1. education

International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
Effectiveness of the English Writing Process for
Post-secondary School Students
Yang Silin (Corresponding author)
Centre for Educational Development, Republic Polytechnic
9 Woodlands Avenue 9, Singapore 738964, Singapore
Tel: (+65) 66971013
E-mail: [email protected]
Andrea Chan
Centre for Educational Development, Republic Polytechnic
9 Woodlands Avenue 9, Singapore 738964, Singapore
Tel: (+65) 66971562
Received: February 18, 2015
doi:10.5296/ijele.v3i1.7327
E-mail: [email protected]
Accepted: March 26, 2015
Published: March 26, 2015
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijele.v3i1.7327
Abstract
With the intention of contributing to the current state of knowledge about the writing skills of
Singapore students, a study was carried out on a group of 73 post-secondary students in a
polytechnic. The students are mandated to undertake an English Language and
Communication module which aims to strengthen their core English Language proficiency.
The aims of the study reported in this paper are: (a) to examine the differences in the levels of
writing skills of the post-secondary students before and after completion of the English
Language and Communication module, and (b) to investigate students’ perceptions of the
English Language and Communication module. The study compared the compositions
written by the students at the start and end of the module in terms of vocabulary, fluency,
clarity and organisation, and overall composition levels. A scoring rubric, based on an
evaluation rubric used by the Ministry of Education Singapore (2010), was developed to
grade these compositions. Based on the analysis of the data, it was found that the students’
writing skills improved significantly. The study also administered a questionnaire to elicit the
students’ perceptions on the usefulness of the module in the enhancement of their writing
skills. The questionnaire analysis corroborates with our findings that the module is effective
in enhancing the writing skills of post-secondary students. The findings, in the light of
writing process method and recommendations for future research study, are discussed.
Keywords: Writing Process, English Language, Post-secondary Students, Polytechnic
254
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
1. Introduction
Singapore is a linguistically and ethnically diverse country with a population of more than 5
million. Given this diverse linguistic landscape, bilingualism has always been a cornerstone
of Singapore’s education system. The bilingual policy was officially introduced in 1960s.
Under this bilingual policy, the main medium of instruction in school is English, and all
students learn an official Mother Tongue Language (Chinese, Malay and Tamil). In the
Report of the English Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review published by Ministry of
Education Singapore in 2006, it was noted that although Singapore students do fairly well in
reading literacy, standards of oral and written communication are highly uneven. Focus group
discussions with employers also revealed that that there had been a decline in the writing
skills of their employees (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2006). One of the key desired
outcomes identified by the Ministry of Education is hence to allow our students to develop a
good level of competence in English Language, in both speech and writing (Ministry of
Education Singapore, 2010).
Similarly, in today’s context, the ability to write proficiently gives one the power and
opportunity to share and influence thoughts, ideas, and opinions with others, not only in
day-to-day situations, but also across time and space. The value that we place on reading and
writing arises out of our shared need to be literate, which is a function of our society and of
our culture (Heller, 1999). Writing is more than merely a means of communication, and it
extends to influence functional and cultural aspects in society. In spite of the importance of
writing, to date, there is little research to study the writing skills of post-secondary students in
a bilingual environment.
With the intention of contributing to the current state of knowledge about the writing skills of
post-secondary students, a study has been carried out on a group of 73 post-secondary
students in a polytechnic in Singapore. These students are mandated to undertake an English
Language and Communication module in the institution. This module aims to strengthen
students’ core English Language proficiency while building their confidence for public
communication in both the written and oral forms. Lecturers in this institution have adapted
the writing process model as proposed by Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) for this purpose.
The students are required to go through the four stages of writing: pre-writing, drafting,
editing, and rewriting in the writing process.
