INFORMATION BULLETIN: IB 46 Vibration of Concrete Introduction The correct placing and compaction of fresh concrete are probably the most important parts of the whole sequence of concreting operations. Success relies on careful planning, the right manpower and internal equipment. This information bulletin discusses various aspects of the compaction process. It is pertinent to remember that the mixing process for concrete entraps air within the mix. For each 1% of voids left within the concrete the strength is reduced by approximately 5-6%. Air entrapped in the concrete leaving the mixer typically may vary from 5-20%. Compaction is vital to achieve: Maximum strength of the placed concrete. 2. Maximum durability. 3. Adequate bond and protection reinforcement in the concrete. 4. Avoidance or reduction of visual blemishes, such as honeycombing and blowholes on the surface of form cast concrete. for The ease with which optimum compaction can be achieved by vibration techniques is related to: 2. 3. Compactability refers to the ease with which a concrete can be compacted properly with efficient removal of entrapped air and the repositioning of constituent particles into a denser state. Mobility of mix related to aspects of flow. Internal cohesion due to frictional effects, surface forces and the like is an important factor here. Stability of a mix refers to its resistance to segregation effects during transporting, handling, placing and compacting. 1. 1. There are three inter-related properties that may influence the behaviour of a concrete mix during vibration. These are known as compactibility, mobility and stability. Each is affected by changes in the physical make-up of the mix, and can control the degree to which efficient consolidation of the particles is possible. Physical properties of the fresh concrete which in turn depend on the type of aggregate, constituent particle shapes, and relative mix proportions. Harsh mixes are more difficult to consolidate. Mixes high in fines or cement are "sticky" and may also present problems of compaction; Types of vibrators, associated characteristics and vibration patterns through the concrete; Techniques in handling vibrators, in particular spacing and duration of vibration. Segregation. A significant separation of the course and fine fractions is highly detrimental to concrete quality. The object in vibrating concrete is to mobilise it sufficiently, so that it becomes plastic enough to enable air voids to be removed and the aggregate particles to gravitate together to form a homogeneous mass. The stiffer the mix and the larger the aggregate particle sizes, the greater will be the force required to energise the mix. Lower water cement ratio concrete has a lower workability, but becomes a much stronger compacted concrete. A high degree of compaction with harsh mixes requires very efficient vibration both in terms of effectiveness of the applied poker vibrator and the number of insertions made. Vibration Mechanisms The equipment that is used in compacting concrete IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 1 develops its vibrations by a form of eccentric rotation. Because of this, the vibrations are generated in a steady flow of cycles, and are transmitted into and through the medium in contact with the vibrator. .. cycle is given by x = a sin (2πft) where the maximum acceleration is given by a = 4π2f2s metres per second2 (figure 1). The cycle of vibrations travel through the concrete, transferring their energy to the particles in the mix. Eventually, at some distance from their source, the vibrations lose their effectiveness. As the vibrations pass a certain point, the mix at that location moves back and forward about its original point of rest. As this occurs, the entrapped air is released and moves the surface while individual particles oscillate about and settle down into the mix. The components of the vibration cycle are amplitude, frequency and acceleration, and these terms are used to describe the performance characteristics of vibration equipment. See Table 1. Table 1: Vibration Method Recommended accelerations and frequencies of concrete vibration Recommended Recommended Acceleration Frequency (without concrete load) g Internal Hz vib/min 100-200 150-250 9,000-15,000 Form 5-10 50-200 3,000-12,000 Surface 5-10 50-100 3,000-6,000 Table 5-10 50-100 3,000-6,000 Amplitude is the maximum departure for a point of rest during a displacement cycle under vibration. Most concrete vibrators operate with an amplitude of 0.5 mm to 2.0 mm. Frequency (f) is usually described by the number of vibrations per unit time. 1 Hertz (hz) = 1 vibration per second, or 60 vibrations per minute. Therefore 200 Hz refers to 12,000 vibrations per minute. The displacement at any time during a simple sine wave oscillation is given by the formula x = s sin (2πft) where s denotes the amplitude. Similarly, the acceleration (which is the rate at which the velocity is changing) at any time in the Figure 1: Sinusoidal vibratory motion. The maximum acceleration during a vibratory motion is often expressed as a multiple of the acceleration due to gravity, g; for example 5 g (50 m/sec2) for table vibration. From research conducted by Dr L. Forssblad