1. travel
2. specialty travel
3. ecotourism

Chapter II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The review of literature is an important part of the research
approach and is carried out in all areas of research study, whether in the
physical, natural, or social sciences. In fields such as tourism, the review
of literature not only gives the scholar an understanding of previous work
that has been done, but the result of the review actually provided.
The review of the literature involves locating, reading, and
evaluating reports of research as well as reports of casual observation and
opinion that are related to the researcher’s planned study. Such a review is
much more extensive and thorough because it is aimed at obtaining a
detailed knowledge of the topic being studied, while the reading program
is aimed at obtaining enough general knowledge and insight to recognize
problems.
Although the general purpose of the review is to help the researcher
to develop a thorough understanding and thought into previous work and
the trends that have emerged. The review can also help in reading a
number of important specific goals. For the purpose of the review, the
relevant reviews obtained from the most important reference books,
journals, abstract of completed research studies, government reports, other
earlier study reports, periodicals, etc. are presented in this chapter. They
have been described in the descending chronological order in accordance
with the objectives of the study.
22
Chen19 has examined that the response of hotel performance to
international tourism development and crisis events in Taiwan Hotel
performance measures are revenue (revenue per available room and
occupancy rate) profitability (return on assets and return on equity) and
stock performance. There are four major contributions Pertaining to
international tourism development (ITD) proxied by the growth of total
inbound tourist arrivals has a more direct influence on hotel sales and
profitability than it does on hotel stock performance, the absence of
a strong tie between ITD and hotel stock returns that was found in
previous studies is due to the time-varying discount rate caused by
investors changing expectations for the prospect of future cash flows from
holding hotel stocks, new evidence that while the poor performance of
hotel stocks caused by the 9/21 earthquake and the 9/11 terrorist attacks
was attributed to the loss of hotel sales revenue the adverse effect of the
SARS outbreak on hotel stock returns is attributed not only to decreased
hotel sales revenue but also to the increased discount rate and investigated
whether the response of hotel stock returns to ITD depends on the state of
economy and concludes that the response of hotel stock performance to
ITD in business cycle contraction is statistically different from that in
business cycle expansion. Further the influence of ITD on hotel stock
performance is still irrelevant during expansion periods and ITD can
significantly enhance hotel stock returns during contraction periods.
19
M.H. Chen. “The response of hotel performance to international tourism
development and crisis events.” International Journal of Hospitality
Management. 30 (1) (2011): 200-212.
23
Aref20 has investigated the relationship between sense of
community and level of participation in tourism activities in Shiraz, Iran.
Pearson correlation has been used to determine the relationship between
these variables. The findings through survey questionnaire shows that
there are significant relation between sense of community and level of
participation for local tourism development. According to the results,
sense of community can have a catalytic effect on development of tourism
industry through enhancement of local participation.
Albalate and Bel21 have quoted that the scholars and local planners
are becoming increasingly interested in the contribution of tourism to
economic and social development. In the European cities that currently
lead the world rankings for tourist arrivals, local governments have
actively promoted tourism. Mobility is an essential issue for tourists
visiting large cities. Since it is crucial factor for their comfort. It also
facilitates the spread of benefits across the city. The international database
of European cities to examine whether city planners respond to the
additional demand for urban public transport by extending service supply.
The results confirm that tourism intensity is a demand-enhancing factor in
urban public transport. However, cities do not seem to address this
pressure by increasing services. Tourism appears to exert a positive
externality on public transport. Since it provides additional funding for the
20
21
F. Aref. “Sense of community and participation for tourism development.”
Life Science Journal. 8(1) (2011): 20-25 <http://www.life sciencesite.
com>
D. Albalate and G. Bel. “Tourism and urban public transport: holding
demand pressure under supply constraints.” Tourism Management. 31
(2010): 425-433.
24
services, but it also imposes external costs on resident users because of the
congestion caused by supply constrains.
Morrison et al.22 has critically evaluated on key knowledge
contributions that to contemporary understanding of the phenomenon of
small tourism business. The purpose is to scrutinize change and evolution
in perspectives and how these impact on what knowledge is disclosed and
what is not. Conventionally accepted wisdom is challenged, indoctrinated
presuppositions
are
questioned
and
research
methodological
advancements are offered. This is achieved through a comprehensive
review and critical-reflective analysis of key academic contributions
spanning a period of approximately 35 years. The value is to stimulate
criticality relative to what constitutes ‘truth’ within the given context.
