1. society
2. unrest and war

Chapter 10
The Early Cold War Era
This chapter covers the following Georgia Performance Standard(s).
SSUSH20
SSUSHll
10.1
The student will analyze the domestic and
intemational impact of the cold war on the United
States.
The student will explain economic grovvth and its
impact on the United States, 1945-1970.
THE COLD WAR BEGINS
CONFLICT IN EUROPE
"LJ Western Europe
II Eastern Europe
Iron Curtain
Following World War II, tensions were high between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. Neither
side trusted the other, since the Western powers were democracies with capitalist market systems, and
the Soviet Union was a socialist state led by the Communist Party. After the war, the United States and
Great Britain felt strongly that the Allies should not occupy the territories they conquered during
WWII. The Soviets, on the other hand, had suffered greater losses in terms of life and property than
either of them. They were determined not to be invaded again. Stalin decided that he must maintain
control over Eastern Europe in order to keep a buffer between the Soviet Union and Western nations.
Not only did Stalin make it evident that he had no intention of giving up control of the conquered
territories, he also stamped out any opposition to his Communist Party in the nations under his control.
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The Early Cold War Era
The European continent now stood divided between the Western democracies and Soviet satellite
nations (nations answering to and representing the views of the USSR). In a speech given by
Winston Churchill at Westminster College in Missouri, the former prime minister said of Europe,
"A shadow has fallen ... an iron curtain has descended across the continent." As a result of his
comments, "iron curtain" became the common term used to refer to the dividing line between
Eastern and Western Europe.
U.S. POST-WAR POLICIES IN EUROPE
In 1946, a top U.S. diplomat named George Kennan was stationed in the
Soviet Union. After observing Soviet behavior and becoming very
familiar with the USSR's government, Kennan recommended that the
United States and its allies focus on a containment policy. Kennan
believed that Eastern Europe was finnly in Soviet hands and could not be
saved. Therefore, the United States and the West should focus on
containing Communism to those countries in which it already existed and
not let it spread any further. Reaffirming Kennan's philosophy, Truman
introduced the Truman Doctrine. This doctrine stated that the United
States would not hesitate to intervene and aid nations overseas to resist
Communism. It featured a financial plan to build up Europe worked out
by former army chief of staff and then Secretary of State George Marshall.
Labeled the Marshall PIau, it provided nations in war-torn Europe with much-needed financial
support from the United States. This aid served to spark economic revival and prosperity in these
countries, alleviating the suffering of many people. Since Communist revolutions often started due
to economic hardships, the Marshall Plan went a long way towards preventing Soviet advances
into Western Europe and became the crowning achievement of the containment policy.
A DIVIDED
GERMANY
Division of Berlin
When World War II ended, the Allies divided Germany among themselves. Part of the country fell :s
under U.S. control, part fell under British control, and part of the nation fell to the Soviets. Out of
the portions allotted to the United States and Britain, France received a portion as well. In addition, ~
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the German capital of Berlin, although located within the Soviets' territory, was also divided. The
western pOliions of the city went to the Western Allies, while the eastern pOliion went to the
Soviets. Great Britain, the United States, and France all saw these divisions as temporary. They
envisioned Germany eventually being a unified and independent democracy. Stalin, however, had
no intention of giving up the Soviet-controlled parts of Berlin or Germany. By 1948, it became
obvious that Stalin would not relent. Realizing that a unified Germany would not be possible, the
United States, Great Britain, and France combined their sectors into one nation, the Federal
Republic of Germany (West Germany), and declared West Berlin to be partofthis new nation. The
USSR responded by establishing the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) under
Communist rule. Almost immediately, thousands of people wishing to escape Communism fled to
West Berlin, hoping to make their way to freedom. In an effort to stop this, Stalin decided to force
the West to sun'ender its portion of Berlin. He cut off the city, not allowing any needed supplies to
reach the people of West Berlin. Wanting to avoid a war, yet deal firmly with Stalin, Truman
authorized the Berlin airlift. Over a fift;een-month period, United States and British planes
delivered needed supplies to West Berlin. The Soviets finally gave up in May of 1949, but the
bitterness of the conflict only served to fuel the fires of the "cold war." The term "cold war" was
first used by presidential advisor, Bernard Baruch, in 1947. It referred to the tension between the
United States and the Soviet Union that dominated both nations' foreign policies and which many
feared would lead to actual war.
American Pilot
Berlin Airlift
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The Early Cold War Era
CHINA AND KOREA
CHINA'S COMMUNIST REVOLUTION
Prior to the Japanese invasion of the early 1930s, Nationalist
leader Chiang Kai-shek ruled China. Although Communist
rebels had waged a civil war against the government prior to
WWTI, when the Japanese attacked, the two sides stopped
fighting one another to fight against the Japanese. After the war,
however, hostilities between the Nationalists and the
Communists started up again. After a U.S. attempt to mediate
the conflict failed, the United States reasoned that it could not
allow a Communist takeover of such a key country. Therefore,
Mao Tse-tung
it decided to send financial aid to Chiang Kai-shek. The Soviets
responded by sending support to the Communist forces of Mao Tse-tung. By 1949, Mao's
Communists won control of the mainland, forcing Chiang and his supporters to flee to the island
of Formosa (known today as Taiwan). The United States refused to recognize the new government,
insisting that Chiang's Nationalists on Formosa still represented the true government of China. It
used its veto power to prevent the UN from formally recognizing Mao's government in the newly
formed United Nations (organization founded in 1948 where nations meet to negotiate peaceful
solutions to problems).
