased frog motif; Jewish menorah;
Chi-rho monogram of Christ
AN1872.1119, 1114, 478 (all from Alexandria): all G.J. Chester
Collection
Case 65 A Beautiful New Year
Late Period
26th–30th Dynasties, Ptolemaic and Roman
about 715 BC–AD 395
Festive and Everyday Pottery
From the Late Period onwards, there were many more foreigners in Egypt, as
well as a great increase in imported commodities. A wider range of foreign
pottery was present, together with stylistic and technical changes in Egyptian
pottery. The kick-wheel was introduced by the Persians in the 6th century BC,
to judge by representations of this improved type of wheel, which left the
potter with both hands free to shape the vessel. Finer wares began to be
produced as a result of better preparation of the clay.
Amongst the profusion of vessel types, two traditional forms continued to be
made, with contemporary modifications. The ‘pilgrim flask’ which had
appeared in the New Kingdom acquired a special function as a ‘New Year’
flask, moulded in faience, with a decorative floral collar and a neck in the
shape of a column flanked by baboons. Hieroglyphic inscriptions on the sides
of these flasks expressed good wishes for the New Year – an event which
coincided with the arrival of the annual Nile flood in summer. Later moulded
flasks in this shape bore surface decoration of a kind that might have been
applied to leather water bottles, but they seem to have had a similar festive
purpose.
The association of the god Bes with vessels continued in the addition of
modeled approximations of his facial features to jars. The black-glazed pottery
produced in the Ptolemaic Period was especially suited to sculptural effects,
and miniature moulded flasks were produced in the shape of heads, including
that of Bes. With the coming of Christianity, this form of vessel was adapted
for the new requirements of pilgrimage souvenirs.
1
Amphora from Chios, originally holding
imported wine, with an incised mark
From area H5, Saqqara; late 6th century BC
AN1971.118: EES excavations
2
‘New Year’ flask of glazed faience
Provenance unknown; Late Period
AN1964.294 Gardiner Bequest
3
Jar with applied eyes and hands, in the
style of a Bes-vase
From area H6, Saqqara; Late Period
AN1971.91: EES excavations
4
Jug of polished red-slipped ware
From Nabesha; Late Period–Ptolemaic
AN1887.2476: EEF excavations
5
Lamps
Probably from Naukratis; Late Period
AN1896-1908 G.1050-1: EEF or Hogarth excavations
6
Pottery torch-holder with remains of a
charred torch
From area H5, Saqqara; Ptolemaic
AN1971.119: EES excavations
7
Brazier supports with moulded
decoration in the form of satyr heads:
broken from the rims of pottery braziers,
where they served to hold the cooking-pot
above the fire
From Naukratis; Ptolemaic
AN1896-1908 G.1139 and AN1888.182: EEF excavations
8
Miniature amphorae with moulded
decoration
From Naukratis: Ptolemaic
AN1896-1908 G.1014-15: Hogarth excavations,1903
9
‘New Year’ flask of black-glazed pottery
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic
AN1889.1236: gift of H. Martyn Kennard
10
Moulded black-glazed pottery: flasks in
the form of Bes-heads, double female
heads, and the neck of a flask with male
and female heads
From Qift (Koptos), and provenance unknown;
Ptolemaic
AN1892.1090-91: G.J. Chester Collection; AN1954.91: gift of
Mrs Bowden-Smith; AN1966.1063: gift of Sir John Beazley
11
Pottery incense-burner in the shape of
an altar
From Hawara; 2nd–3rd century AD
AN1888.780: Flinders Petrie excavations, gift of H. Martyn
Kennard
12
Cup with ring handles, decorated with a
festive dancer; one of a small group of
such bowls, made of fragile ware, possibly
for funerary use
From the Osireion, Abydos; 1st–2nd century AD
AN1926.212: EES excavations
13
Base of a red slip bowl with stamped
decoration
From Oxyrhynchus; 5th century AD
AN1938.742.a: Grenfell and Hunt Collection
14
Base of a red slip bowl stamped with a
Chi-Rho monogram surrounded by cord
circles
Provenance unknown; 5th century AD
AN1892.1054: G.J. Chester Collection
15
Painted pottery flask in the shape of a
man’s head, associated with the
pilgrimage shrine of St Menas
From Alexandria; 6th–7th century AD
AN1872.1078: G.J. Chester Collection
16
Painted wooden vase, perhaps a
cosmetic jar
From the Faiyum, probably Fag el-Gamus; 4th–5th
century AD
AN1896-1908 E.3657: EEF excavations, 1902
17
Water-jar with integral strainer,
decorated with scenes of love-making
From Antinoopolis; 6th–7th century AD
AN1914.627: EEF excavations
18
Fish plate, possibly made for liturgical
use
Provenance unknown; 6th–7th century AD
AN1972.1745
Figure 113 AN1971.1745
Figure 114 Cases 63 to 66 Case 66 Christianity and the Coptic Church
Late Roman and Christian Egypt
AD 284 onwards
The Christian religion began to attract followers in Egypt during the first
century AD, but its progress was marked by phases of persecution. This
reached a peak under the Emperor Diocletian in the late 3rd century, but
ended with the acceptance of Christianity in the Roman Empire under
Constantine. By the late fourth century, it was the Christians of Alexandria
who were taking aggressive action against the pagans.