Shinde23 has demonstrated how indigenous religious entrepreneurs
drive religious tourism in a non-western context. Building on the case
study of Vrindavan, an emerging religious tourism destination in India, it
explains religious tourism as a natural progression of traditional
pilgrimage economy, where entrepreneurship springs from socio-cultural
and ritual exchanges and knowledge of religious protocols and procedures
between indigenous religious functionaries and visitors. Using religious
hegemony, social status and networks, religious entrepreneurs innovate,
22
23
A. Morrison et al., “Small tourism business research change and
Evolution.” International Journal of Tourism Research. 12 (2010): 739749.
Kiran A. Shinde. “Entrepreneurship and indigenous entrepreneurs in
religious tourism in India.” International Journal of Tourism Research. 12
(2010): 523-535.
25
develop new products and expand the cultural economy of rituals and
performances to suit the demands of the burgeoning tourism. The
tendency to consider such entrepreneurship as ‘informal’ not only
exempts them from most regulations and legal responsibilities but also
undermines their contribution in maintaining the ‘religious’ – the most
important resources in religious tourism.
Ferguson24 has pointed out two themes on which little empirical
work has been carried out in IPE: tourism and social reproduction. It
focuses on changing relations of social reproduction in two tourism
communities in Central America – Placencia in Belize and Monteverde
and Costa Rica. In contrast to the majority of literature on social
reproduction but rather an exploration of how actors in tourism
communities in Central America negotiate the tensions between capitalist
development and social reproduction in a context of minimal state
provision. Drawing on extensive field research in these communities, the
author identifies a gap in social reproduction generated by women’s
intensive and anti-social working conditions in the tourism industry
combined with enduring attitudes that social reproduction remains the
responsibility of women. Particularly the study explores the responses to
this gap, setting out two clear trends – the ‘contracting out’ of social
reproduction and the construction of policies which aim to minimize the
impact of tourism development on social reproduction. The researcher
24
Lucy Ferguson. “Tourism development and the restructuring of social
reproduction in Central America.” Review of International Political
Economy. 17 (5) (2010): 860-872.
26
argues that both of these responses represent privatized solutions to the
social reproduction dilemma and urge continued support for progressive
policy responses.
Kwon and Vogt25 have conducted a study on attitudes and opinions
of local residents regarding place marketing and identify the role of
cognitive, affective and behavioral components in residents ‘positive or
negative attitudes toward place marketing. The conceptual model is
developed based on attitude, reasoned action and social exchange theories.
Data are collected across several destination areas are different levels of
tourism development to test Doxey’s Irridex models. The results show
an adequate role of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components on
positive or negative attitude formation in place marketing. Personal
benefit from tourism is relevant for moderating the relationship between
the three components and attitudes toward place marketing. Results imply
residents form the least developed tourism country are more optimistic
about increasing the local tourism economic growth as they are in the
beginning stage of tourism development compared with the moderately
and most developed countries, where some residents openly express
a strong dislike of tourists.
25
J. Kwon and Christine A. Vogt. “Identifying the role of cognitive,
affective, and behavioural components in understanding residents’ attitudes
toward place marketing.” Journal of Travel Research. 49 (4) (2010): 423435.
27
Law et al.26 has pointed out the establishment of the Internet in the
1990s has provided researchers with the opportunity to examine the use of
Internet applications in the tourism and hospitality industries. The
continuous increase in the number of Internet users is evidence of the
popularity of this technology, and hospitality and tourism practitioners are
increasingly devoting time and effort to their websites to develop and
maintain customer relationships and enlarge their market share.
Lee et al.27 have analyzed the political involvement and
relationships that influenced the shows how of a tourist heritage site in
Korea. It explores the dynamics of collaboration and shows how initial
advantages can become conflict and inertia over time. It outlines the
continuing discord among interested groups, investigates the relationships
that surround the developmental process, and demonstrates how
perceptual differences have became embedded. Also, the study illustrates
that a structure dominated by power relations leads to conflict and inertia
caused by alienation, and emphasizes the need for collaborative structures
in cultural heritage tourism development.
26
27
R. Law et al., “Progress in tourism management: a review of website
evaluation in tourism research.” Tourism Management. 31 (3) (2010):
297-313 Available online at wileyonlinelibrary.com. DOI:10.1002/jtr.815
(Accessed on October 5, 2010).
Timothy Jeonglyeol Lee et al. “Conflict and progress tourism development
in Korea.” Annals of Tourism Research. 37 (2) (2010): 355-376.