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THE KOREAN WAR
Korea was among the countries liberated from
the Japanese during World War ll. Since both
the United States and the Soviets played a role
in its liberation, the nation was divided along
the 38th parallel (line of latitude that runs
through Korea). The northern half of the
country established a Communist government,
while the southern half put in place a pro-US
democracy. In June 1950, the Korean War
began when North Korean forces crossed the
38th parallel. The United Nations elected to
come to South Korea's aid and President
Truman chose General Douglas MacArthur, the
man who had liberated the Philippines and had
overseen the establishment of a democracy in
Japan after WWII, to lead the UN forces.
Technically, the conflict was never a declared
war, but rather a UN police action.
North Korea
38th Parallel
MacArthur's forces pushed their enemy back
across the 38th parallel. Continuing to advance
north, the UN forces moved ever closer to the
Chinese border. Concerned that United Statesled forces were so close and wanting to
maintain a Communist regime in North Korea,
the Chinese sent troops across the Yalu River to
aid the North Koreans. A stalemate soon
developed. To make matters more complicated,
Truman fired MacArthur after the general
criticized the president's handling of the war.
After two more years of fighting, both sides
signed a truce in 1953. The agreement left the
country divided at almost the same point as
when the conflict started.
Division of Korea
~
The 38th Parallel
Korean War
Korean War
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The Early Cold War Era
ATTITUDES AT HOME
Citizens in the United States were very concerned due to the cold war and the expansion of
Communism. Unlike before the war, people now lived with the threat of nuclear weapons. The
United States and USSR were engaged in a nuclear arms race in which both sides continually built
updated weapons aimed at one another and which provided the possihility of massive retaliation
(responding to an attack with nuclear weapons). Private citizens began buildingfallout shelters
which they hoped could provide protection if the Soviets launched a nuclear attack. Schools
conducted nuclear attack drills and taught students how to "duck and cover" in the event of a
missile strike.
In addition to fears of nuclear war, there was also a new wave
of fear about Communism. During the Great Depression,
many citizens had joined the Communist Party, or at least
voiced agreement with certain Communist ideals. Most did
this because they felt Communism offered the economic relief
that they needed. When economic times got better and people
learned more about Stalin's brutality in the USSR, most no
longer had an interest in being Communists. Still, the success
of China's Communist revolution and North Korea's attempt
to invade South Korea convinced many in the United States
that Communists would stop at nothing short of worldwide
domination. The U.S. government inevitably responded to
Red Scare
such concerns. In the late 1940s and into the' 50s, the
government investigated, arrested, and sometimes harassed many people due to their alleged
connections to the Communist Party. This period became known as the second "Red Scare."
GOVERNMENT POLICIES DEALING WITH COMMUNISM
Concerned with the threat of Communism, President Truman signed
legislation which created what became the Department of Defense,
established to preside over military affairs. This act also created the
president's National Security Council for the purpose of coordinating
national security policies, and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
to be responsible for spying on the USSR and its allies. Meanwhile,
Congress relied on the House Un-American Activities Committee
(HUAC) to root out Communists in the federal government. The
committee became most famous for its investigation of State
Department official Alger Hiss, after he was accused of giving the
Soviets secret U.S. documents during the 1930s. Hiss denied the
charges, but was convicted of perjury (lying under oath) and sent to
prison. HUAC also gained notoriety for its investigations of
individuals in the in the movie making industry who were suspected of being Communists. The
committee called a number of Hollywood actors, producers, and writers to testify in 1947.
Believing the committee's actions to bc a violation of civil rights, ten of the accused refused to
appear before the HUAC. The "Hollywood Ten" then went to jail for contempt. Some were
sentenced to terms as long as a year. Out offear that they might be targeted next, a number of movie
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executives denounced the Hollywood Ten and developed a Hollywood blacklist. The list consisted
of writers, actors, directors, and so forth, that producers refused to work with because of suspected
ties to Communism. Even today, many in Hollywood remain bitter about the list.
JOSEPH MCCARTHY
One of the most interesting characters to arise as a result of
national concern about Communism was Wisconsin Senator,
Joseph McCarthy. McCarthy was convinced that
Communists had infiltrated high levels of government and the
U.S. military. He even accused fonner army chief of staff and
Secretary of State George Marshall. At first, Communist
aggression in Korea served to help McCarthy and his ideas
gain popularity. Eventually, however, McCarthy had to defend
Senator Joseph McCarthy
his views in a series of televised hearings. By the time the
hearings ended in June 1954, most U.S. citizens viewed
McCarthy as paranoid at best and downright crazy at worst. "McCarthyism" (the ideas and fears
of Communism voiced by McCarthy and his supporters) began to collapse, and the irrational fear
that "Communists are everywhere" ultimately subsided.