of the Dynapac organization in Sweden, the interactions of concrete of properties, frequency and amplitude of internal vibration are shown in graphs of radius of action versus frequency, for various amplitudes and times of operation with a constant mix design. The studies indicated that there was an optimum combination of vibratory conditions for the response of the concrete mix (figure 2, page 3). During the vibration process the concrete undergoes three different stages. The first is the initial rapid collapse of the uncompacted mix. This requires a large energy usage. If the vibration effort is too low, the internal resistance of the mix dampens the motion and the concrete absorbs the energy without any plastic deformation occurring. As the force is increased, the mechanical properties of the mix and its resistance to the compaction effort falls until the material is transformed into a liquid. The mass then begins to flow. As the concrete then liquefies, de-aeration begins and most of the entrapped air is released. Finally, as the number of air bubbles being liberated IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 2 Figure 2: Graphs showing the correlation between radius of action, frequency, and amplitude for a 60 mm internal vibrator. ceases, little energy is required to overcome the internal friction and damping effect of the concrete as the mix is behaving nearly as an ideal fluid, and its surface begins to acquire a glistening smooth appearance. Types of Vibrators The four most commonly used systems for compacting concrete are internal vibration, table vibration and surface vibration. With each of these the mechanism of vibration and the effect of the formwork on the concrete mix is different. Internal Vibrators Internal or poker vibrators are available with a selection of power sources and types of vibrating mechanisms. The power source is either electric, pneumatic, petrol or diesel based. The vibrating mechanism in the poker head can be driven by a flexible shaft, motor-in-head or pneumatically. Pneumatic poker vibrators that operate a rotating mechanism within the head, are used in areas where it is convenient to have compressed air available and when it would be dangerous to use other types of machines. Whatever the form of vibrator, the rotating member in the head produces an eccentric motion that generates the vibrations. Circular compression waves are produced in rapid succession. These travel away from their source and through the concrete. The further they travel through the concrete, the amplitude of vibration imparted to the particles that are met reduces, due not only to IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 3 the damping effect at the vibrator itself and in the concrete, but also to the increased length around the circular wave (figure 3). head. The diameter of the rotor is smaller than the inside diameter of this rolling ring, and since the inside of the tube is scrupulously clean, the rotor ‘grips and skids’ inside the ring four times for every revolution of the flexible shaft. This system effectively gears up the 3,000 rpm to produce 12,000 vibrations per minute at the nose cap end. Since the maximum amplitude is at the nose cap, the pendulum vibrator when withdrawn from the concrete compacts the upper surface without leaving holes or voids. Developments to the principle have been made over the years to produce longer lasting and cooler running vibrators with improved efficiency of vibration. These features, coupled with the availability of waterproof joint extension shafts to make the flexible shaft up to 11 m long and rubber covered nose caps to protect formwork, have made the pendulum vibrator a popular choice for concrete compaction. Figure 3: Principle of internal vibration. Flexible Shaft Poker Vibrators These vibrators employ two sections for generating their vibratory output. They are known as “parallel” or “pendulum” vibrators. The parallel design embodies an eccentric shaft rotating between bearings at both ends, whilst the pendulum design involves the use of a suspended rotor with a self aligning bearing at the drive end, with the lower end being allowed to freely orbit when rotated within the housing. The vibratory characteristics of the two types are different, in as much as the vibratory output from the parallel machine gives a force of equal power over the length of the tube, while with the pendulum design the power is at its maximum at the nose cap end of the vibrator. The parallel vibrator historically was the preferred system, but it was found with harsh mixes that although it effectively compacted the mix, it left a hole when the poker head was withdrawn. The pendulum system developed in Sweden in 1936 overcame this problem. In this design the flexible shaft is driven at 3,000 rpm and is screwed (via an end shank) to the top end of the solid steel rotor. The self aligning bearing at this end allows the other bottom end to float inside a hard steel ring which is permanently fixed inside the tube Pneumatic Poker Vibrators These vibrators generally have an integral oil bottle and throttle control and a compressed air hose inside a large diameter exhaust hose to allow used air to escape by the oil