28
McAreavey and McDonagh28 have documented rural areas are
recognized for their complex, multifunctional capacities with a range of
different interest groups claiming their rights to, and use of, different rural
spaces. The current rural development paradigm that is evident across the
globe is epitomized by the European LEADER approach. Using evidence
from the proposed National Park in Northern Ireland, we ask the question:
what is the potential for sustainable rural tourism to contribute to rural
development? In out analysis we consider the scope for adaptive tourism
to overcome some of the ongoing challenges that have been identified in
the LEADER approach. Four themes are revealed from this analysis:
institutional (in) capacity, legitimacy of local groups, navigating between
stakeholder interests and sustainable tourism in practice. These issues,
discussed in turn, have clear implications for the new rural development
programme.
Sivanantham29 has suggested that India set the ball rolling in its
surge towards becoming a developed nation in the early 1990s. The new
vision for a new India is reflected in the seven Sutras. Indian tourism has
assumed huge proportions and diverse forms and acts as a catalyst in the
national perspective. This work lays emphasis on the fact that tourism can
be one of the prominent driving forces that could be instrumental in
effecting a much needed image make over to the seven priority sectors.
28
29
R. McAreavey and J. McDonagh. “Sustainable rural tourism: lessons for
rural development.” European Society for Rural Sociology. (2010): 1-20.
R. Sivanantham. “Tourism impact on the seven Sutras.” HRD Times. 12(8)
(2010): 37-38.
29
Essential requirements for tourism
 Time as the hours for leisure so does the opportunity for travel
changes. The overall travel pattern has moved from a two week
vacation to three or four days in the mini vacation per year.
 Money for the majority of travel, requires discretionary income to
be paid.
 Mobility is the access to transportation and hours required to get to
their destination.
Tourism is frequently cited as a tool by which American Indians
can strengthen the economics of their reservations. However, successful
tourism development on such reservations requires effective tourism
planning and effective tourism planning requires public participation in
the planning process. The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) has proved
to be a useful group process in the tourism field but its application to
tourism planning on American Indian reservations has been unexplored.
This study helps to fill this knowledge gap by reporting on an NGT
workshop conducted on the Lake Traverse Reservation of the SissetonWahpeton Oyate (people, nation) in North and South Dakota, USA. Rich
information on tourism development possibilities for three lakefront
properties was obtained. Possible success factors are discussed and
suggestions for conducting similar future workshops on American Indian
reservations are advanced (Spencer).30
30
Daniel M. Spencer. “Facilitating public participation in tourism planning
on American Indian reservations: A case study involving the Nominal
Group Technique.” Tourism Management. 31 (5) (2010): 684-690.
30
Vellecco and Mancino31 have focused on tourism sustainability and
environmental policies. It presents the findings of an empirical research
study on environmental awareness in three Italian areas. The aim of the
research is to study local stakeholders’ environmental awareness so as to
verify their willingness to support environmental needs. Institutional
stakeholders and local tourism entrepreneur have been interviewed at each
site. The areas have been analysed as case studies in order to evaluate the
local communities’ commitment towards protecting the environment. In
addition, the opinions of different stakeholders within each site and across
sites have been compared. This work also underlines the importance of
endogenous processes of a socio-cultural type, such as primary drivers in
innovative eco-compatible behaviours, compared with the role played by
market-driven external forces or traditional governmental regulation. The
findings demonstrate that, the lacking shared responsibility, conflicts and
tensions inside the local community paralyse innovative environmental
behaviours when they ought really to be turned into opportunities for
debate so that shared strategies and solutions may be identified.
Wang et al.32 with both qualitative and quantitative approaches,
examined the success factors of cultural tourism development. Wang
identified why some cities may find it challenging to sustain cultural
tourism development. Wang suggested that the lack of advantageous
31
32
Immacolata Vellecco and Alessandra Mancino. “Sustainability and tourism
development in three Italian destinations: stakeholders’ opinions and
behaviours.” Service Industries Journal. 30 (13) (2010): 2201-2223.
S. Wang et al., “A case study: discussion of factors and challenges for
urban cultural tourism development.” International Journal of Tourism
Research. (2010). n.p. <http://www.wilegarlivelibrary.com>.
31
factors may be because all factors were highly related and that one
factor’s defect in marketing could easily affect the performance of all
other factors. The challenge for cultural tourism development in a less
competitive destination may be more related to elementary problems such
as governmental leadership and funding rather than the important factors
emphasized in theoretical models.
Cerovic et al.33 have studied that the private accommodation is an
important segment of tourism offer of Primorsko-goranska county (PGZ).
The share of private accommodation in total accommodation capacities in
PGZ is growing and sources from year 2008 record that it represented
49.70 per cent of total capacities. Therefore, this article analyses the main
characteristics of the kind of accommodation, the main problems and
trends in the improvement of private accommodation in PGZ.