The aims of the study reported in this paper therefore are: (a) to examine the differences in
the levels of writing skills of the post-secondary students before and after completion of the
English Language and Communication module, and (b) to investigate students’ perceptions of
the English Language and Communication module. The findings of this study provided
insights into the four-stage writing process adopted by the polytechnic which has shown to be
effective in improving the writing skills of post-secondary students.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Background to Singapore Education System
Education plays a central role in shaping Singapore’s development. From the
255
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
post-independent years of nation-building in cultivating a coherent and “strong civic
ideology” among racial communities (Green, 1997) to adopting pragmatic policies in
developing the young nation state’s economic capital and viability, Singapore has consistently
transformed its education system to meet changing landscapes.
The bilingual policy was officially introduced in 1960s and since then, bilingualism is a
cornerstone of the education system in Singapore. Under this policy, English is being taught
as the first language and is also the medium of instruction in the schools. Therefore the
Ministry of Education in Singapore places heavy emphasis on the learning of English. It is
the common language that facilitates bonding among the different ethnic and cultural groups.
In addition, it also allows Singaporeans to participate in a knowledge-based economy where
English is the lingua franca of the Internet, of science and technology and of world trade.
Proficiency in English is viewed as being necessary for students to access, process and keep
abreast of information, and to engage with the wider and more diverse communities outside
of Singapore (Ministry of Education, 2010).
In the Report of the English Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review published by
Ministry of Education Singapore in 2006, it was mentioned that there is a wide range of
English language proficiency among the students in Singapore. One of the key desired
outcomes identified by the Ministry of Education would be to develop the competence of
students in the English Language, in both speech and writing (Ministry of Education
Singapore, 2006).
2.2 English Writing Process
The technical aspects of proper grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other conventions were a
principal focus in teaching writing in the past (Hillocks, 1987). However, this approach
soon came under increasing scepticism because it failed to engage students in their learning
(Hicks, 1993; Hillocks, 1986). Several studies conducted have shown that the teaching and
learning of formal, traditional grammar had no effect on the quality of students’ writing, and
that the teaching of grammar may actually hinder the development of students’ English
(Macaulay, 1947; Braddock, Lloyd-Jones, & Schoer, 1963). Since then, responding to the
need for innovative instruction and teaching pedagogies, there was a need to move beyond
rote repetition and technical instruction. Rather than focusing on spelling, grammar, and other
writing conventions, educators started to place their emphasis on the actual process of
writing.
Gordon Rohman introduced the Pre-Write/Write/Re-Write model in 1965, and James Britton
Britton introduced The Conception/Incubation/Production model in 1975. These models
describe the writing process as a linear series of stages, separated by time, and characterised
by the gradual development of the written product. The introduction of these models helped
to improve the teaching of writing by highlighting the importance of planning in the writing
process. However, these models soon came under criticism by educators over whether it was
an accurate description of the writing process. Since 1980, Flower and Hayes have proposed
a number of models of the writing process. The development of their second model (see
Figure 1) in 1981 has since then been widely adopted by many educators. It should be
256
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
acknowledged that the model which was developed in 1981 was more or less similar and
predominantly based upon the idea of their original 1980 model. In this model, the act of
writing involves three major elements: (a) task environment; (b) writer’s long-term memory;
and (c) writing process. It concentrates on writing as a recursive process in which writers
have the opportunity to plan, draft, edit, and revise their work (Hillocks, 1987). The writer is
taught to review and revise several drafts, which enables and encourages new ideas.
Grammatical changes and conventional editing occur during the revision or editing stage
(Ballator, Farnum, & Kaplan, 1999; Flower & Hayes, 1981). Furthermore, since grammar
and conventions are not the focus of writing, the writing process may be adapted for use even
with young writers in kindergarten (Sealey, Sealey, & Millmore, 1979). To date, studies
indicate that the writing process is one effective way to teach students to be good writer
(Flower & Hayes, 1981; Greenwald, Persky, Campbell, & Mazzeo, 1999; Graham & Harris,
2000; Unger & Fleischman, 2004; Cavkaytar & Yasar, 2008).