Egypt was celebrated as the first home of monasticism, the creation of St
Antony the Great, who was born in the mid-third century. Visitors travelled
from afar to see the desert monasteries and hermits, and also the great
pilgrimage church of St Menas, west of Alexandria. Later, mediaeval pilgrims
to the Holy Land would pause in Cairo to see the sites traditionally connected
with the childhood of Christ, brought to Egypt by Mary and Joseph to escape
Herod’s persecution.
After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, the church in Egypt distanced itself
from the Christian majority over the question of the single or dual nature of
Christ. It retains its distinctive character to the present day. In daily life the
Coptic language, the last form of native Egyptian, was gradually supplanted
by Arabic from the later seventh century on, but it is still used in church liturgy.
Church furnishings and metalwork display features of form and decoration
which go back to the earliest Christian art in Egypt.
1
Parts of a wooden cross inscribed in
Greek, ‘In peace was laid the soul of
Peter’
Probably from the cemetery at Hawara; 4th–5th
century
AN1888.762: gift of Flinders Petrie
2
Small pendant crosses of lead, bronze,
rock crystal, mother of pearl, wood and
bone (in the shape of an ankh-sign); a
bronze cross in the shape of the Chi-Rho
monogram and two rings with pendant
bronze crosses; the smaller also has a
bronze coin (a follis of Constantine, AD
325–330)
4th–7th century
AN1891.522 (provenance unknown): G.J. Chester Collection;
AN1982.67 (from Thebes): Crowfoot Bequest; AN1933.690
(provenance unknown): Sayce Bequest; AN1891.178 (from
Akhmim); AN1933.689: Sayce Bequest; and AN1887.2716
(from Medinet Habu): G.J. Chester Collection; AN1935.38 (from
Medinet Habu): Sayce Bequest; AN1982.75-76 (from Thebes):
Crowfoot Bequest
3
Wing of a triptych, showing an angel;
paint and gilding on plastered wood
Provenance unknown; 6th–7th century
AN1884.367: G.J. Chester Collection
Figure 115 AN1884.367
4
Carved bone pendant in the shape of a
stela, showing a saint on horseback
spearing a crocodile
From Akhmim; 5th–7th century
AN1891.182: G.J. Chester Collection
5
Pottery pilgrim-flasks showing St Menas
flanked by camels, and riding on a horse
From Alexandria (larger flask) and Cairo; 5th–7th
century
AN1933.717: Sayce Bequest; AN1892.676: G.J. Chester
Collection
Figure 116 AN1933.717
6
Front of a woollen tunic, tapestry-woven
with a pendant cross, praying figures, and
busts of saints in medallions
Provenance unknown; 7th–8th century
AN1968.563
Figure 117 AN1968.563
7
Pottery ostracon inscribed in Coptic with
a hymn to Jesus:
Alleluia! Praise the Lord,
Call upon his holy name! Alleluia!
Praise the Lord! For he is a saviour,
And his goodness endures for ever...
The hymn is reminiscent of the Psalms
Possibly from Thebes; 6th–8th century
AN1923.664 (CO 25): gift of W.H. Buckler
8
Bronze hanging lamp and a lamp or
censer, both with dedicatory
inscriptions in Arabic
From Old Cairo (Fustat); 19th century?
AN1885.771-72: gift of A.J. Butler
Figure 118 AN1885.771, detail
9
Processional cross with the monogram
of Jesus Christ in Coptic, and an Arabic
dedicatory inscription, ‘Reward, O Lord,
those who labour in the Kingdom of
Heaven’; fan with a wooden handle,
decorated in repoussé with a pair of
seraphim; and benedictory cross and
spoon for administering the sacrament.