Gao et al.34 have pointed out that China’s rural tourism has
undergone over 20 years of development and exhibited some unique
features in its development pattern, scale and business operational models
in accordance with China’s political, social and economic systems.
Government plays a decisive role in developing rural tourism in China.
However, rural tourism has been valued mainly as an economic means for
rural
development
during
the
country’s
modernization
process.
Overlooking rurality as an essential issue in rural tourism may lead
33
34
Zdenko Cerovic et al. “Characteristics of private accommodation in
Primorsko-goranska county.” Economic Research. 22 (3) (2009): 73-85.
S.L. Gao et al., “Rural tourism development in China.” International
Journal of Tourism Research. 11 (2009): 439-450.
32
development to a wrong direction, which could jeopardize the
sustainability of the industry.
Guttentag35 has stated that the volunteer tourism is an increasingly
popular form of travel that attracts growing research attention.
Nevertheless, existing research has focused primarily on the benefits of
volunteer tourism, and many studies have simply involved profiling
volunteers or investigating their motivations. However, there are
numerous possible negative impacts of volunteer tourism that deserve
increased attention from both researchers and project managers: a neglect
of locals’ desires, a hindering of work progress and completion of
unsatisfactory work, a disruption of local economies, a reinforcement of
conceptualizations of the ‘other’ and rationalizations of poverty, and an
instigation of cultural changes.
Lim and Cooper36 have identified that the current challenges facing
the sustainable development of island tourism and to develop a new
conceptual approach to sustainable development based upon optimization.
The optimization process for island tourism discussed through the
development of a new life cycle model – the multifunctional interactive
process cycle that is calibrated using a set of 15 island tourism status
indicators and seeks to explain how a complex and dynamic tourism
35
36
Daniel A. Guttentag. “The possible negative impacts of volunteer tourism.”
International Journal of Tourism Research. 11 (2009): 537-551.
Charles C. Lim and Chris Cooper. “Beyond sustainability: Optimising
Island tourism development.” International Journal of Tourism Research.
11 (2009): 89-103.
33
system can be developed that takes a destination towards an optimal
sustainable state to satisfy both visitors and the local community.
Connel et al.37 have studied the light of the increasing pace and
scale of tourism activity in New Zealand, the concept of sustainable
tourism has become a key ingredient in the nation’s tourism strategy. This
paper explores sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand at the level
of local government, and in particular, focuses on the implementation of
the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) as a mechanism for
achieving sustainable tourism. Using the findings of a survey of Regional
Councils and Territorial Local Authorities, the study explores public
sector planning responses to tourism impacts and sustainability concerns
in New Zealand. The paper extends the earlier work of Page and Thorn
1997. Towards sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand: public
sector planning responses. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5(1): 59-77;
2002. Towards sustainable tourism development and planning in
New Zealand: the public sector response revisited. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism 10(3): 222-238, which identified major issues of concern at local
council level with regard to tourism impacts and argued the need for
a national vision for tourism to ensure that the RMA achieved its original
goals. Since than, a national tourism strategy has been published and
changes in legislation have further empowered local authorities to further
progress the sustainability that significant progress has been made in
developing tourism policies at the local level, but that a number of
37
J. Connell et al., “Towards sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand:
Monitoring local government planning under the resource management
act.” Tourism Management. 30 (6) (2009): 867.
34
constraints and issues limit the development of New Zealand as
a sustainable destination.
Gao et al.38 in their article have provided an overview and brief
evaluation of China’s rural tourism. Beginning with the form of poverty
alleviation through tourism, China’s rural tourism has undergone over 20
years of development and exhibited some unique features in its
development pattern, scale and business operational models in accordance
with China’s political, social and economic systems. Government plays
a decisive role in developing rural tourism in China. However, rural
tourism has been valued mainly as an economic means for rural
development during the country’s modernization process. Overlooking
rurality as an essential issue in rural tourism may lead development to a
wrong direction, which could jeopardize the sustainability of the industry.
Hodges39 has conducted an ethnographic case study of the
relationship the development of heritage tourism and the role of material
culture in memory practices in rural Southern France. Drawing on
anthropological fieldwork in the village of Monadieres, it provides an
analysis of how artifacts in the locality’s build environment have been
renovated and revalued in a climate of historical change. This was the
consequence of varied acts of commemoration by both independent
38
39
S. Gao et al., “Rural tourism development in China.” International Journal
of Tourism Research. 11 (2009): 439-450.
Matt Hodges, “Disciplining memory: heritage tourism and the
temporalisation of the built environment in rural France.” International
Journal of Heritage Studies, 15 (1) (2009): 76-99.