bottle. The poker heads comprise four basic types. The oldest style uses an airmotor inside the tube driving an eccentric shaft between two bearings. Another type uses an airblown ball bearing in a race to produce the vibrations. The most common two types in use are the rotary vane vibrator and the helical rotor vibrator. The helical rotor vibrator was a development from the rotary vane to primarily reduce the weight of the vibrator which was required in the vane operation. The spinning rotor is forced outwards by a series of discretely located airflow paths to produce the vibration. This process is repeated over 20,000 times a minute which reduces to 12,000 times when placed in the concrete, producing the characteristic rise and fall droning noise of an air vibrator. External Vibrator The selection and application of external vibrators requires careful consideration. The units are available in varying output powers, that are defined IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 4 either by the centrifugal force developed or the wattage of the motor. The transfer of vibratory power though the formwork must be considered as the nature of the mix and density of any reinforcement within the section (figure 4). frequencies used range between 3,000 and 12,000 vibrations per minute. The high frequency use tends to give a better surface appearance. Large contracts benefit by the use of external vibration with regard to a lower manpower and reduction of human error. Far stiffer mixes can also be used. Vibrating Screeds Surface vibration is usually accomplished by comparatively light single or double vibrating screeds which can compact up to 200 mm thick layers of flowing to plastic concrete mixtures. For such screeds, a frequency range of 3,000 to 6,000 vibrations per minute and accelerations to 5-10 g are customary. The amplitude distribution along the screed should be reasonably uniform (figure 6). Figure 4: Principle of form vibration. Generally, the external vibrator consists of an electric motor with an unbalanced member to create the vibration (figure 5). Figure 6: Principle of surface vibration. Roller and Laser Screeds Figure 5: An external vibrator clamped to a form. The best frequency of vibration depends mainly on the design of the formwork with high vertical forms usually requiring the high frequency option. However, very stiff mixes respond better to high amplitude and lower frequency. Generally, the The use of these two methods represents the most recent advances in the placement and compaction of concrete. It is important to note that additional vibration will still be necessary when using these methods to screed and finish concrete as the amount of vibration imparted into the concrete by these two methods may not be enough to achieve total compaction. • Roller Screeds Roller screeds are sometimes used as a placement and compaction tool in its own right, but this is usually only in relatively thin IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 5 slabs, and with the use of immersion vibrators around the perimeter forms, where additional compaction is usually required. Manufacturers of these screeds claim that the placement of concrete using roller screeds leaves more large aggregate at or near the surface, which enhances the performance of the slab under harsh operation conditions (such as is found in warehouses for instance). • Laser Screeds Laser screeds are used primarily in large floor pours where slab flatness is of prime concern. While thinner slabs will only require supplemental vibration around the slab perimeter, thicker slabs are generally placed using a combination of immersion vibration and the vibrating laser screed. (This approach is the recommended method to follow). Table vibrators can give less consistent results even with careful operation. The compaction effect is determined by the acceleration of the table. Accelerations of about 5-10 g before the forms are placed on the table, and 2-4 g during vibration, are required. For table vibration the optimum frequency range is fairly low, 3,000-6,000 vibrations per minute. Comparatively large amplitudes are generally needed for efficient and rapid consolidation. The location of the vibrators and direction of rotation is important since it effects the primary direction of the vibration which may be a rotational motion or uni-directional. Compaction Methods Table Vibration The characteristics of concrete, effects of vibration and equipment available, have been discussed in the previous sections. This section deals specifically in turn with the practical consideration in the workplace of using vibrators. Often the cause of many problems of faults in concrete is directly traceable to the failure to ensure adequate vibration. Vibrating table techniques are usually restricted to precasting operations. On a vibrating table, the forms as well as the concrete can move during vibration and resonance may occur. Also reflection of the pressure waves against the concrete surface will influence the amplitude distribution (figure 7). The main feature of construction work tends to be a lack of sufficient vibration to the concrete in terms of providing manpower and equipment to match the placing