All of base silver
From Old Cairo (Fustat); 19th century or earlier
AN1885.774, 773, 775-6: gift of A.J. Butler
10
Bronze pyxis, censer, and cruet for
communion wine
From Medinet Habu; 7th century
ANFortnum B.202-4: Fortnum Collection
11
Eucharistic bread, stamped with crosses
and inscribed ‘Holy God, Holy
Mighty, Holy Immortal’
19th century
AN1872.599.d (from Cairo): G.J. Chester Collection;
AN1893.245 (from Aswan): gift of A.J. Butler
Case 67 Living in Roman Egypt
Daily Life
1
Multiple lamp, decorated with
garlands
From the Faiyum; Roman
AN1872.486: G.J. Chester Collection
2
Fragment of wall painting, a
woman’s head
From the Faiyum; 1st century AD
AN1888.343: G.J. Chester Collection
3
Pottery inkwell, reed pen and
miniature wooden writing board
on a card
Provenance unknown; Ptolemaic-Roman
AN1950.139: gift of Mr and Mrs A.J. Forster
AN1935.98.a: gift of Mrs A.S. Hunt
AN1896-1908 E.3671
Figure 119 AN1935.98.a, and AN1950.139 and a similar pen
4
Faience tray and decorated ivory
hairpin
From Oxyrhynchus and provenance
unknown; 1st-2nd century AD
AN1896-1908 E.3301; AN1891.485: G.J. Chester
Collection
5
Earrings: hoop with hooks for
fastening to the ear, threaded with
pearls and beads of beryl, gold; and
a hoop with hooked fastening,
threaded with pearls, beryl, gold
beads with granulated decoration,
and coiled wire
From Giza and Saqqara; 2nd century AD
AN1873.122.g, .h and .i: G.J. Chester Collection
At the Races
6
Charioteer, fragmentary terracotta
figure showing the upper half of a
figure, wearing a leather corslet and
helmet
From Hawara; 2nd-3rd century AD
AN1888.736: Flinders Petrie
7
Horse bedecked with garlands,
terracotta
Provenance unknown; 2nd-3rd century AD
AN1975.422
8
Pottery ostracon inscribed in Greek
with an order to deliver wine rations
to five grooms, a started and a
chaser – ‘11 jars exactly, for six
days’; from a group of documents
relating to Oxyrhynchus
From Oxyrhynchus; early 4th century AD
ANAshmolean G.O. 324
Nile landscape
9
Bronze crocodile, bronze figure of
a dwarf gathering lotus in a papyrus
boat, and a piece of mosais glass
depicting lotuses
Crocodile: provenance unknown;
AN1986.13
Boatman (probably the terminal of a spoon):
from el-Simbillawein, in the Nile Delta;
Figure 120 AN1982.1120
AN1982.1120, ex Fouquet Collection
Mosaic glass: provenance unknown;
AN1965.319, ex Spencer Churchill Collection
Figure 121 AN1986.13
Depictions of Nile landscape were a popular decorative feature all over the
Roman world, but – like Chinoiserie in European art – they bore only a
passing resemblance to the real landscape and inhabitants of Egypt
10
Objects from the burial of a child
in the Roman cemetery at Hawara
The grave is dated to the second
half of the 4th century AD by the
bronze coin (Constantius II,
Constantius Gallus Caesar, or Julius
Caesar) found in the wooden box.
The burial was apparently that of a
girl; in addition to the selection of
items shown here, it included a
leather ‘workbag’ full of dyed but
unspun wool, bodkins, and lengths
of reed hich may have been spools
for taking spun thread; and a
quantity of fragmentary clothing.
Displayed here: wooden box
containing dried lotus seeds and the
coin; ‘doll’s teaset’ consisting of a
copper bowl and base fragment of a
Figure 122 AN1888.813 Figure 123 AN1888.814, 816, 817 red slipware bowl (Eastern Sigillata
‘A’); a frog lamp with remains of
burnt wick inside; painted terracotta
‘fertility figure’ of a woman with
hands in the praying position; rag
doll made from scraps of tapestrywoven clothing, with real hair; a
selection of leather and plant fibre
(rush and palm-leaf) sandals from a
total of eight pairs or single shows
and sandals in the burial; and a
bone amulet in the shape of an
ankh-sign
From the cemetery at Hawara; 4th century
AD
Figure 124 AN1888.818 Figure 125 AN1888.815 AN1888.813-14, 816-17, 812, 818; selected footwear
from the group 804-810; 815:gift of H.M. Kennard, from
Flinders Petrie’s excavations
Figure 126 AN1885.809 11
Toy bird, carved of wood, with a pair
of solid wheels attached by pegs; a
cord or thong with which to pull it
along could have been threaded
through the holes in its head
From the cemetery at Hawara; late Roman
AN1888.763: Flinders Petrie excavations
Case 68 ‘I am a good scribe for my Lord...’