35
individuals and the local council in which heritage tourism development
was not necessarily the end-goal. Nevertheless, these acts were implicated
in the council’s ‘disciplinary programme’ to produce a local infrastructure
for heritage tourism. The article therefore explores how this industry
co-habits with and colonies modern memory practices at a micro-level. To
this end it adapts analytical tools from the anthropology of time, which
enable an integrative analysis of these differing ‘temporalisations’ of the
past.
Kavitha and Baby40 have concluded that tourism industry has
expanded rapidly over the past few years and underpinned by the
government support, rising income level and various international sports
events, the Indian tourism industry will continue to grow at the fastest
pace in the coming years. The World Travel and Tourism Council have
identified India as one of the foremost tourism growth centers in the
world, in the coming decade. In order to attract more visitors, India still
needs to upgrade its airports, roads and other infrastructure to global
standards. However, the industry may have to cope up with several
challenges which will limit its growth.
Magi and Nzama41 have said that many of the tourism policies and
strategies in South African have been formulating with the intention of
40
41
Kavitha and Baby, M., “Acceleration of Indian tourism with new visions.”
In Indian Tourism Industry in 21st Century: Challenges and Responses [A.
Vijayakumar (ed.)] New Delhi: Sonali Publication (2009): 20-26.
Lindisizwe Magi and Thandi A. Nzama. “Tourism strategies and local
community responses around the world heritage sites in Kwazulu-Natal.”
South African Geographical Journal. 91 (2) (2009): 94-102.
36
supporting communities by affording them opportunities for job creation,
employment and poverty alleviation. Notwithstanding that these policies
and strategies have been discharged at various times, they seem not to
have been well understood or assimilated by the local communities. They
have explored the level at which tourism policy mandates are
implemented and the extent to which these elicit positive community
responses. In addition, their article seeks to establish activities within the
World Heritage Sites. The findings indicate that local communities from
Simangaliso and Ukhahlaba-Drakensberg World Heritage Sites were not
fully conversant with the policies and strategies that were meant to
enhance their participation in tourism activities. Furthermore, not all
communities
supported
the
promotion
of
Sustainable
tourism
development in their areas. Finally, local authorities have advocated for
a better interpretation and execution of the existing policies and strategies.
Ritchie and Hudson42 have made an evaluation about the
understanding and meeting the major challenges in consumer/tourists
experience research. These challenges have both theoretical and
managerial dimensions. Based on an extensive and comprehensive review
of the current literature in the field, there are six main streams of
theoretical thinking and empirical research. These streams were identified
as the fundamentals of the experience, experience-seeking behaviours,
methodologies used in experience research, the nature of specific tourism
42
J.R.B. Ritchie and S. Hudson. “Understanding and meeting the challenges
of consumer/tourist experience research.” International Journal of Tourism
Research. 11 (2009): 111-126.
37
experiences, managerial issues in the design and delivery of experiences,
and the evolutionary trail of experience thinking.
Sivanantham43 has concluded that in the years to come, information
and communication technology will pay a very crucial role in the
development and promotion of travel and tourism industry. New
Technology like on-line reservation systems in hotels and travel agencies,
touch screen information kiosks, interactive TV’s virtual tours etc. have
added new dimension to the concept of marketing information technology
today has spread to all parts of the world and the tourism has been greatly
affected by this. Communication and information technology has great
capacity to accelerate the globalisation of the tourism industry.
Walton44 has stated that the field of tourism history has been
developing rapidly, especially since the 1980s. It is important not only in
its own right, but also as a contributor to wider understanding of issues
and processes in tourism studies and tourism management more generally.
In his study offers a critical examination, on a global scale and from
an interdisciplinary perspective, of the development and ramifications of
tourism history, with special reference to coverage of the period since the
eighteenth century. It assesses the current state of play in this emergent
sub-discipline and suggests some avenues for its future development.
43
44
R. Sivanantham. “Computer Technology in Tourism.” In Indian Tourism
Industry in 21st Century: Challenges and Responses. [A. Vijayakumar
(ed.)] New Delhi: Sonali Publication (2009): 195-199.
John K. Walton. “Prospects in tourism history: Evolution, state of play and
future developments.” Tourism Management. 30 (2009): 783-793..
38
Dickinson and Robbins45 have made their study on the nature of the
problem by analyzing key stakeholders’ representations of the tourism
transport problem and tourists’ travel behaviour at a rural tourism
destination in the UK. Exploratory research involving in-depth interviews
with residents identified a typical emphasis on local travel problems and
identified tourist arrivals by car as a major contributor. Data compiled
using travel diaries and a survey however, revealed car-based visitors had
fewer concerns. Problems were seen to be minor with little or no need to
modify behaviour to cope in any way. Analysis suggests perceptions of
problems are to a large extent context contingent and are socially
constructed and reproduced with consequent implications for destination
management.