Practice 10.1: The Cold War Begins
I.
The term "cold war" refers to
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
the distrust between the United States and USSR that many feared would lead to
actual war in the years following WWIl.
the war fought in Gennany after WWU between Communists and Democrats.
the war fought between North and South Korea.
the war fought between the United States and China following the Chinese
Revolution.
The Truman Doctrine stated that
A.
B.
C.
D.
the United States would not tolerate Communists in high levels of U.S.
government.
the United States would not hesitate to intervene to help foreign nations resist
Communism.
the United States would not cross the 38th parallel during the Korean War.
the United States would support Mao's revolution in China.
3.
What was the goal of the United States' "containment policy" and why did the United
States believe it was the best approach to dealing with Soviet Communism?
4.
What was the purpose ofHUAC? Who was Joseph McCarthy, and how did he become
famous?
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The Early Cold War Era
10.2 POST-WORLD WAR II U.S. CULTURE
BABIES, BOOKS, HOUSES, AND HIGHWAYS
EFFECTS OF THE
GI BILL
After World War II, thousands of U.S. soldiers returned
home all at once. With large numbers of discharged
soldiers returning from the war, the nation faced the
problem of assimilating these veterans back into U.S.
society. To help, Congress passed the GI Bill or
Servicemen's Readjustment Act. (The initials "GI" stood
for "government issue" and came to be a slang tenTI for
U.S. soldiers.) This legislation provided military veterans
with benefits such as job priority, money for furthering
their education, training, and loans for purchasing homes
and property. Because of the support it provided, the nation
witnessed a social revolution. For the first time, large
numbers of "common people" could afford to buy their own homes. As a result, developers like
William Levitt became rich building entire communities of new houses. Levitt's innovative
method of building homes very quickly meant that he could sell them at a lower price. The new
suburbs Levitt helped create became known as "Levittowns." In addition, the nation also
experienced a population explosion known as the "baby boom." Baby boomers are members of
the generation born within the first few years after World War II. With the war over, spouses were
reunited and couples got married. Many of these people started or expanded their families. The
result was a "boom" in the number of babies born in the United States during the late' 40s and early
'50s.
The GI Bill also had lasting effects on education. Prior to the war,
most working-class citizens did not go to college. However, with
the benefits offered veterans, many returning soldiers, despite their
social class, enrolled in colleges and universities. The U.S.
population became more educated and the middle class grew as
college degrees translated into better-paying jobs. Such prosperity
meant that more parents eventually sent their kids (the "baby
boom" generation) to college as well. One exception was among
African Americans. Many African American soldiers suffered
from a lack of formal education before the war. In addition, because
Returning GI
most institutions of higher education remained segregated and
because there was limited space in black colleges/universities, most
African American veterans did not go on to college after they returned home from the service.
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THE NATIONAL HIGHWAY ACT
Concerns about a possible nuclear strike against the United States led
President Dwight D. Eisenhower to strongly support the National
Highway Act of 1956. The act called for the construction of a federal
interstate highway system. The highway system provided improved
mobility for citizens, more and more of whom owned automobiles.
Suburbs expanded as more citizens lived outside of cities and
commuted to work by car. Just as importantly, however, the federal
highways served a military purpose. Although a nuclear attack never
came, the improved roads enabled military troops and personnel to
move quicker and meant that people could evacuate cities much faster
in the event of a war.
PROSPERITY AND CONSUMERISM
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With the end of the war, the United States entered a period of great
prosperity. The availability of jobs and the boom in economic
production during the war meant that people had money. However,
due to rationing and other government policies to support the war
effort, it wasn't until after the war that citizens were free to spend and
purchase what they wanted. During the late I 940s and into the '50s,
the nation once again became a consumer society. People bought
sewing machines, washing machines, refrigerators, and a new
invention: the television. The automobile industry also boomed as
more and more people bought cars for their commute from the
suburbs to the cities where they worked. Advertisers promoted
products so as to make consumers feel they had to have them. Many
of their efforts were aimed at housewives. One department store
executive commented during the period that" ... we must make women unhappy with what they
have ... we must make them so unhappy that their husbands can find no happiness or peace in their
excessive savings." More and more, people in the U.S. judged their social status and importance
by what kind of car they drove, what clothes they wore, what house they lived in, and other
outward displays. In order to purchase what they desired, citizens began to rely on credit cards,
which allowed them to buy products right away, then pay for them over time with interest. As a
result, people stopped saving money, and debt increased. Shopping centers popped up across the
nation as shopping became a popular pastime.
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The Early Cold War Era
THE IMPACT OF TELEVISION
Television proved to be especially impactful. For
the first time, people could watch entertaining
shows, news reports, and advertisements from the
comfort of their own homes without having to go
out to a theater. Television stars became nationally
admired figures, and weekly shows like 1 Love
Lucy became a regular part of people's week-toweek schedule. TV also impacted politics.