Figure 1. Flower & Hayes’ (1980) model of the writing process
3. Method
3.1 Ethical considerations
This research study was approved by the Ethics Review Committee at the institution where
the research was conducted. The accepted research protocol included informed consent by the
survey participants, controlled storage and access of data, and de-identified data for analysis.
3.2 Participants
Participants involved in the study were 73 post-secondary students of an English Language
and Communication module in a polytechnic in Singapore. They belonged to the top 10% of
the Secondary 4 Normal Academic (NA) cohort, and were given provisional places in
polytechnic diploma programmes.
257
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
Among these 73 students, 22% of the students obtained a Grade 1, 46% of the students
obtained a Grade 2, while 32% of the students obtained a Grade 3 for their English GCE
‘Normal’ Level results. Based on a survey that was conducted at the start of the semester,
most of the students (64%) spend less than 1 hour on reading each day, with only 1% of the
students spending more than 7 hours on reading each day.
3.3 Educational Context
Figure 2. English Language and Communication Module
Figure 2 describes the six key components of the English Language and Communication
Module in a polytechnic in Singapore. This module aims to strengthen students’ core English
Language proficiency while building their confidence for public communication in both the
written and oral forms. It comprises Reading and Viewing, Listening and Viewing, Speaking
and Representing, Writing and Representing, Grammar and Vocabulary. Each of these
components is essential to improving the literacy level of post-secondary students.
The key component of Writing and Representing is fundamental to developing the students’
writing ability. Teachers’ awareness of the writing process will be helpful in teaching
appropriate strategies and improving the students’ writing abilities in an education
environment (Kapka & Oberman, 2001). Lecturers in this polytechnic have adopted and
adapted the writing process model as proposed by Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981), with the
students required to go through the four stages of pre-writing, drafting, editing and rewriting
in the writing process.
3.3.1 Pre-Writing
Pre-writing, or planning what is going to be written, is an essential step in the writing process
258
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
and should account for 70 % of the writing time (Murray, 1982). In this stage, students are
required to plan before any form of writing takes place. Often, students tap on their prior
knowledge and any forms of research information with reference to the topic given by the
teacher at the start of the lesson. This allows them to have the necessary content and
information to begin writing.
3.3.2 Drafting
This is essentially the process of putting ideas into visible language. In the drafting stage,
students put into writing the information they had gathered via the pre-writing stage. In this
stage, spelling rules for the written text are ignored. If the writer must devote conscious
attention to demands such as spelling and grammar, the task of drafting may be affected as
this extra burden of noting the technical aspects of the written English may be too
overwhelming for the students (Flower & Hayes, 1981).
3.3.3 Editing
This editing stage is a conscious process in which teachers and peers provide feedback for
students to improve on their writing. Students then edit their writing in accordance to the
comments provided by their teachers and peers. Through peer editing, it teaches them to
recognise the value of writing and the purpose in creating a solid and substantial work
(Graves, 1983). This period of editing frequently leads to new cycles of pre-writing and
drafting to incorporate the new ideas. Students will take this opportunity to revisit their goals
and plans for writing. At this stage, students are conscious of the technical aspects of text
used in the piece of writing.
3.3.4 Rewriting
Rewriting is the last stage of the writing process where students submit the completed paper
after rewriting it.
The aim of the study is therefore to examine the differences in the levels of writing skills of
the post-secondary students before and after completion of the English Language and
Communication module, and to investigate students’ perceptions of the English Language
and Communication module by comparing the compositions written by the students at the
start of the module and at the end of the module.
3.4 Data Collection
The study used a pre-test/post-test design, which was based on the first and final piece of
students’ compositions completed in the English Language and Communication module. The
students were required to write an academic text of about 400 words mainly in a narrative
form. The main source of data for this study was compositions written in the English
Language and Communication module at the start and end of the semester.
3.5 Analysis
Analysis was carried out on the first and final piece of students’ compositions completed in
the English Language and Communication module. Firstly, it aimed to ascertain whether
259
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
students’ proficiency in writing had improved purely in numerical terms. Thereafter, a more
detailed analysis of students’ composition, focusing on vocabulary, fluency, clarity, and
organisation was carried out.
