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The structure of this ppt
1.1.-1.3. Reduction: pro-forms and ellipsis
2.1.-2.6. Pro-forms
3.1.-3.4. Ellipsis
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1. Reduction: pro-forms & ellipsis
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1.1. Reduction: pro-forms and ellipsis
MEANS OF STRUCTURE REDUCTION
MEANS OF STRUCTURE EXPANSION
(to avoid redundancy of
expression):
(complex sentences consisting of
more than one clause):
• pro-forms
• coordination
John will write a letter on
John will write a letter on
Monday, and Mary will do so on Monday, and Mary will help him.
Tuesday.
• ellipsis
John will write a letter on
Monday, but Mary won’t.
• subordination
John hopes that Mary will help
him.
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1.2. Reduction: pro-forms and ellipsis
• motivation for reduction – a maxim: reduce as much as possible
 if there is a choice, ellipsis is preferred to the use of pro-forms
1) She might sing tonight, but I don’t think she will sing tonight.
2) She might sing tonight, but I don’t think she will do so.
• reduction is syntactic structure based
3)
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The girls swam faster than it was expected that the girls would swim.
The girls swam faster than it was expected that they would swim.
The girls swam faster than it was expected that they would do.
The girls swam faster than it was expected that they would.
The girls swam faster than it was expected they would.
The girls swam faster than was expected.
The girls swam faster than expected.
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1.3. Reduction: pro-forms and ellipsis
• a key aspect of reduction: the reduced part is usually recoverable from
the (linguistic and/or situational) context
• situational recoverability: the full form is recoverable from the
extralinguistic situtation
1) Is she badly hurt? (when a girl has been struck by a car)
• textual recoverability: the full form is recoverable from a neighbouring
part of the text
2) The poor girl didn’t complain, although she was badly hurt. (anaphoric)
3) Although she was badly hurt, the poor girl didn’t complain. (cataphoric)
poor girl: antecedent & she: pro-form (in both cases!)
a) She might sing tonight but I don’t think that she will (sing tonight).
b) If you want (me to (buy the tickets)), I’ll buy the tickets.
• structural recoverability: the full form is recoverable through
knowledge of grammatical structure
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4) It is strange (that) nobody heard the noise.
2. Pro-forms
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2.1. Pro-forms
• substitution: the pro-form “replaces” a repeated occurrence of the
antecedent
1) Bill got a first prize this year, and I got one/a first prize last year.
2) Bill bought a blue car yesterday, and I bought a green one/car today.
(= two distinct prizes/cars)
• coreference: “cross-reference” between the pro-form and the
antecedent (they refer to the same entity/entities)
3) Two players injured themselves during the match.
(= the same two players)

4) Two players injured two players during the match.
(= distinct two players)
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2.2. Pro-forms
• substitution
• the substitute pro-form can be replaced by the antecedent without
unacceptability (with the same interpretation)
1) Bill got a first prize this year, and I got one/a first prize last year. 
2) Two playersi injured themselvesi ( two playersj) during the match.
•
a substitute pro-form (e.g. one, ones, some) can be either definite or
indefinite  a coreferential pro-form (e.g. he, her, themselves) is
always definite
•
coreferential pro-forms are always pronouns (they are pro-NPs,
because only full NPs are referential!) (e.g. he, her, themselves) or
pronoun-related adverbs (e.g. then, there) --- they are pro-XPs
•
a substitute pro-form is highly dependent on its linguistic context for
interpretation: I’ve never met one. – Agnes said so.
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2.3. Pro-forms
pro-forms used for coreference
personal pronouns
she, they, I; him, them, us
reflexive pronouns
myself, himself, themselves
possessive pronouns
my, his, her; mine, hers, theirs
demonstrative pronouns
this, that; these, those
definite adverbs of time & place then; here, there
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2.4. Pro-forms
pro-forms used for substitution
indefinite pronouns
one(s), some, none, each, half,
another, several, enough
demonstrative pronouns
that, those
pro-predicate/pro-predication
do
pro-complement, pro-clause
so
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2.5. Pro-forms
substitution for noun phrases and their constituents
one/ones
really a pronoun
Do you have a few knives? I need one / *a one.
– I’ll get you some / *ones.
Do you have any knives? I need a sharp one.
– I’ll get you several sharp ones.
some, none,
etc.
• substitutes for noun phrases introduced by the
corresponding determiners
Do you have a few knives? I don’t have enough.
I need some. I need several / a few.
that, those
• coreferential pro-NPs:
How about John’s book? - OK, give me that.
• substitute pro-forms with restrictive postmodification:
- the book on the table and that on the chair
- the water in the bottle and that in the glass
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2.6. Pro-forms
substitution for clauses and clause constituents
do
• as intransitive main verb:
- Will you attend the meeting? – I may do.
do so
• intransitive main verb do, pro-predicate/predication
- John will go to hospital. – Mary will also do so. 
- Mary will also do it/that. (do: transitive main verb)
so
• complement substitute:
- The prices are stable, and they will remain so.
– He is a criminal, because they made him so.
• substitute for that-clauses (not: negative counterpart):
- Have they heard the news? – I’m afraid so/not.
• do so always replaces the verb AND its (object and oblique) arguments:
1) Mary will bake a cake on Monday, and Eve will do so on Tuesday.
2) *Mary will put the book on the table, and Eve will do so on the chair.
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3. Ellipsis
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3.1. Ellipsis
definition: “grammatical omission” – the actual word(s) whose meaning is
understood or implied must be recoverable
two major criteria
• the ellipted words are precisely recoverable (the exact forms may not
be fully identical)
1) She can’t sing tonight, so she won’t. (sing tonight)
2) If he works hard, I won’t have to. (work hard)
• the insertion of the missing words results in a grammatical sentence
(with the same meaning as the original sentence)
3) He always wakes up earlier than I. (wake up) <formal>
4) He always wakes up earlier than me. (*wake up) <informal>
 3) is a more straightforward example of ellipsis
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3.2. Ellipsis
types of ellipsis
strict
standard
1) I’m happy if you are. (happy)
2) She sings better than I can. (sing)
quasi
situational
structural
textually
3) She works harder than him. (*works)
4) (I am) Glad to see you.
5) I believe (that) you are wrong.
anaphoric 1)-3) & 6)
cataphoric 7)
6) She might sing tonight, but I don’t think that she will (sing tonight).
7) If you want (me to (buy the tickets)), I’ll buy the tickets.
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3.3. Ellipsis
situational ellipsis
in (formally) declarative sentences
subject
Wonder what they’re doing. – Told you so.
Turned out the light? – Had a good time?
Doesn’t look too well. – Seems full.
(1sg)
(2sg/pl)
(3sg)
subj & operator Sorry, I couldn’t come. – Afraid not. (1sg, often: I+am)
(I’ll) See you later. – (We’ve) Got to go now.
(1sg)
(It is) Good to see you. – (It is) No use worrying. (3sg)
in interrogative sentences
subj & operator (Are you) Happy? – (Have you) Got tea?
(Is there) Any coffee left?
operator
(2sg/pl)
(3sg)
(Is) Anything the matter? – (Does) Anybody need a lift?
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3.4. Ellipsis
elliptical noun phrases
final (= anaphoric) ellipsis:
postmodifiers (if any) and heads are ellipted
1) My own camera, like Peter’s (_), is Japanese.
2) You can’t tax one set of people without taxing the other (_).
3) The first trip to London was soon followed by another two (_).
4) Tomorrow’s meeting will have to be our first (_).
5) Helen is the older girl, but Julie is the taller (_).
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