Politicians now had to worry about how they
looked onscreen. One milestone that illustrated
the important role TV would forever play in
politics was the 1960 Kennedy-Nixon
presidential debate. The debate between the Democratic candidate (Senator John F. Kennedy)
and the Republican candidate (Vice President"Richard Nixon) was the first televised presidential
debate in history. Interestingly, polls at the time showed that most citizens who listened to the
debate on the radio thought that Nixon won. However, most of those who watched it on television
thought that Kennedy won. They felt that the young senator appeared much more presidential and
confident. Kennedy ended up defeating Nixon that November in one of the closest presidential
elections in history. Some historians still wonder if things might have been different had the two
candidates only been heard on radio rather than watched on television.
The creation of television also revolutionized media coverage. No longer would people have to
listen to reporters describe events to them over the radio or simply read about them in the papers.
Now they could see them as they happened. As the civil rights movement ofthe 1950s and '60s
progressed, television coverage of the violence often inflicted on African Americans played a
major role in winning support for the cause. Likewise, televised images from Vietnam made it the
first war ever "fought in people's living rooms." The fact that people could actually see the death
and destruction every night on their own TVs contributed to the war's controversy, as it allowed
people to form their own opinions about what they were witnessing. (We will discuss the civil
rights movement and Vietnam more later in this chapter and chapter II.)
THE SPACE RACE
The United States and the USSR distrusted one another even before World
War II. The atomic bomb, and later the hydrogen bomb, only intensified the
friction between the two nations. Each felt compelled to keep up with the
other's nuclear capabilities. In 1957, the Soviets launched Spntnik, the first
artificial satellite to orbitthe earth. Sputnik revealed the superiority in Soviet
technology and greatly concerned the United States. Realizing that this same
technology could be used to launch nuclear missiles, the United States
eagerly entered the space race (competition with the Soviet Union to gain
the upper hand in space travel and technology). In 1958, Congress passed the
National Defense Education Act. This law provided aid for education and
was geared towards boosting the study of science, math, and foreign
languages. It was intended to propel the United States ahead ofthe Soviet Union in both the space
race and in nuclear technology.
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In 1961, the Soviet Union once again demonstrated that they
were ahead in the space race when they successfully launched
the first manned space flight. Yuri Gagarin successfully orbited
the earth on board a Soviet spacecraft. Not to be outdone by the
Soviets, President Kennedy issued a challenge to the United
States to put a man on the moon before the end of the decade.
Less than a year later, NASA (the National Aeronautics and
Space Agency) successfully launched a spacecraft carrying
astronaut John Glenn into orbit. Seven and a half years later, on
July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong answered President Kennedy's
challenge by becoming the first human being to walk on the
moon.
COMPUTERS AND COMMUNICATIONS
Wartime research led to the development oftechnology
that proved useful long after the Allies' victory. Powerful
computers transformed U.S. business, making
calculations and transactions faster and business more
efficient. Computers could now fit on a desk rather than
taking up a whole room. Calculations could be done in
seconds rather than hours or days. The government
purchased one of the first computers and used it to tally
the 1950 census. Today, computers are found in nearly
every U.S. home. People rely on the Internet as much as
they do telephones. Thanks to computers, people can send
emails, visit websites, transfer data, and receive
Early Computer
infonnation from around the world within seconds. Handheld computers and laptops mean that people have access to more information in more places than
at any time in history. The ability to get and send information from almost anywhere at any time
has changed the face of business by tying together people and companies located thousands of
miles apart. Computers have also restructured the U.S. work force and redefined the term "work
week" by allowing people access to all Internet that, in many cases, allows them to work from
home as easily as from an office.
Cen Phone
Another revolutionary invention has been the cellular phone. Cell
phones allow people to speak to one another through wireless
connections. People can carry phones with them and talk anywhere.
Today, most cell phones even allow people to film andlor watch videos.
As a result, information and images travel faster than ever as people film
events with their cell phones and send the images out over the Internet.
Like television, such innovations greatly affect culture, politics,
entertainment, relationships, etc. In fact, in 2006, many believe that the
U.S. Senate race in Virginia was strongly influenced by a cell-phone
video that captured the losing candidate uttering offensive remarks
during a campaign rally.
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The Early Cold War Era
Practice 10.2 Post·World War II U.S. Culture
1.
"Levittowns" were
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
special shelters where people could hide in the event of a nuclear attack.
schools that opened after WWII and gave more people access to higher education.
suburbs featuring affordable homes.
stores that sold televisions created by inventor William Levitt.
Someone born in 1948 would be considered a
A. Gl.
C.
B.
baby boomer.
D.
Sputnik.
member of the space race.
3. Describe the impact oftelevision, computers, and cell phones since WWII.
10.3 EISENHOWER, CUBA, AND THE VIETNAM WAR
EISENHOWER AND COMMUNISM
THE EISENHOWER DOCTRINE
Elected president of the United States in 1952, Dwight Eisenhower (the
military hero of WWIJ) was also concemed about the spread of
Communism and Soviet aggression. Eisenhower believed strongly in
the domino theory. This theory held that if one nation fell to
Communism, then its neighboring nations would soon fall as well. In
1953, Eisenhower saw to it that the CIA organized the overthrow of
Iran's pro-Communist leader and restored the pro-US Shah (Iran's
equivalent of a king) to power. In 1957, the president went further and
introduced the Eisenhower Doctrine. It stated that the United States
would not hesitate to aid any country in the Middle East that asked for
help resisting Communist aggression. A year later, Eisenhower sent
troops to Lebanon to help the Lebanese government resist Communistbacked rebel forces.