A scoring rubric, based on an evaluation rubric (as attached in the appendix) used by the
Ministry of Education Singapore (2010), was developed to grade these compositions. The
rubric assessed the mastery of language use in terms of the range of vocabulary, fluency,
clarity, and organisation demonstrated. There are four levels in the rubric: Level 4 being the
lowest proficiency level while Level 1 being the highest. In addition, these students were also
asked to sign a consent form and complete a questionnaire on (a) the usefulness of the
English Language and Communication module in the enhancement of their writing skills, (b)
three most useful ideas that they have learned in the module, (c) ways they have applied the
useful ideas learned in the module, and (d) any aspect of the module that can be improved.
Students participating in the research were assured of anonymity and all individual data were
de-identified in the data set for analysis.
4. Results
4.1 Quantitative Analysis of Students’ Composition
Based on the analysis of the data, the comparison between the first and the final composition
written by the 73 post-secondary students suggests that the four-stage writing process has
improved and developed the students’ writing abilities. Table 3 shows the mean scores and
standard deviations for student composition in the pre-test and post-test for the various
components. There was an overall improvement in the quality of writing exhibited in the post
test, that is, students seemed to attain a higher level of performance in terms of vocabulary,
fluency, clarity, and organisation. A paired-samples t-test was also conducted to compare the
mean score of the first composition with the last. Results from the paired sample t-test
showed that there was a significant difference in the mean score for the pre-test (M = 10.99,
SD = 3.13) and post-test (M = 9.05, SD = 2.18), t(72) = 9.10, p < 0.001 as shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Aspect of composition in Pre-test and Post-test
Aspect of composition
Pre-test
Post-test
t
p
d
M
SD
M
SD
Vocabulary
2.81
0.908
2.38
0.592
6.06
< 0.001
0.573
Fluency
2.74
0.913
2.21
0.666
7.3
< 0.001
0.671
Clarity
2.71
0.874
2.25
0.641
7.17
< 0.001
0.607
Organisation
2.73
0.804
2.22
0.651
7.17
< 0.001
0.701
Overall
level
10.99
3.13
9.05
2.18
9.1
< 0.001
0.730
composition
260
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
4.1.1 Appropriate Use of Varied Vocabulary
Use of vocabulary is an important aspect of composition writing. Each student’s writing was
given a level of 1-4 for the ability to use appropriate and varied vocabulary based on the
rubrics, Level 4 being the lowest proficiency level while Level 1 being the highest. Table 4
shows the number of students organised according to the different levels for the use of varied
vocabulary in the pre-test and post-test. Although there was no improvement in the number of
students in Level 1, there was a distinct improvement in the other levels. With 21 students in
Level 4 in pre-test, there was only 1 student left in Level 4 in the post-test. The number of
students in Level 2 and Level 3 has also increased from 29 to 40 and 20 to 29 respectively.
Table 4. Results for appropriate use of varied vocabulary in Pre-test and Post-test
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
n
(%)
n
(%)
n
(%)
n
(%)
Pre-test
3
4.11
29
39.73
20
27.4
21
28.77
Post-test
3
4.11
40
54.79
29
39.73
1
1.37
4.1.2 Sentence Fluency and Accuracy
We measured the sentence structure of the students’ composition by looking at the ability to
use varied sentence structure and writing flow. Similarly, each student’s composition was
assigned a level of 1-4 based on the rubrics, Level 4 being the lowest proficiency level while
Level 1 being the highest. Table 5 shows the number of students at the different levels for
sentence fluency and accuracy in the pre-test and post-test. There was a distinct improvement
in level 2. With 27 students in Level 2 in the pre-test, there was an increase of 19.18%, with
41 students attaining Level 2 in the post-test.