Dwyer and Forsyth46 have expressed the yield potential of different
source markets and segments can underpin destination marketing by both
public and private sector organizations. The standard yield measure relates
to expenditure injected into a destination from different market segments.
This measure has several limitations, which are discussed in the paper.
With the increasing sophistication of economic models such as
computable general equilibrium, models, it is now feasible to develop new
and more useful measures of tourism yield, which directly measure the
gains to different stakeholders. Several economy-wide impact measures of
45
46
Janet E. Dickinson and Derek Robbins. “Representations of tourism
transport problems in a rural destination.” Tourism Management. 29
(2008): 1110-1121<http://www.sciencedirect.com>.
L. Dwyer and P. Forsyth. “Economic measures of tourism yield: What
markets to target?” International Journal of Tourism Research. 10 (2008):
155-168.
39
yield are developed and contrasted for selected Australian inbound
tourism markets. The measure produce conflicting signals for public and
private sector tourism marketers and planners. The reward from further
research in developing and operationalising yield measures in more
informed policy-making by destination managers in respect of destination
marketing and new product development, resulting in greater economic
gains from inbound tourism.
Antarctica is often described as one of world’s last wildernesses.
For a very long time, its isolation from human settlements provided an
effective protection from intensive human visitation; however, over the
past two decades, human activities in Antarctica – in particular tourist
activities – have grown and diversified rapidly. In view of environmental
and other concerns, regulating Antarctic tourism has become one of the
major issues of debate within the Antarctic Treaty System. One of the
questions that has received much attention since 2004 is the question of
whether additional measures are needed to regulate (e.g. prohibit) the
future development of permanent land-based facilities (such as hotels,
visitor centres, logistic facilities) for tourism in Antarctica. A number of
State governments involved in the Antarctic Treaty System have proposed
to prohibit such developments; however, the question has not yet received
a clear answer. After a brief introduction to the Antarctic Treaty System,
this article provides a definition of permanent land-based facilities for
tourism and an overview of current and past land-based tourism facilities
in Antarctica. Next, the question of whether such facilities are likely to
further develop in the near future is discussed and an inventory is made of
40
arguments for and against such developments. Environmental issues will
be discussed first, followed by other considerations. Based on this
information, a number of regulatory options are described for
consideration by policy makers. The authors argue that there is a need for
regulating permanent land-based tourist facilities in Antarctica and they
express their views in the conclusion of respect of the most favourable
option.
McKercher et al.47 have explored and identified the impact of
distance on global tourist flows through an analysis of departing visitor
share from 41 major source markets to 146 destinations. The study
concludes that 80 per cent of all international travel occurs to countries
within 1,000 kilometers of the source market and that, with few
exceptions, distant destinations have great difficulty in attracting more
than a 1 or 2 per cent share of departures. However, high volatility in
share within each distance cohort was also noted. Regression analysis of
variation in share by distance suggests that market access and the level of
tourism development within a destination distort movement patterns
regardless of distance. Relationship variables played an important role in
short-haul travel; a mix of source, destination, and relationship
characteristics influence travel to medium haul destinations; and
destination attributes influence share at long-haul destinations.
47
Bob McKercher et al., “The impact of distance on international tourist
movements.” Journal of Travel Research. 47 (2) (2008): 208-224.
41
Oviedo-Garcia et al.48 have analysed residents ‘perceptions of the
effects of tourism. Economic, cultural and environmental effects are
identified as determinants of residents’ attitudes towards tourism
development and planning. Authors speculate that there are different
patterns of resident’s supports depending of their differential benefits
obtained from tourism. A conceptual model is developed and empirically
tested in Santiponce, a small, their support for tourism development and
for tourism planning.
Feng49 has examined that the Chinese government is making
tourism an important rural development strategy. Local governments and
outside developers jointly manage and develop natural and cultural
resources
to
increase
tourism
revenues.
The
government
sells
development and management rights to large for-profit corporations. The
study examines one such project in Fenghuang Country, Human Province,
where Yellow Dragon Cave Corporation (YDCC) and the local
government of Fenghuang Country are jointly promoting tourism.
Pleasant climate, stunning views, “colorful” ethnic minority cultures and
the newly discovered and partially restored Ming Dynasty “Southern
China Great Wall” are the primary tourist attractions in Fenghuang
Country.
48
49
M. Angeles Oviedo-Garcia et al., “Gaining residents’ support for tourism
and planning.” International Journal of Tourism Research. 10 (2008): 95109 (http: www.interscience.wiley.com).