1
Statue of a priest of Thoth,
carrying a baboon
The god Thoth was associated with
wisdom, writing, and the moon. The
priest who dedicated this limestone
statue served in Thoth’s main temple
at Ashmunein. He wears a priestly
leopard skin and carries a bag of
scribal tools. The baboon is one of
two animals, along with the ibis, that
were sacred to Thoth
Probably from Ashmunein; 19th Dynasty
AN1961.536: purchased with grants from the National
Art Collections Fund and the France Fund
Figure 127 AN1961.536
2
Statuette of a baboon, gilded
haematite
Provenance unknown; Late Period
AN1971.1158: ex Bomford Collection
3
Statuette of Thoth, faience. Thoth
was usually depicted with a human
body and the head of an ibis, one of
his sacred animals
Provenance unknown; Late Period
AN1964.286: Gardiner Bequest, ex Grenfell Collection
4
Bronze statue of Imhotep reading
from a papyrus roll. Imhotep, who
was responsible for planning the
Step Pyramid of King Djoser in the
3rd Dynasty, was worshipped in later
times as a god of healing and
wisdom
Provenance unknown; Late Period
ANFortnum B.5: Fortnum Collection
5
Ptolemaic and Roman terracottas
The terracotta figures produced in
Egypt during the Ptolemaic and
Roman Periods (305 BC – AD 395)
reflect aspects of daily life, including
pets, furniture, the types of statuary
that would have been seen in public
spaces, and figures associated with
popular entertainment, particularly
comedy and sport
Figure 128 AN2004.63­5
Cat with collar and a bell
AN1889.1227: gift of H. Martyn Kennard
Painted goose
AN1933.430: Sayce Bequest
Female votary on an upholstered
couch, her arms raised in worship
AN1921.1167
Maltese dog wearing a collar with
three bells
AN1949.746: A.S. Hunt Collection
Three satirical figures from
Alexandria: a sheep (?) posing as a
beautiful woman; an ass-headed
teacher; and a victorious monkeyjockey
AN2004.63-5
Victorious Ptolemaic ruler, his horse
rearing over an enemy
AN1987.189
Guardian statue of a herm in a cloak
AN1872.1037: Chester Collection
Figure 129 AN1987.189
Case 69 ‘Be a scribe...’
Scribal schools were the main form of institutional education in pharaonic
Egypt, and they produced the small elite (perhaps 1% of the population) who
were literate. This education was exclusively for boys, and there is little
evidence that any women were literate. Scribal training brought the prospect
of a comfortable professional life, perhaps even high-ranking office. Amongst
the classic texts that school pupils had to copy, several described the
advantages and power that the scribe enjoyed.
In the 12th Dynasty, the town of el-Lahun was home to the workmen, officials,
and scribes involved in building and maintaining the pyramid complex of King
Senwosret II. Excavations yielded many objects inscribed with official titles or
stamped with the seal of the royal household, since the town was funded by
the state.
1
Fragment of wood inscribed in
hieroglyphs with the titles of an official
named Ankhy
From el-Lahun; 12th Dynasty
AN1914.677: BSAE and ERA excavations
2
Stone palette with practice carvings of
hieroglyphs, including a bee and four
birds
Provenance unknown; New Kingdom
AN1933.325: Sayce Bequest
3
Model of a seated scribe, with a
writing tablet on his knee; painted
wood
From grave 268, Beni Hasan; Middle Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.4139: Garstang excavations, 1903
Figure 130 AN1896­1908 E.4139
Mud was used to seal the mouths of vessels and rolls of papyrus. Stamped
impressions identify the source of the contents, or the owner of the document
4
Mud cover from a jar, with three seal
impressions
AN1889.1156: gift of H. Martyn Kennard
5
Two glazed steatite scarabs with
stamp bases; an unfinished scarab
seal, carved from limestone; and a
limestone stamp
AN1892.269; AN1914.63: G. J. Chester Collection; gift of
Mrs. Twining
AN1921.1402: BSAE and ERA excavations
AN1889.1170: gift of H. Martyn Kennard
6
Mud sealings from papyrus rolls
AN1889.1157, 1164, 1161, 1169: gift of H. Martyn
Kennard
All from el-Lahun; 12th Dynasty except steatite
scarabs, provenance unknown; Middle
Kingdom and 15th Dynasty
7
Fragmentary writing tablet made of
wood covered with linen and plaster,
and inscribed in hieratic
From el-Lahun; 12th Dynasty
AN1890.760: gift of H. Martyn Kennard
8
Pen case, known as a scribal palette,
with reed pens in a compartment
covered by a sliding door. Two circular
wells hold black and red pigment. Red
ink was used for drafts or to highlight
parts of a document
From the burial of Neteruhotep, grave 75, Beni
Hasan; Middle Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.1989: Garstang excavations, 1903
Figure 131 AN1896­1908 E.1989
9
Limestone ostracon inscribed in
hieratic with part of a text known as
‘The Satire of the Trades’. A father
taking his son to scribal school praises
the scribe’s profession by comparison
with other, menial types of work
Probably from Deir el-Medina; 19th or 20th
Dynasty
ANAshmolean H.O. 356: Gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
Case 70 Language and Script
Ancient Egyptian belongs to the Afroasiatic family of languages. In its written
form over 4,000 years, the language went through several stages of evolution.