rate of the concrete. When placement is by concrete pump considerable resources are needed if full compaction is to be achieved. Both methods will produce a slab with surface levelness and flatness tolerances that are much better than free screeding techniques. Internal Vibrators Figure 7: Principle of table vibration. Most concrete is compacted by means of immersion or poker vibrators. This method is considered the most satisfactory because the poker works directly on the concrete and can be moved from one position to another easily and quickly. For most reinforced concrete work, pokers of diameters from 25 mm up to 75 mm are used. Diameters up to 100 and 150 mm are available, but their use is mainly restricted to mass concrete in heavy civil engineering works like dam construction. Due to their weight, these large pokers usually need two people to handle and operate them. For efficient compaction, the largest diameter that the complexity of formwork and reinforcement will allow should be used. Table 2 gives an indication of poker sizes and applications. IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 6 Although the table indicates the radius of action for various poker diameters, the actual effectiveness of a particular poker in a specific situation depends on the workability of the concrete and the characteristics of the poker itself. Generally, the larger the diameter and the higher the frequency, the greater will be the radius of action, but in practice it is best to judge by eye the actual radius for a particular situation. This radius will determine the spacing and pattern of insertions of the poker. For example, if the radius of action is about 200 mm, insertions will need to be about 300 mm apart and to a predetermined pattern if all the concrete is to be fully compacted. As a guide, a spacing of about 450 mm (250 mm radius of action) may be assumed for a 60 mm diameter poker with concrete of medium workability. from a number of sites have shown that they are often running wastefully, or at a reduced efficiency, for about 70% of their operating time: • • • This means that the poker is doing useful work for only 30% of the time, which is why it is necessary to plan the compaction, placing method and technique in advance, so that both operations are carried out as economically and quickly as possible. The following guidelines are helpful to ensure a well compacted mix (see also figures 8, 9 and 10): 1. Make sure the operator can see the concrete surface. 2. When inserting the poker, allow it to penetrate to the bottom of the layer as quickly as possible under its own weight. If done slowly, the top part of the layer will be compacted first, making it more difficult for the entrapped air in the lower part to escape the surface. 3. Leave the poker in the concrete for about 10 seconds and withdraw it slowly ensuring that the hole made by the poker is closed up. If a hole is left (and it is often difficult to prevent if the concrete is very stiff), replace the poker near enough to the hole for the next spell of vibration to close it up. For the final insertion, withdraw the poker even more slowly and wiggle it about to ensure that the hole closes up properly. Length of Head Because it is only the head itself which is vibrating, the concrete layer should not be deeper than the head length, otherwise there is a danger that the top part will not be fully compacted. For most pokers within the range of diameters given in table 2, the poker head is likely to be between 350 and 600 mm long. Using a Poker Vibrator Pokers are often used inefficiently. Observations 15% out of the concrete and running, 35% wrongly positioned in the concrete, 20% vibrating already compacted concrete. Table 2: Poker sizes and applications Diameter of head (mm) Radius of action (mm) Appropriate rate of compaction, assuming rapid placing (m3/h) 20-30 (Needle) 80-150 0.8-2 50 mm slump and above in very thin sections and confined places. May be needed in conjunction with larger vibrators where reinforcement, ducts and other obstructions cause congestion. 35-40 130-250 2-4 50 mm slump and above in thin columns and walls and confined places. 50-75 180-350 3-8 25 mm slump and above in general construction free from restrictions and congestion. Application IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 7 4. 5. Replace the poker in the concrete to correct spacing. Avoid touching the formwork face with the poker as this will leave a ‘poker burn’ on the formwork and a resulting mark will be left on the finished concrete surface. To be on the safe side, keep the vibrator about 75-100 mm away from the formwork. Avoid touching the reinforcement with the poker, although, provided that all the concrete is still fresh, vibrating the reinforcement should not do any harm and could improve the bond. The danger lies in the vibrations in the reinforcement being transmitted into parts of the section where the concrete may have stiffened, in which case the bond may be affected. there is a risk of the bearings overheating. 6. Avoid sharp bends in flexible drives and do not move the vibrator by pulling on the flexible drive. 7. Remember that where finish is important, a little extra vibration can reduce the number of blowholes. 