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EISENHOWER AND KHRUSHCHEV
Like Truman, Eisenhower worked with European allies to deter the Soviets from any plans they
might have of expanding. Yet, while Eisenhower was prepared to fight Communism, he was also
concerned about the fate ofthe world, now that powerful nuclear weapons existed. For this reason,
Eisenhower offered to negotiate with the Soviets and meet with their new leader.
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Nikita Khrushchev became the Soviet leader following the
death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. In 1958, tensions over Berlin
grew intense once more, as Khrushchev demanded that the
Western powers withdraw from the city. Thousands of refugees
continued to flee to West Berlin regularly, and both Khrushchev
and the East German government wanted it stopped. When it
became evident that the Western Allies had no intention of
leaving, the Soviet leader agreed to a summit (meeting between
leaders) with Eisenhower. Khrushchev later visited the president
Eisenhower and Khrushchev
in the United States and invited Eisenhower to also come to
Moscow. However, in May of 1960, another incident occurred
that damaged US-Soviet relations and caused Khrushchev to cancel the invitation. It became
known as the U-2 incident because it involved a U.S. U-2 spy plane shot down over the Soviet
Union. At first, the U.S. govel1unent denied conducting any such spy missions. However, when
the Soviets produced evidence, Eisenhower had to acknowledge the Soviet report as accurate. The
president accepted responsibility, but refused to apologize for spying on the USSR, thereby
infuriating Khrushchev further.
KENNEDY, COMMUNISM, AND CUBA
THE BAY OF PIGS
During the 1950s, a young revolutionary
named Fidel Castro rose to fame as the leader
of the Cuban Revolution. The revolution
overthrew the Cuban government led by
Fulgencio Batista in 1959 and made Castro the
Communist leader of the country. Castro
executed more than seven hundred of his
opponents and jailed many more. His
govermnent also seized control of much ofthe
land and property in the country. Discovering
that
Castro had ties to Communism and that he
John F. Kennedy
Castro in 1959
had seized U.S. property in Cuba, President
Eisenhower refused to support the new dictator and broke off diplomatic relations. With U.S.
support lacking, Castro allied himself with the Soviet Union. Eisenhower then authorized the CIA
(Central Intelligence Agency) to begin training anti-Castro Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cuba.
When John F. Kennedy succecded Eisenhower as president in 1961, he approved the operation
and authorized the CIA to continue as planned. TIle invasion landed at the Bay of Pigs on April
17, 1961.lt turned out to be a terrible failure and a huge embarrassment for the Kennedy
administration. It also left many around the world wondering ifthe young president was up to the
task of defending democracy against Communism.
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THE BERLIN WALL
Kennedy knew that the Bay of Pigs had made him look really bad as a leader. More than that, he
feared that Khrushchev would interpret the incident as a sign of weakness. The Soviet leader was
determined to stop the large flow of refugees from East Germany into West Germany through
Berlin. Meanwhile, Kennedy feared that the Soviets really wanted control of the entire city and
eventually. all of Europe. After a summit meeting between the two leaders went poorly in Vienna,
Kennedy retu111ed to the United States and began increasing the nation's military force. He also
publicly suggested that the United States was prepared to go to war if need be to defend its interests
in Berlin. Tn response, the Soviet Union built a wall that separated Communist East Berlin from
democratic West Berlin. For more than a quarter ofa century, the Berlin Wall stood as a chilling
symbol of the cold war.
THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
Although the Bay of Pigs had been a
failure, Castro still feared a future
invasion by U.S. forces. Knowing he
needed a strong ally, Castro allowed the
Soviets to secretly put nuclear missiles in
Cuba-just ninety miles off the coast of
Florida! When U.S. spy planes spotted
these missiles in October 1962, Kennedy
responded by authorizing a naval
blockade of the island. For thirteen days,
the world watched as the Cu bau Missile
Crisis brought the two superpowers to the Kennedy with his Generals During the Cuban Missile Crisis
brink of nuclear war. Finally, after heated
arguments in the UN and much diplomatic maneuvering, Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the
missiles in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba. In addition, the United States also
offered the Soviets a secret assurance that it would eventually remove U.S. missiles stationed in
Turkey as well. Today, Fidel Castro is the longest-ruling leader in the world. Despite his age and
failing health, he continues to sit at the head of Cuba's Communist regime almost fifty years after
first assuming power.
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VIETNAM
During the 1800s, France established a colony in a small Southeast
Asian country called Vietnam. Following WWIl, fighting erupted as
Vietnamese nationalists wanted independence from France. This
greatly concerned President Eisenhower because of the nationalists'
ties to Communism. At a conference in Geneva, Switzerland,
concerned countries met to search for a peaceful solution. The Geneva
Accords, drafted in 1954, called for Vietnam to be divided into two
nations. In the NOlih, Ho Chi Minh established his Communist-backed
government. In the South, the United States supported the government
ofNgo Dinh Diem. It was not long before war broke out between the
two sides. Even in his own country, Diem faced opposition. He
imprisoned people who criticized his government, and he allowed U.S.
money sent to help his people end up in the pockets of corrupt
politicians. Diem also alienated the mostly Buddhist population by
trying to force his own Catholic beliefs on them.