Modern scholars have divided it into three periods roughly corresponding to
the major divisions in chronology: Old Egyptian (the language of the Old
Kingdom), Middle Egyptian (the ‘classical’ language in which the texts studied
at school were written), and Late Egyptian (used from the later New Kingdom
on). Late Egyptian evolved into Demotic, and finally Coptic.
1
Demotic papyrus with a request for
an oracle. A father asks the crocodile
god Soknopaius:
If it is my good fortune to give
Tetiosiris, my daughter, as wife to
Sebekmen son of Kriton, may this
letter be brought to me
From Dimai (Soknopaiou Nesos), in the
Faiyum; 2nd century BC
AN1968.31
Demotic script, corresponding to the linguistic age of that name, came into
use in the 7th century BC. It continued to be used until the 5th century AD, in
parallel with Greek, which had been the other standard language and script in
Egypt since the Ptolemaic Period
2
School writing board, wood coated
with lime wash. On one side dated
March AD 544, the first and fourth
columns have exercises in the
syllabification of Greek words
beginning with the letters delta and
epsilon. In the narrower columns are
multiplication tables for 4 and 5,
beginning with 4 x 1 = 4. The exercises
continue to the other side (dated a
year later). The board was probably
one of a set tied together
Provenance unknown; 6th century AD
AN1982.1119
3
School writing board, wood coated
with plaster. Both sides are inscribed in
hieratic with eight lines from the ‘Hymn
to the Nile Flood’. One side also has
three unrelated columns of vocabulary
and some drawings: the head of a
divine falcon, and a bee, plus details of
a bee’s head
From Qurna, Western Thebes; 19th Dynasty
Figure 132 AN1948.91
AN1948.91: the gist of Sir Alan Gardiner
Other languages and scripts in Egypt
4
Cuneiform tablets from el-Amarna
About 1353-1335 BC
Part of a letter, probably from a Hittite
king to the king of Egypt. Only the
second half of some lines are
preserved; they contain references to
slander and someone’s murder. The
cuneiform script was used to write
various languages of the Ancient Near
East, and the diplomatic archives at elAmarna contained tablets made and
inscribed within Egypt, as well as sent
from abroad
From building 19 (‘Record Office’)
AN1893.1-41(408) (EA 43): Flinders Petrie excavations,
gift of H.M. Kennard
5
Part of an Egyptian-Akkadian
vocabulary, possibly written by a
foreign scribe as an aid to learning
Egyptian. The left-hand side contains
Egyptian words, the right Akkadian,
and the tablet is apparently made of
Egyptian clay. The listed words include
Egyptian equivalents to shekel
weights, and household items: house,
door, bolt… chair, bed, table’
From house O.49.23 in the main city
AN1921.1154 (EA 368): EES excavations
6
Wooden labels written with ink
inscriptions (apparently personal
names) in Demotic on one side and
Aramaic (the administrative language
of the Persian Empire) on the other
From the palace of Apries, Memphis; 27th
Dynasty
All from the group AN1910.725-36: BSAE excavations
Jar labels
Although potsherd and flakes of limestone (ostraca) were regularly used as
cheaper alternatives to papyrus, some potsherds are simply inscribed with a
record of the pot’s content or destination
7
Wine label on fragment of bluepainted jar; the hieratice inscription
runs according to the usual Amarna
formula, with a year date (missing) and
identification, ‘Wine of the House of the
Aten…’
From el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
AN1893.1-41 (270): Flinders Petrie excavations
8
Label for a wedding present;top of a
jar (contents unknown), inscribed in
Greek ‘Good luck to the bride and
groom. Theodorus…’
Provenance unknown; 5th to 6th century AD
ANAshmolean G.O. 148
Written magic
9
Silver foil inscribed with a magical text
for John, son of Benenata. The first six
lines are written in Greek, and the text
thereafter is a mixture of Hebrew and
Greek, consisting of personal names
and magical formulae. The foil would
have been rolled up and placed in a
phylactery, a leather pouch or metal
cylinder which John kept on his person
as a protective amulet
Provenance unknown; Roman
AN1921.1121: gift of J.G. Milne, ex Amherst Collection
Case 71 Scarlet and black
The draughtsman’s art
Egyptian paintings and sculptures were made by a team of individuals
responsible for specific areas of work. Quarrymen and stonemasons would
provide a smooth surface to work on, and scribes composed the texts. The
painting and carving of the decoration was the speciality of skilled sculptors
and draughtsmen, who laid out the design with reed pens and two colours of
ink. The first draught was made in red ink, which was then reinforced and
corrected in black to produce the final design. Draughtsmen and sculptors
often used the discarded flakes of limestone that littered building sites to try
out ideas, to copy existing paintings, or simply to doodle on.