8. Make sure the driver motor will not vibrate itself off the stagings, and when finished clean all the equipment thoroughly. Avoid using the poker to make the concrete flow and never use it to flatten a heap. Instead, insert the poker carefully around the perimeter which will avoid segregation, remembering that compaction starts only after the heap has been flattened. 7. Make sure that the poker extends about 150 mm into any previous layer of concrete and put the whole length of the poker head into the concrete. This is essential to keep the bearings cool. Avoid leaving the poker running when it is not in the concrete, otherwise Figure 8: Diagram showing incorrect and correct placing of poker in concrete. Figure 9: Use of poker vibrator. IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 8 1. Length of Time Required for Full Compaction The length of time a poker has to be in the concrete at any one position in order to fully compact the surrounding concrete cannot be precisely stated since it depends both on the workability of the mix and on the size of the poker itself. The duration will vary between 5 and 15 seconds for concrete with a slump of 25-75 mm, so practically, a time of around 10 seconds in the concrete should be satisfactory. Being able to tell when concrete is fully compacted is a matter of experience. With a poker, one soon gets the feel of it and can judge the right amount of vibration to give. The following will help: 1. Initial consolidation is rapid and the level of the concrete drops quickly but the entrapped air has still to be removed. 2. As the concrete is vibrated, air bubbles come to the surface. When the bubbles stop, it can be taken as a sign that not much more useful work can be done on the concrete. The distance of the bubbles from the poker is also a useful guide to its radius of action. 3. Sometimes the sound can be a helpful guide. When the poker is inserted there is usually a dropping off in frequency, and when the pitch (whine) becomes constant the concrete is free from entrapped air. 4. The surface appearance also gives an indication of whether or not compaction is complete. A thin film of glistening mortar on the surface is a sign that the concrete is compacted, as is cement paste showing at the junction of the concrete and formwork. In any case, the dangers from under-compaction are far greater than those from over-compaction, so if there is any doubt don’t be in a hurry to stop vibrating. Too much is better than too little, since it is virtually impossible to over-vibrate a properly designed mix. Figure 10: Sequence of the stages that occur during vibration of a heap of concrete. The photographs show the spacings of the vibrator insertions and the glistening appearance that is given to the surface. IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 9 The result of over-vibrating badly designed mixes, such as those prone to segregation and lacking cohesiveness or containing too much water, is at the worst, only likely to cause an excess of laitance on the surface, and it is better to have to remove this laitance than risk under-vibrating the mix. With columns and wall tops, this removal is not difficult and usually has to be done before the next lift is placed. However with slabs, laitance removal is impossible, and it is therefore essential to make sure that the mix is designed to reduce bleeding to a minimum, and that the surface is not overworked. Concrete can be placed and compacted at any time after mixing provided that it is still workable by the compacting method available, even if some loss of workability has taken place. For example, if a poker will sink into the concrete under its own weight and the hole closes up as the poker is withdrawn, then that concrete can still be compacted. No fixed time limit can be applied to all concreting operations because the actual time will depend on the stiffening of the mix which in turn depends on the richness, on the temperature (both ambient and of the concrete itself), and on whether a retarder has been used. On cool, damp days, most concrete is still workable 3-4 hours after mixing, whereas on warm dry days, and especially with rich mixes, 30 minutes may be the limit. Revibration Provided that it is still workable, compacted concrete will not be harmed if it is revibrated. In fact, tests have shown that the strength is increased slightly if it is revibrated some time after the initial compaction. On columns and walls where surface finish is of importance, there is sometimes a tendency for blowholes to occur in the top 600 mm of a lift; because unlike the lower layers, this top layer does not have the advantage of the weight of additional concrete on top to increase the compaction. It can often help to revibrate the top 600 mm or so some thirty minutes to one hour after the initial compaction. In thick sections of slabs and beams, and particularly with mixes that are prone to bleeding, there is a danger of plastic settlement cracks appearing over the line of top reinforcement. These cracks generally form about 1-2 hours after compaction and if they are noticed within this time, and provided the concrete is still workable, revibration of the top 75-100 mm can close them up again. Care and Maintenance of Poker Vibrators Whatever the type of vibrator, it must be treated with care and properly maintained if breakdowns are to be avoided. Obtain the manufacturer’s instruction booklet and follow its recommendations for both operation and maintenance. Some general points of care and maintenance are given below: 1. With electrically operated machines, check the voltage and frequency before connection to any power supply, ensure that the equipment has a good earth connection and see that all joints are adequately protected. 