X.H. Feng. “Who benefits? Tourism development in Fenghuang country,
China.” Human Organization. 67 (2) (2008): 207-220.
42
Jelsy Joseph and Adalarasu50 in their study on ‘A vision of tourism
sector in India, have come to a conclusion that the vast civilization
heritage of our country ranging from Himalayas to Kanyakumari has a lot
to attract tourists. India is poised to become a prominent tourism players
as WTTC forecasts. In truth India’s was below its justified position,
considering its size population and resource. In future partnerships would
have to be developed to sustain the growth of tourism.
Khadaroo and Seetanah51 have recognized the role of the
transportation network as an essential component of successful tourism
development and state that “transport plays an important role in the
successful creation and development of new attractions as well as healthy
growth of existing ones.” Provision of suitable transport has transformed
dead centres of tourist interest into active and prosperous places attracting
multitudes of people.
Revathy52 in her article Tourism in India focuses on the
‘incredible’ opportunities that India has to struggle to market itself to the
world tourists. For a long time, tourists activity of the rich a some what
unnecessary-distraction for the Poor in India. Hence, no concerted efforts
were made to develop tourism as an industry in the country. The tourism
50
51
52
Jelsy Joseph and Adalarasu, “A vision of Tourism sector in India.” Indian
Journal of Marketing. 41 (2008): 29-32.
J. Khadaroo and B. Seetanah. “The role of transport infrastructure in
international tourism development: A gravity model approach.” Tourism
Management. 29 (2008): 831-840.<http://www.sciencediret.com>
S. Revathy. “Tourism in India awakens to incredible opportunities.”
Southern Economists. Feb. 15 (2008): 30.
43
industry encompasses accommodation, travel, transport, leisure and
entertainment and offers immense employment potential at almost all
levels.
Raymond and Hall53 recommended that the organizations ‘should
develop programmes which will be of genuine value for the local
communities’, should approach projects ‘as a learning process rather than
simply an “experience”’, and ‘opportunities for interaction with other
cultures should be deliberately facilitated.’
Richter and Steiner54, in their article have revealed the challenges
claim that liberalizing state-regulated markets in developing countries
may induce lasting economic development. An analysis of the rise of
tourism in Egypt during the past three decades suggests that the effects of
liberalization and structural adjustment are constrained by the
neo-patrimonial character of the Egyptian political system. Since the
decline of oil-rent revenues during the 1980s tourism development has
been the optimal strategy to compensate for the resulting fiscal losses.
Increasing tourism revenues have helped in coping with macro economic
imbalances and in avoiding more costly adjustment of traditional
economic sectors. Additionally they provided the private elite with
53
54
E. Raymond and C. Hall. “The development of cross-cultural
(mis)understanding through volunteer tourism.” Journal of Sustainable
Tourism. 16(5) (2008): 530-543 [cf. Guttentag, Daniel A.] <www.
interscience.wiley.com>. (Accessed 17 February 2009)
T. Richter and C. Steiner. “Politics, economics and tourism development in
Egypt: Insights into the sectoral transformations of a neo-patrimonial
rentier state.” Third World Quarterly. 29 (5) (2008): 939-959.
44
opportunities to generate large profits. Therefore sectoral transformations
resulting from economic liberalization in neo-patrimonial rentier states
should be described as a process which has led to the diversification of
external rent revenues, rather than to a general downsizing of the rentier
character of the economy.
Reddy55 has stated that sustainable tourism principles are difficult
to implement in developing countries. Within this context, his article is
engaged in the identification, selection and evaluation of sustainability
indicators for rapid assessment of tourism development in one of the
remotest and most sensitive destinations in the world, the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands of India (ANI). It reviews the indicator sets and research
on indicator development frameworks and examines the identification and
assessment of rapid economic indicators for the ANI. The ANI indicator
development strategy considered indicators that are developed and
assessed mainly for developed countries and evaluated a feasible bottomup approach, which is mainly based on local knowledge for sustainable
tourism initiatives in less developed islands.
Sequeira and Nunes56 have said that the International tourism
determinants have been studied in recent research, and focus has been
given to estimation of demand equations. Country risk has been somewhat
55
56
M.V. Reddy. “Sustainable tourism rapid indicators for less-developed
Islands: an Economic perspective.” International Journal of Tourism
Research. 10 (2008): 557-576.
T.N. Sequeira and P.M. Nunes. “Does country risk influence international
tourism? A dynamic data analysis.” The Economic Record. 84 (265)
(2008): 223-236.