Many of the decorated ostraca now in the Ashmolean were collected and
given by the British epigraphers and artists Norman and Nina de Garis
Davies, who worked on the recording of Theban tombs from 1908 to 1939.
Some of their copies of Egyptian tomb-paintings are also on display in the
Egyptian galleries.
1
Hieratic papyrus: a letter from the
draughtsman Hormin to his father the
draughtsman Hori. Hormin asks Hori to
...speak with the leaders, to call up
that servant of yours, so he may
give me a hand in the drawing: I am
alone, for my brother is ill. Those of
the right side have carved a
chamber more than the left...
This papyrus reveals how a decorative
scheme (here, carving and painting a
royal tomb) was usually executed. Two
gangs of masons, draughtsmen, and
sculptors - ‘the left’ and ‘the right’ would have set to work on opposite
sides of the royal tomb. Hormin came
from a family of draughtsmen; the
posts were often passed on from father
to son
From Deir el-Medina; 20th Dynasty
AN1958.112: gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
2
Limestone trial piece showing a
beginner’s attempts at cutting the
hieroglyph t (a semi-circular loaf and
lips)
From the Great Palace, el-Amarna; 18th
Dynasty
AN1937.867: EES excavations
Figure 133 AN1937.867
3
Red ink drawing of a man with a
shaven head or close-fitting cap. The
surface is too smooth for an ostracon,
and it is probably a preliminary sketch
from a wall that was never carved
From Qurna, Western Thebes; Middle
Kingdom
AN1945.63: gift of Nina Davies
4
Pottery ostracon with a sketch of a
house. The plan shows, a series of
rooms around a courtyard, is still used
in Egypt today
From el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
AN1936.644: EES excavations
5
Head of a man. His pursed mouth,
shaggy hair and wispy beard may
indicate that a specific individual is
being depicted or caricatured
From Western Thebes; 19th–20th Dynasty
AN1945.20: gift of Nina Davies
6
Head of a king or prince
From the Valley of the Kings, Thebes; 20th
Dynasty
AN1933.804: Sayce Bequest
Figure 134 AN1933.804
7
Design for a ceiling, painted in black,
red and yellow. Parts of the red
preliminary drawing are visible
From Deir el-Bahri, Western Thebes; New
Kingdom
AN1896-1908 E.2724: EEF excavations, 1904
8
A dog attacking an ibex. Scenes of
the chase became popular in private
tombs of the 18th Dynasty; the
depiction of animals in movement
allowed the draughtsman more scope
to depict poses based on observation
From Qurna, Western Thebes; 18th Dynasty
AN1945.14: gift of Nina Davies
Case 72
Living in the New Kingdom
Music and games
1
Reed pipe, a hippopotamus ivory
clapper (clappers were used in
pairs, like castanets), and a
fragment of a hippopotamus ivory
wand incised with images of
demons, used in casting spells to
assist in childbirth. Percussion
instruments, harps, lutes and lyres,
and wind instruments have
survived. Songs also accompanied
the incantation of protective spells
Figure 135 AN1912.527
AN1921.1433 (from grave 1805, Sidmant): BSAE and
ERA excavations
AN1912.527 (provenance unknown)
AN1896-1908 E.2336 (from tomb E10, Abydos): ERA
excavations, 1900
2
Gaming pieces of faience and
wood: one human-headed, one
lion-headed gaming piece; a set of
conical and domed faience gaming
pieces; a throwstick with a canine
head; and a painted pottery die. As
well as being favoured pastimes
throughout Egyptian history,
boardgames had religious
connotations: the successful
passage of one’s pieces across the
board recalled the soul’s hoped-for
entry into the underworld
AN1921.1267 (from grave 263, Sidmant): BSAE and
ERA excavations
AN1885.64 (from Thebes): G. J. Chester Collection
AN1896-1908 E.2704-5 (from tomb D29, Abydos):
EEF excavations