IUNITED STATES INVOLVEMENT BEGINS
Vietnam
In the early' 60s, both Eisenhower and Kennedy
feared the spread of Communism. Both sent military advisors to aid South
Vietnam against the North and against Communist rebels in the South, known
as the Vietcong. Eventually, Kennedy and his secretary of defense, Robert
McNamara, came to realize that Communism could not be defeated in
Vietnam, so long as Diem's corrupt government controlled the south. In 1963,
when Diem was finally overthrown and killed by members of his own
military, Kennedy and McNamara contemplated how they might pull U.S.
Ho Chi Minh
military personnel out of South Vietnam. Unfortunately, Kennedy was
assassinated in November 1963, before any decision was reached. The power
of the presidency then fell to Lyndon B. Johnson. While historians still debate about how
Kennedy might have dealt with Vietnam, Johnson's approach was clear. He vowed that he would
not lose Vietnam to the Communists. With Kennedy dead and Johnson bent on increasing U.S.
involvement, Secretary of Defense McNamara shifted gears and became a key figure in escalating
tbe war.
Johnson won tbe election of 1964 by portraying his opponent, Barry
Goldwater, as a man ready to plunge the United States into a nuclear war
over Vietnam. Meanwhile, Johnson downplayed his own intentions to
escalate U.S. involvement. Once elected, however, Johnson was prepared to
increase the U.S. military presence. In August 1964, just two months before
the election, a key incident occurred in the Gulf of Tonkin. Johnson
announced to the nation during his campaign that the North Vietnamese had
attacked U.S. ships. Details were sketchy and some questioned ifthe event
actually occurred the way Johnson claimed, but Johnson was able to use the
incident to get Congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This
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The Early Cold War Era
resolution gave the president the authority to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed
attack against the forces of the United States ... " In effect, it gave Johnson the power to take military
actions in Vietnam without having to get approval from Congress.
THE U.S. WAR EFFORT IN VIETNAM
By I 965, the Viet Cong were continuing to expand as more and more of the poor in South Vietnam
were drawn to their cause. Key to the Viet Cong's efforts were the supplies that came from North
Vietnam. These supplies made their way south by way of a route through Laos and Cambodia
called the Ho Chi Minh Trail. To try and cut off this support-and in response to an attack that
killed eight U.S. soldiers-Johnson ordered an intense bombing campaign against North Vietnam.
The operation was code named Operation Rolling Thunder. During bombing campaigns in
Vietnam, the United States dropped thousands of tons of explosives (more than in World War II).
The bombings destroyed bridges, supply lines, and villages. Sadly, these attacks killed many
. ,civilians in the process. Yet Johnson and McNamara refused to bomb certain targets that their
military advisors believed were key for fear of starting a war with China and the USSR (both of
which were supplying the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong). Some began to criticize Johnson,
saying that he was quick to send U.S. soldiers to fight, but then would not let them win once they
got there. Between 1965 and 1968, the United States military presence increased dramatically.
North Vietnam bombing
North Vietnam bombing
TET OFFENSIVE, HUE, AND My LAI
On January 30, 1968, the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong launched a major coordinated attack
against the United States and South Vietnamese forces. Known as the Tet Offensive, it produced
heavy fighting, even in the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon. The Viet Cong and North
Vietnamese forces were eventually turned back, but they won a psychological victory. The Tet
Offensive showed that the Communists could launch a coordinated attack. It also led many people
in the United States to question how the government was handling the war and whether U.S. troops
should be there at all.
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Chapter 10
One of the cities taken by the Communists during the Tet Offensive was the city of Hue, While in
control of the city, the Communists ordered all civil servants, military personnel, and those who
had cooperated with the United States to report to specific locations, Of those who obeyed the
command, between three thousand and five thousand were slaughtered, United States and South
Vietnamese forces discovered many of their bodies in mass graves after they retook the city,
As horrifying as the events of Hue were, the massacre at My Lai soon
overshadowed them, This time, it was U,S, soldiers who were guilty of
wartime atrocities, In March 1968, U,S, troops under the command of
Lieutenant William Calley Jr, rounded up and executed between one
hundred and seventy-five and four hundred civilians in a village where
they believed the Viet Cong to be hiding, Many of them were women,
children, and the elderly, It is likely that more would have died had it
not been for a U,S, helicopter crew who saw what was happening and
intervened, Although Lt. Calley was eventually sentenced to life 'i'n
prison, President Nixon reduced his sentence amidst public outCIY that
he had been used as a scapegoat. The incident horrified people in the
United States and around the world, It also added fuel to the growing
argument for U,S. withdrawal from Vietnam,
PRESIDENT RICHARD NIXON AND THE END OF
My Lai Massacre
U.S. INVOLVEMENT
Richard Nixon took office in January 1969 and advocated a policy of
"Vietnamization," In other words, he wanted South Vietnamese soldiers to
take the place of the U,S, soldiers in Vietnam, However, while Nixon wanted
to reduce the numbers ofU,S, troops in Southeast Asia (a promise he'd made
during the presidential campaign), he was also detennined to make sure that
South Vietnam did not fall to the Communists. He combined his withdrawal
of U.S, troops with renewed bombing raids against North Vietnam and the
neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos, because he believed that
certain areas of these countries were supporting the Viet Cong, In April 1970,
Nixon went even further and authorized U.S. troops to invade Cambodia for
the purpose of destroying Communist training camps. Nixon did not expect these moves to win the
war, but he hoped that they would give him more negotiating power for ending the war on
favorable terms for the United States.