2. With a petrol or diesel engine, periodically check that it is running at the speed recommended by the vibrator manufacturer. If it isn’t, the frequency developed in the poker head won’t be correct either, and compaction of the concrete won’t be as quick and efficient as it should be. 3. Always avoid sharp bends in drive shafts, particularly when in use. 4. Regularly check all equipment for signs of wear and get any faults seen to. 5. Never engage a poker drive to a motor that is running. Many accidents have happened because the operator didn’t bother to switch off the motor or, if it was fitted with a centrifugal clutch, didn’t throttle it back. 6. Ensure there is enough grease in the bearings, for example, the vibrator tube may start to twist and jump about. If this happens, stop the vibrator, examine the bearings, and grease them if necessary. 7. Avoid leaving pokers in the same place for long periods when vibrating concrete. 8. Don’t leave pokers running while waiting for fresh supplies of concrete. IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 10 9. If a pendulum-type poker fails to vibrate when switched on, it can often be started by rattling the head and giving the nose cap a smart rap (but don’t bang it hard). If this doesn’t work, switch it off and check the motor coupling. Don’t go on using the machine if it is still faulty. 2. With shaft driven machines, the drive shaft or drive pin may have failed. With electric machines, it could be a switch, fuse or a break in the wiring; it could even be a complete motor burn-out. Make sure that the vibrators are firmly clamped or bolted to the brackets, and keep a constant eye on them during use to see that they don’t loosen; otherwise the full vibrations won’t be transmitted to the formwork and the concrete. 3. Feed the concrete into the section in small quantities so that it is placed uniformly in layers about 150 mm thick. This will prevent air being trapped as the lift is built up. 4. Keep a continuous watch on all fixing (which should be screwed rather than nailed), especially on nuts of through-bolts which can easily work loose under intense vibration. Also watch out for grout loss, plugging leaks whenever you can. 5. If possible, compact the top 600 mm of concrete in a wall or column with a poker. If this isn’t feasible, compact the top 600 mm by hand-rodding and spading down the face of the formwork. External vibrators tend to create a gap between the formwork and the concrete. In the lower lifts this gap is closed by the weight of the subsequent layers of concrete, but in the open layer it can remain to disfigure the surface. 10. When using a pneumatically driven vibrator, clear the air line of moisture before coupling it up. Also check that there are no leaking lines or connections otherwise the vibrator will not be operating at full power. External or Clamp-on Vibrators and grout will find its way through the smallest of openings. External vibration systems are available with different frequencies and centrifugal forces. The external or clamp-on vibrator consists of an electric motor with an unbalanced member. It is fixed to the formwork so that the vibrations are transmitted through the formwork into the concrete. Although their use is mainly in precast concrete, they may sometimes be necessary for insitu construction when it is not possible to insert a poker, as in very narrow sections or where there is congested reinforcement. They will only compact concrete in sections up to 400 mm thick. Where it is possible to fit vibrators on either side of formwork even greater thicknesses of concrete can be compacted. When external vibrators are used, the formwork has to be designed and constructed to stand up to the repeated reversals of stress, and to be capable of spreading the vibrations uniformly over a considerable area. Specially designed brackets must be fixed to the formwork to hold the vibrators. Since vibrators are usually moved up or along as the forms are filled, the number of brackets may be greater than the number of vibrators available. Numbers and Spacing of External Vibrators Because of the variables involved, such as rigidity of the formwork, the quality of the concrete and the effective range of vibrators available, there are no hard and fast rules about the number of vibrators required and their most suitable arrangement. The following points are suggested as guides. 1. The positions should generally be not more than 1.0 m apart in any direction when using small external vibrators with low centrifugal force. In some instances, they may need to be closer. More powerful vibrators can be spaced up to 2.0 m apart. 