AN1886.822.a (from Thebes): G.J. Chester Collection
Living in the New Kingdom
Well-to-do Egyptians took with them to their tombs all the things associated
with a comfortable lifestyle, which they expected to continue in the afterlife
Personal grooming and dress
3
Curler, knife, and razor; bronze
AN1927.1296 (provenance unknown): Evans
Collection
AN1896-1908 E.2341-42 (from tomb E10, Abydos):
ERA excavations, 1900
4
Bronze mirror with an ivory handle;
bone hairpin; wooden comb
AN1913.393 (from tomb D226, Abydos): EEF
excavations
AN1896-1908 E.2696 (from tomb D29, Abydos): EEF
excavations
AN1892.654 (provenance unknown): G. J. Chester
Collection
5
Ivory kohl-tube decorated with a
naked woman; an ivory ‘cosmetic
tray’ in the shape of a bound ibex
From a deposit of bones and ivories in
tomb 562, Qau
AN1923.621-22: BSAE and ERA excavations
Figure 136 AN1923.621
Figure 137 AN1923.622 6
Pink leather sandals; the upper
straps are lost
From tomb N, Medinet Ghurab
AN1889.1068: Petrie excavations; gift of H. Martyn
Kennard
Childbirth and nursing
7
Part of a polished red ware
vessel, modelled as a nursing
woman; possibly a container for milk
From Sidmant, grave 243; 18th Dynasty
AN1921.1290: BSAE and ERA excavations
Figure 138 AN1921.1290
8
Model of a woman lying on a bed;
at the foot, another woman nurses a
child. Such ‘fertility figures’ of nude
women have been found in houses,
and the tombs of men, women, and
children. They ensured the
pleasurable and successful
production of offspring
From tomb 408, Medinet Ghurab; late 18th
Dynasty
AN1921.1315: BSAE and ERA excavations
Case 73
Living in the New Kingdom: cosmetic vessels and
jewellery
1
Broken travertine kohl-pot with
remnants of kohl (eyepaint made of
galena, a lead ore) in a reservoir
much smaller than the pot - an old
trick in cosmetic packaging
From tomb E143, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2389: ERA excavations
2
Glazed steatite kohl-pot, carved as
an inner tube and outer openwork
shell
From grave E265, Riqqa; 18th Dynasty
AN1913.480: ERA excavations
3
Serpentine kohl-tube in the shape
of a vessel held by a baboon
From tomb E10, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2339: ERA excavations
4
Leather kohl-tube, and a wooden
kohl-stick; wood kohl-pot and lid,
inlaid with ebony and ivory and
wrapped up in linen
From tomb 287, Beni Hasan; Provenance
unknown; both New Kingdom
AN1950.210; AN1896-1908 E.2688: Garstang
excavations
5
Kohl-pots of blue anhydrite, a
hard stone used especially for
containers like these
From tomb E 143, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2384, 2386: ERA excavations
6
Bronze kohl-stick
Provenance unknown; New Kingdom
AN1933.937: Sayce Bequest
7
Ivory kohl-tube in the form of a
papyrus-bundle column; ivory
‘cosmetic tray’
From tomb D29D, Abydos; 18th Dynasty
AN1896-1908 E.2688, 2678: EEF excavations
8
Wooden ‘cosmetic tray’ in the
shape of a duck
From grave 243, Sidmant
AN1921.1268: BSAE and ERA excavations
10
Steatite pair statue of the royal
scribe and officer Huy, and his wife,
Nay, a chantress of Amun. Nay
holds a mandrake fruit and wears a
lotus hair-band; these, and her
revealingly-cut and pleated linen
dress, emphasize her sexual allure
Provenance unknown; end of the 18th
Dynasty
AN1964.296: Gardiner Bequest
Figure 139 AN1964.296
11
Pierced ears became fashionable
during the early 18th Dynasty, and a
variety of earrings and ear-studs
were worn. Larger rings with no
visible means of attachment are also
known; these may be ear-rings or
hair-rings, twined into tresses. Blue
glass and travertine ear-studs; two
gold earrings; red jasper ‘hairrings’
AN1931.617 (provenance unknown): Knox Shaw
AN1886.883 (provenance unknown): G. J. Chester
Collection
AN1962.792.a-b (provenance unknown): gift of Mrs M.