The United States, South Vietnam, North Vietnam, and leaders of the Viet Cong finally met
together in Paris, France in January 1973. There they signed the Paris Peace Accords, officially
ending U.S. involvement in Vietnam. The Paris agreement called for:
• The withdrawal of U.S . troops from Vietnam within sixty days.
• The release of prisoners of war.
• All parties involved would end military activities in Laos and Cambodia.
• The 17th parallel would continue to divide North and South Vietnam,
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The Early Cold War Era
Following the U.S. withdrawal, however, fighting quickly
resumed. In the spring of 1975, North Vietnamese forces finally
surrounded the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon. On April 29,
the United States can-ied out a last-minute evacuation ofthe city.
Military helicopters airlifted more than one thousand U.S.
personnel and six thousand South Vietnamese citizens to aircraft
carriers offshore. Sadly, many were left behind, begging for their
chance to be airlifted to freedom. The next day, April 30, Saigon
fell to the North Vietnamese. Twenty-one years after the signing of
Saigon Airlift
the Geneva Accords, Vietnam was firmly in the hands of the Communists.
ATTITUDES ABOUT THE WAR AT HOME
Few events in U.S. history have divided people in the United States
like the Vietnam War. On one hand, many people in the United
States believed that it was important to fight Communism at every
turn. They believed that Vietnam was a noble cause and that it was
not wrong to send troops. Such citizens were not upset about
fighting the war; instead, they were upset with the government for
limiting the military's ability to win the war. On the other hand, a
War Protest
growing number of citizens and activists proclaimed that it was
wrong for U.S. soldiers to be in Vietnam at all. Some even viewed the U.S. actions as "criminal."
President Johnson found himself caught in the middle. His popularity plummeted as he was
continuously blamed for failures in Vietnam. So great was the weight oftlle ordeal that Johnson
decided not to run for re-election in 1968.
College campuses especially became places of protests against the
war. Both students and a growing number of professors came out in public opposition to the U.S. presence in Vietnam. They wrote
books and articles criticizing the war, and many participated in
public demonstrations. One organization that arose out of this
atmosphere was the Students for a Democratic Society. The SDS
launched large protests against the war and supported a number of
social causes, such as civil rights. They demanded that the
government take radical steps to deal with poverty, inequality, and
to end the war in Vietnam. Eventually, their movement faded as it
failed to spread very far beyond college campuses. However, the
awareness and unrest movements like the SDS helped inspire
created pressure to end the Vietnam War and get U.S. troops home
as quickly as possible.
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KENT STATE AND THE PENTAGON PAPERS
By invading Cambodia, Nixon set off a firestorm of protest at home. At Kent State University,
the protest turned violent. When angry students attacked businesses and burned the anny ROTC
building on campus, the governor of Ohio sent in National Guard troops. When students started
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Chapter 10
throwing rocks and other objects at them, the guardsmen retreated to higher ground and opened
fire on the protesters. When the shooting was over, guardsmen had killed four people and left nine
others seriously injured.
Another factor that caused public support for the war to lessen occurred in 1971 when the New
York Times began publishing portions of the Pentagon Papers. The Papers were a study ordered
by fonner secretary of defense, Robert McNamara, and documented the history of U.S.
involvement in Vietnam. When they were made public, they revealed that the executive branch had
lied to Congress concerning the war. Presidents had made secret decisions and undeliaken
unapproved military actions. Many in the public were shocked and appalled, and support for the
war quickly dwindled. The U.S. government actually sued the New York Times for publishing the
study. However, in the case of New York Times Co. v. US (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the
Times had done nothing wrong and that the paper had the right, under the First Amendment, to
publish the articles.
THE TROOPS COME HOME
The return of U.S. soldiers caused almost as much division
as the war itself. While many appreciated the efforts of their
soldiers and saw them as returning heroes, others viewed
them as having participated in an unjust war against a thirdworld country. Still others felt let down. They were unsure
as to why the U.S. troops had gone in the first place. In
addition, it wasn't like World War II, when U.S. soldiers
returned home having successfully defeated Germany and
Japan. Instead, the U.S. military appeared to be limping out of Vietnam defeated. As a result, the
bravery and sacrifice of the thousands of soldiers who faithfully served the United States during
the conflict was overshadowed by controversy and disgust. Sadly, many of those who returned
from Vietnam continued to suffer health effects and mental trauma long after the war ended. Only
in recent years have U.S. citizens begun to look back on Vietnam and truly appreciate the effOlis
of its men and women who served during the conflict, even if they don't agree with the reasons for
why they were sent.