Table 5. Results for sentence fluency and accuracy in Pre-test and Post-test
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
n
(%)
n
(%)
n
(%)
n
(%)
Pre-test
5
6.85
27
36.99
23
31.51
18
24.66
Post-test
9
12.33
41
56.16
22
30.14
1
1.37
4.1.3 Clarity of Expression
Table 6 shows the number of students at the different levels for clarity of expression in the
pre-test and post-test. There was an increase, though not statistically significant at 1.37%, in
the number of students who obtained level 1 for the component of clarity of expression in the
post-test compared with the pre-test. However, there was an obvious improvement in the
number of students obtaining Level 2, from 20 students in the pre-test compared to 39
students in the post-test.
261
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
Table 6. Results for clarity of expression in Pre-test and Post-test
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
n
(%)
n
(%)
n
(%)
n
(%)
Pre-test
7
9.59
20
27.4
33
45.21
13
17.81
Post-test
8
10.96
39
53.42
26
35.62
0
0
4.1.4 Organisation
A close examination of the organisation of ideas in the composition in the pre-test and
post-test revealed that there was an improvement in the number of students who obtained
Level 1 and Level 2 in the post-test as shown in Table 7, with 12.33% and 53.42% of the
students obtaining Level 1 and Level 2 respectively. In addition, there were no students who
obtained Level 4 in the post-test.
Table 7. Results for organisation in Pre-test and Post-test
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
n
(%)
n
(%)
n
(%)
n
(%)
Pre-test
4
5.48
24
32.88
33
45.21
12
16.44
Post-test
9
12.33
39
53.42
25
34.25
0
0
4.2 Qualitative Analysis of Students’ Feedback
The qualitative questions elicited students’ feedback on the usefulness of the English
Language and Communication module in the enhancement of their writing skills, namely, the
three most useful ideas that they have learned in the module, the ways they have applied the
useful ideas learned in the module, and any aspect of the module that can be improved.
4.2.1 Impact of the Module on Writing Skills
In response to the open-ended question of the usefulness of the English Language and
Communication module, 98% of the students provided very positive comments on the
module. In addition, the students also commented on some of the specific skills that the
module has helped them develop, including being aware of the different formats of writing,
grammar and vocabulary, as shown in the following examples:
Student A
The module has taught me a lot in better expressing my writing. I have learnt different
forms of writing skills such as resume, complaint letters, formal letters etc. This will help
me a lot in future when I am working in the society in future. The module has also helped
me to improve on certain life skills such as evaluation.
Student B
It has helped me write an argumentative essay, the things to look out for when writing. I
also learned how to write a cover letter, formal and informal letter.
Student C
The module has taught me to be more aware of writing. It taught me the techniques of how
262
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
to write a proposal and speech writing.
Student D
I've learnt many techniques and how to write a good essay.
Student E
The module has taught me to be more aware of the grammar when writing.
Student F
It gave me a greater variety of words to use. My vocabulary is better now.
4.2.2 Application of the useful ideas learned in the module
While the main aim of the module is to improve students’ English proficiency, students are
also able to apply the useful ideas learned in the module. The most frequently mentioned is
the ability to write a good resume for part-time job applications and the writing of letters.
Below are some examples:
Student G
I wrote a formal email to teacher, and a complain letter to a shop complaining about faulty
product.
Student H
I’m writing to other countries to my relatives.
Student I
I wrote several formal emails to employers for part time jobs.
Student J
I have used the cover letter for my application to part time job.
4.2.3 Aspects of the module that can be improved
Some students also expressed their thoughts on how the module can be further improved.
These improvements include more interactive activities, as well as the introduction of English
poetry and literature. Below are some typical comments from the students:
Student K
More interactive activities such as role-playing.
Student L
Make it more interesting by having more activities.
Student M
Should to do more activities which is fun and useful.
Student N
Perhaps, more of English than communication, with poetry and literature.