C. Radford
AN1933.39.c (provenance unknown): Sayce Bequest
AN1890.1113 (from Gurob, ‘burnt group’ 4): Petrie
excavations
12
Inscribed bronze finger-ring;
faience scarab with gold swivelmount
Provenance unknown; New Kingdom
AN1982.946: Wellcome gift, ex MacGregor Collection;
ANFortnum R.5: Fortnum Collection
13
Faience necklace with beads in the
form of lilies and the goddess
Taweret
From grave 265, Riqqa; New Kingdom
AN1913.478: BSAE and ERA excavations
14
Faience bead in the shape of a frog
From el-Amarna; 18th Dynasty
AN1929.411: EES excavations
Figure 140 AN1929.411
15
Gold amulet in the shape of the
falcon-headed god Horus
Provenance unknown; New Kingdom
AN1964.313: Gardiner Bequest
Case 74
The workmen’s village at Deir el- Medina
The craftsmen who worked on the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings
throughout the New Kingdom lived in a compact village of about 70 houses,
tucked away in a valley in Western Thebes. Thanks to the quantity of
documents that have survived from the village, more is known about this small
community than any other group of people in ancient Egypt.
1
Limestone ostracon inscribed in
hieratic by the scribe Amennakht
with two poems composed by him.
The side exhibited contains a poem
praising the city of Thebes: ‘...the
bread there is finer than a goose-fat
doughnut, her water is sweeter than
honey...’. The red dots above the
lines are ‘verse points’, which were
used to indicate rhythmic units in
literary texts, possibly similar to linebreaks in a poem
From Deir el-Medina, Western Thebes; 20th
Dynasty
ANAshmolean H.O. 25: gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
2
Limestone ostracon with a drawing
of a man offering a loaf to a snake
headed goddess suckling a child, a
characteristic depiction of
Renenutet, personification of the
harvest and nursemaid to the divine
king. She became associated with
Meretseger and was also
worshipped at Deir el-Medina
From Deir el-Medina, Western Thebes; New
Kingdom
Figure 141 HO 49
ANAshmolean H.O. 49: gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
3
Hieratic papyrus: part of a will
made by a woman named
Naunakhte, distributing her property
amongst five of her eight children.
She disinherits the three children
who did not treat her well. The
papyrus is dated to year 3 of
Ramesses V (c. 1145 BC) and was
written by the scribe Amennakht. His
name appears in the eighth line on
the right-hand side of this sheet,
Figure 142 AN1945.97 (4)
where Naunakhte’s heirs swear
before the local tribunal to follow her
wishes
From Deir el-Medina, Western Thebes; 20th
Dynasty
AN1945.97 (4): gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
4
Limestone ostracon inscribed with
hieratic signs, numbers, and unusual
marks. These marks probably
represent personal names, and the
numbers record the amount of items
(probably pots) made by or delivered
to them. Full literacy was rare, but
more people would have been able
to ‘make their mark’, as shown here
From Deir el-Medina, Western Thebes; 20th
Dynasty
ANAshmolean H.O. 1093: gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
5
Fragmentary limestone ostracon
with a hieratic inscription recording
the resolution of a dispute over a hut
inherited by the workman Wennofer.
The inscription is unusual in being
incised and filled with blue frit, a
technique used for formal
hieroglyphic inscriptions. Perhaps
Wennofer set this ostracon into a
wall of the disputed hut like a stela
From Deir el-Medina, Western Thebes; 20th
Dynasty
ANAshmolean H.O. 655: gift of Sir Alan Gardiner
6
Model sandal of wood inscribed ‘the
Servant in the Place of Truth on the
west of Thebes’, the standard title for
a tombworker from Deir el-Medina.
‘The Place of Truth’ was the Valley
of the Kings
From Deir el-Medina, Western Thebes; New
Kingdom
AN1952.206
7
Limestone stela dedicated by the
Servant in the Place of Truth
Amenpahapy. The six serpents
represent the cobra-goddess
Meretseger (‘Mistress of Silence’),
who was associated with the Valley
of the Kings. The stela may have
been placed in a rockcut shrine
along the path from Deir el-Medina
Figure 143 Ashmolean HO 655
to the Valley of the Kings
From Deir el-Medina, Western Thebes; 20th
Dynasty
AN1945.15: gift of Nina de Garis Davies