Practice 10.3 Eisenhower, Cuba, and the Vietnam War
1.
Which of the following statements BEST describes President Dwight Eisenhower's attitude toward Communism?
A.
B.
C.
D.
He was greatly concerned about its spreading and was prepared to use force to
prevent it.
He felt that Communism posed no serious threat to the United States.
He feared it until after the Eisenhower Doctrine was issued, then he felt it was
under control.
He refused to meet with any Communist leaders until they renounced Communist
ideas.
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The Early Cold War Era
2.
The Cuban Revolution concerned U.S. presidents because
A.
B.
C.
D.
Castro had nuclear weapons and vowed to use them against Florida.
Cuba was even more afraid of Communism than the United States and wanted to
start a war against the USSR.
the new Cuban government attempted to invade Mexico at the Bay of Pigs.
it established a Communist government just ninety miles from the United States.
3. Describe why the United States got involved in Vietnam. Describe attitudes at home
about the war and note some of the incidents and factors that contributed to the unrest.
CHAPTER
10 REVIEW
Key terms, people, and concepts
Truman Doctrine
cold war
Mao Tse-tung
Red Scare
Joseph McCarthy
Levittowns
National Highway Act
Kennedy-Nixon presidential debate
Sputnik
containment policy
Marshall Plan
China's Communist Revolution
Korean War
HUAC
Gl Bill
baby boom
impact of television
impact of television coverage of the civil
rights movement and Vietnam
space race
Dwight Eisenhower
Nikita Khrushchev
Fidel Castro
John F. Kennedy
Berlin Wall
Vietnam
Lyndon B. Johnson
Tel Offensive
fall of Saigon
Kent State University
impact of computers and cellular phones
Eisenhower Doctrine
U-2 incident
Cuban Revolution
Bay of Pigs
Cuban Missile Crisis
Vietcong
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Paris Peace Accords
Students for a Democratic Society
Pentagon Papers
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Chapter 10
Multiple Choice Questious:
1.
The belief that Eastern Europe was already lost to Communism and that the United
States should focus on preventing the spread of Communism to other regions of the
world was known as
A.
B.
C.
D.
preventive behavior.
containment policy.
cold warfare.
the space race.
2.
Which of the follo\\~ng was meant to rebuild parts of Europe suffering economic hardship in an effort to prevent the spread of Communism?
A. the Marshall Plan
C.
the cold war
D. the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
B. the Eisenhower Doctrine
3.
A supporter of Joseph McCarthy would have been MOST disturbed by
A.
B.
C.
D.
the actions ofHUAC.
McArthur's actions in Korea.
the idea of Communists serving in the U.S. government.
the failure of North Korea to successfully defeat South Korea.
"A shadow has fallen. .. an iron curtain has descended across the continent. "
4.
The above statement was made by
A.
B.
C.
D.
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John F. Kennedy, when he learned their were Soviet missiles in Cuba.
Fidel Castro, following the Bay of Pigs.
President Harry S. Truman, after the success of China's Communist revolution.
Winston Churchill, regarding the division of Europe between democratic and
Communist nations.
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5.
David fought in WWll, then returned home to buy his first house and have two kids with
his wife, Ella. Which of the following statements is MOST LIKELY TRUE?
A.
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David served in the navy before going to college and becoming part ofthe Students
for a Democratic Society.
David probably bought his first home in downtown Chicago and did not own a car.
David and Ella probably lived in what was known as a "Levittown" and their kids
are baby boomers.
Many of David's neighbors probably viewed him as limping home from the war in
defeat.
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The Early Cold War Era
6.
What effect did the Tet Offensive have?
A.
B.
C.
D.
It convinced Congress to pass the 01 Bill.
It increased opposition to the Vietnam War in the United States.
It united most of the country behind Lyndon Johnson's war strategy.
It convinced the United States to enter the space race.
7.
"J'l/ vote for Kennedy. Nixon just looked ill prepared and unstable. He
kept shifting and looking down instead of looking the American people
in the eye. 1 don r trust him. Kennedy seems like the better choice. "
8.
The above statement was MOST LIKELY made by someone who
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
met Nixon and Kennedy.
watched the Kennedy-Nixon debate on television.
listened to the Kennedy-Nixon debate on the radio.
watched the Kelmedy-Nixon debate on their cell phone.
The atmosphere on college campuses during the Vietnam War can BEST be described as
A.
B.
C.
D.
turbulent because of the many protests against the war.
calm because students were focused on writing essays about the war.
united because most students wanted to suppOli their government.
quiet because final exams were going on.
10. The launch of Sputnik
A. thrilled people in the United States because it finally put a satellite in space.
B. boosted NASA's morale because it meant that the United States had answered President Kennedy's challenge.
C. concerned U.S. leaders, who feared falling behind the Soviets in nuclear technology.
D. concerned the Soviets because it revealed that the United States had been spying on
them.
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A.
B.
C.
D.
It ended the Vietnam War with each side having the same borders they did before
the fighting started.
It marked the end of the Tet Offensive.
It meant the defeat ofthe Communists and allowed the United States to pull out of
Vietnam victoriously.
It marked the fall of South Vietnam and victory for the Communists.
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