5. Discussion
Our analysis of the compositions written by the students in the pre-test and post-test shows
that the four-stage writing process adopted by the polytechnic has been effective in improving
the writing skills of post-secondary students, especially students whose proficiency was in
Level 4 in the pre-test. However, the number of students who obtained Level 1 in the
post-test was not significantly higher compared to pre-test.
The questionnaire analysis corroborates our findings on the effectiveness of the English
Module in improving their writing skills to a limited extent as majority of the students found
the course to be useful in the enhancement of their writing skills. They were also able to
apply the skills learnt to their daily lives. Nevertheless, we are also aware that there are areas
in which the module can be improved. Students expressed their wish for more interactive and
interesting activities to be incorporated into the lesson. Thus, overall, the module seems to
263
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
have achieved one of the objectives it set out to achieve, i.e., in improving the writing skills
of the students. One key limitation of this study is the small sample size, which may not be
representative of all post-secondary students.
Based on the results from the compositions that number of students who obtained Level 1 in
the post-test was not significantly higher compared to the pre-test, it is recommended that
educators can leverage the knowledge of the transformation model of writing to further
enhance the teaching of English writing, which places strong emphasis on the planning stage,
and to develop novice into expert writers. Based on the knowledge-transforming model,
writing assignments require not only knowledge-telling but also the process of
knowledge-transforming. An expert writer will employ a knowledge-transforming strategy,
which involves elaborating a representation of the rhetorical or communicative problem to be
solved and using the goals derived from this representation to guide the generation and
evaluation of content during writing, and the end result is that the quality of writing by the
expert writer is definitely higher than the novice writer (Galbraith, 1999). More specifically,
this can be a direction for the next research study, with a larger representative sample size.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Centre for Enterprise and Communication, Republic Polytechnic
for their support in this study. We would also like to thank Helena Lim, Leyana Ibrahiman
and Gini Thomas for collecting the data and encouraging their students to participate in this
study.
References
Ballator, N., Farnum, M., & Kaplan, B. (1999). 1996 Trends in Writing. National Center for
Education Statistics, 1(2), 28.
Braddock, R., Lloyd-Jones, R., & Schoer, L. (1963). Research in Written Composition.
Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Cavkaytar, S., & Yasar, S. (2010). Using Writing Process in Teaching Composition Skills: an
Action Research. Paper presented at the ICT for Language Learning International Conference,
Florence.
Deng, X., Lee, K., Chitra, V., & Lim, M. (2010). Academic Writing Development of
ESL/EFL Graduate Students in NUS. Reflections on English Language Teaching, 9(2),
119-138.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1980). The Cognition of Discovery: Defining a Rhetorical
Problem.
College
Composition
and
Communication,
31(1),
21-32.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/356630
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing. College
264
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
Composition and Communication, 32(4), 365-387. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/356600
Galbraith, D. (1999). Writing as a Knowledge-Constituting Process. In M. Torrance , & D.
Galbraith, Knowing What to Write: conceptual processes in text production (pp. 139-160).
Amsterdam, NL: Amsterdam University Press.
Galbraith, D., Ford, S., Walker, G., & Ford , J. (2005). The Contribution of Different
Components of Working Memory to Knowledge Transformation During Writing.
L1-Educational
Studies
in
Language
and
Literature,
5(2),
113-145.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10674-005-0119-2
Graham, S., & Harris , K. R. (2000). The Role of Self-Regulation and Transcription Skills in
Writing and Writing Development. Educational Psychologist, 35(1), 3-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3501_2
Graves, D. H. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. Heinemann Educational Books,
4 Front St., Exeter, NH 03833.
Green, A., 1997. Education, globalisation and the nation state. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230371132
Greenwald, E. A., Persky, H. R., Campbell, J. R., & Mazzeo, J. (1999). NAEP 1998 Writing
Report Card for the Nation and the States. ED Pubs, PO Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398.
Hayes, J. R. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In C.
M. Levy, & S. Ransdell, The Science of Writing: Theories, Methods, Individual Differences
and Applications (pp. 1–27). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
Heller, M. F. (1999). Reading-writing connections from theory to practice. Mahwah, N.J.:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associate.