2. At intersections and angles, the distance over which they are effective is reduced; they should therefore be positioned about 0.5 m The following points should be noted: 1. Ensure that all joints, both within and between panels, are tight and sealed. The formwork moves more than it does with poker vibration IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 11 from corners and intersections. 3. For walls and columns no more than about 1.0 m high, a single row of vibrating positions about mid-height will usually be sufficient. 4. For heights greater than 1.0 m, the lowest row should be fixed about 0.5 m above the bottom, with subsequent rows at 1.0 m spacings vertically. Once each 1.0 m lift of concrete has been placed and compacted, the lower row of vibrators can be switched off, the next higher row being switched on until the next layer has been compacted, and so on. If there aren’t enough vibrators for the full height, the vibrators will have to be raised as concrete progresses. With modern equipment it is possible to have quick release systems. This allows the movement of vibrators either along or up a shutter as the pour progresses. Many concrete works use only three or four units over a much larger number of bracket mounts. 5. Before concreting begins, the effectiveness of the arrangement of vibrators can be roughly checked by switching them on and moving a hand over the formwork to feel the vibrations and see whether there are distinct strong, weak or ‘dead’ areas. It may be necessary to adjust the positions of the vibrators to obtain uniform vibrations over the whole area. 4. Make sure however that the beam itself is riding on the side forms and not riding up on the concrete forced on to the side. 5. Keep beams moving evenly when the vibrator is running. 6. Turn vibrator off every time the beam stops. Table Vibration This requires special design consideration since every application is likely to be different. Summary Vibrating Screed These can be used for compacting slabs up to 200 mm in thickness. The following points should be noted. 1. The vibrating beams should be run over as long a length of slab as possible in one pass. One well controlled pass of a double beam should be adequate. A second faster pass of the double beam may be necessary in some cases to improve the finish on the concrete. 2. Too many passes of the beam will bring unwanted excess mortar to the surface. 3. Figure 11: The roll of concrete maintained in front of leading beam of double vibrating beam. A surcharge of concrete is required to be maintained ahead of the beam (see figure 11). Optimum compaction of concrete must be achieved if the concrete is going to achieve its strength and durability requirements. Modern day methods of mechanical vibration provide the most economical means of compacting concrete in most construction situations. They cannot however make up for human deficiencies in the handling of the equipment which usually relates to having insufficient manpower and equipment available to match the speed of concrete placing that can be achieved. Further Reading Cable, J.K., McDaniel, L., Schlorholtz, S., Redmond, IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 12 D., & Rabe, K. (2000). Evaluation of vibrator performance vs. concrete consolidation & air void system (Research and Development Information 2398). Skokie, Ill.: Portland Cement Association. Chan, Y-W., Chen, Y-G., & Liu, Y-S. (2003). Effect of consolidation on bond of reinforcement in concrete of different workabilities. ACI Materials Journal, 100(4), 294-301. Compaction of concrete using immersion and surface vibrators (Current Practice Note 33). (2002). North Sydney, N.S.W.: Concrete Institute of Australia. Ford, J.H. (2003). Internal or external vibration. Concrete Construction. [Online]. Retrieved April 1, 2005 from ftp://imgs.ebuild.com/woc/C03A084.pdf Forssblad, Lars. Rheology and mechanism of concrete vibration – Solna: Dynpac Research 1980 – (Research Bulletin No. 8023 Eng. February 1980). Harding, M.A. (1995). Vibrating concrete in wall forms: use proper internal vibrating techniques to ensure adequate consolidation. Concrete Construction. [Online]. Retrieved April 1, 2005 from ftp://imgs.ebuild.com/woc/C950180.pdf. Koski, J.A. (1994). Using Internal concrete vibrators. Concrete Producer. [Online]. Retrieved April 1, 2005 from ftp://imgs.ebuild.com/woc/J941010.pdf. New technologies for improving the consolidation of concrete (Technical Report CPAR-SL 97-2). (1997). Vicksberg, Miss: United States Army Corps of Engineers. Pneumatic external vibrators. (1997). Concrete Producer [Online]. Retrieved April 1, 2005 from ftp://imgs.ebuild.com/woc/J970690.pdf. ISSN 0114-8826 © Revised Edition March 2005. Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand, Level 6, 142 Featherston Street, PO Box 448, Wellington, telephone (04) 499-8820, fax (04) 499-7760, e-mail [email protected], www.cca.org.nz. Since the information in the bulletin is for general guidance only and in no way replaces the services of professional consultants on particular projects, no liability can be accepted by the Association by its use. IB 46: Vibration of Concrete Page 13
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