Hicks, J. R. (1993). Let's get serious about teaching children to write. Lanham: University
Press of America.
Hillocks, G. (1986). Research on written composition: new directions for teaching. New York,
N.Y.: National Conference on Research in English.
Hillocks, G. (1987). Synthesis of research on teaching writing. Educational Leadership, 44(8),
71-82.
Kapka, D., & Oberman, D. A. (2001, 4 1). Improving Student Writing Skills through the
Modeling of the Writing Process. Retrieved from ERIC Clearinghouse:
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED453536
Macauley, W. J. (1947). The difficulty of grammar. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 17(3), 153–162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1947.tb02223.x
Ministry of Education Singapore. (2006). Report of the English Language Curriculum and
Pedagogy
Review.
Retrieved
from
http://www.tesol.edu.sg/pdf/MOE%20English%20Review.pdf
265
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
Ministry of Education Singapore. (2010). English Language Syllabus 2010. Retrieved from
http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/syllabuses/english-language-and-literature/files/english-pri
mary-secondary-express-normal-academic.pdf
Murray, D. M. (1982). Learning by Teaching: Selected Articles on Writing and Teaching.
Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc., 206 Claremont Ave., Montclair, NJ 07042.
Sealey, L., Sealey, N., & Millmore, M. (1979). Children's Writing: An Approach for the
Primary Grades. Newark, N.J.: International reading Association.
Unger, J., & Fleischman, S. (2004). Research Matters/Is Process Writing the" Write Stuff"?.
Writing, 62(2).
Appendix 1. Scoring Rubric
Level 1
A) Appropriate
use of varied
vocabulary
 Powerful and
 Wide and
engaging words
precise
enough to
carefully selected to
convey
convey the intended
intended
impression in a
shades of
precise, interesting
meaning
an natural
 Uses a mix
way-phrases create
of precise
pictures
and general
 Linger in
reader’s mind
B) Sentence
fluency &
accuracy
Level 2
 Well-constructed
with strong and
varied sentence
structure, created
for particular
effects
 Natural flow in
the writing
Level 3
Level 4
 Vocabulary
used are
adequate
and correct
 Lack of
originality
 Simple
vocabulary
usually
adequate to
convey
intended
meaning
 Errors may
occur with
more
ambitious
words
 Some
variety of
sentence
structure
and length,
not always
for
particular
purpose
 Most
sentences
are simple
in structure
 Tendency to
repeat
sentence
types may
produce
monotonous
effects
verbs
 Some
striking
language is
evident
 Some flaws
in writing
are
evident-uses
a variety of
sentence
beginnings,
structures
and length
 Natural
fluency is
266
www.macrothink.org/ijele
International Journal of English Language Education
ISSN 2325-0887
2015, Vol. 3, No. 1
created by
the variation
in sentence
structure
 Writing is
mainly
C) Clarity of
expression
 Clear and
 Irrelevant
 Adequate
details are
but
focused
focused
mundane
given
 Relevant
treatment of  Limited
 Most
anecdotes and
ideas
developmen
information is
details
t of storyline

Some
relevant
and
enrich central
attempt at
supports
themes
support or
the themes
 Fresh,
expansion,
original treatment  Provides
but no
main idea,
of
details
but details
ideas
provided for
are general
key issues
or brief
D) Organisation
 Order, structure
 Structure
of presentation or
moves
information is
reader
compelling and
through the
moves the reader
text
through the text
adequately
 Introduction
 Inviting
introduction
and
and
satisfying
conclusion
conclusion
are evident
 Clear
 Well planned
transitions
transitions
between
between ideas
ideas
 Structure is  Nonexistent
confusing at
lead and
times
conclusion
 May lack
 Transition
introduction
between
or
ideas may
be absent or
conclusion
inappropriat
 Weak
e
transition
between
ideas
Copyright Disclaimer
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to
the journal.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
267
www.macrothink.org/ijele