45
neglected in the analysis. Given adequate controls for price and income,
country risk is a robust and significant determinant of tourism
specialization of countries: a 1 per cent increase in country risk causes a
0.2 per cent fall in tourism specialization. Policy-makers should be aware
of the negative effect country risk has in tourism, as this is seen as one of
the most promising sectors for development. This study questions the
nature of the problem by analysing key stakeholders’ representations of
the tourism transport problem and tourists travel behaviour at a rural
tourism destination in the UK. Exploratory research involving in-depth
interview with residents identified a typical emphasis on local travel
problems and identified tourist arrivals by car as a major contributor. Data
compiled using travel diaries and a survey however, revealed car-based
visitors had fewer concerns. Problems were seen to be minor with little or
no need to modify behaviour to cope in any way. The analysis suggests
perceptions of problems are to a large extent content contingent and are
socially constructed and reproduced with consequent implications for
destination management.
China provides many interesting opportunities for tourism research
owing to its unique historic, economic and cultural background. Their
study provides an overview of tourism research in China and provides
an insight into the unique cultural contexts and complexities that have
influenced tourism development and tourist behaviour. The perspectives,
traditions and contexts of Chinese tourism research are explored by
focusing on two important research areas: tourism development and
tourism cultural studies. As a result of China’s increasing openness to the
46
international academic world, Western tourism research has begun to have
a significant impact on research in China. However, the uncritical
adoption of Western theories and research paradigms is not always
appropriate. Key issues for facilitating the future development of tourism
research in China are discussed by Xu and others.57
Gronau and Kagermeier58 in their article expressed that the main
focus of transport policy and transport studies was on the reduction of the
use of motorized, individual transport, in particular with regard to daily
commuter traffic. The main concepts concentrated on creating
an attractive public transport supply and, where possible, improving the
infrastructure for non-motorized traffic in order to open up alternative
forms of travel. Although these concepts produced noticeable effects on
everyday travel, they could not cope with steadily rising problems in the
field of leisure traffic. Therefore, primarily supply oriented, autocratic
desktop transport policies cannot be seen as a promising approach within
the leisure context.
Schott59 has examined the distribution channels structure as well as
the underlying factors influencing the most prominent channel choices
57
58
59
H.G. Xu et al., “Tourism research in China: Understanding the unique
cultural contexts and complexities.” Current Issues in Tourism. 11 (6)
(2008): 473.
W. Gronau and A. Kagermeier. “Key factors for successful leisure and
tourism public transport provision.” Journal of Transport Geography. 15
(2007): 127-135. <http://www.sciencedirect.com>.
C. Schott. “Selling adventure tourism: a distribution channels perspective.”
International Journal of Tourism Research. 9 (2007): 257-274.
<http://www.interscience.wiley.com>.
47
within the adventure tourism industry. It is based on in-depth interviews
with adventure tourism operators in Queenstown, New Zealand. The
findings suggest that the distribution structure is similar to other attraction
sectors and that business size has some bearing on the ‘length’ of the
distribution chains. However, regardless of business size, the sector places
a clear priority on ‘at destination’ distribution and the factors underlying
this choice were found to be varied and reflective of both sector-specific
demand and supply characteristics.
Erdogan and Baris60 have investigated the general nature of
environmental protection, waste management, purchasing, energy use, and
conservation practices of hotels in Ankara, Turkey. It has explored the
extent of environmental protection practices so the hotel industry could
evaluate its position on environmental issues and so that other interested
parties, including academics, can obtain fresh information for a distinctive
part of the world. The data were collected by means of questionnaires and
interviews. The study found that the policies and practices of Ankara
hotels generally lack attributes relevant to environmental protection and
conservation, and that hotel managers mostly lack the necessary
environmental responsibility. It is thus necessary to develop an integrated
system of policy and practice that involves not only the hotel management
and staff, but also all parties concerned with environmental protection and
sustainability, and to re-evaluate and reconsider national, local, and hotel
policies and training activities.
60
N. Erdogan and E. Baris. “Environmental protection programs and
conservation practices of hotels in Ankara, Turkey.” Tourism Management.
28 (2) (2007): 604-614 (DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2006. 07.003).
48
Jacobsen61 revealed that the contribution to research on sustainable
tourism development by utilizing an empirical approach to clarify visitors
‘subjective perceptions and assessments of tourism supplies and tourismrelated amenities and infrastructure with respect to environmental
performance and protection practices. These aspects are analysed mainly
with regard to tourists’ self-reported environmental concerns and their
country of residence. Disclosing such tourist perspectives and opinions is
not only interesting in its own right but might also act as a supplement and
a corrective to local view points. This study of international motor tourists
should additionally be regarded as a basis for further monitoring and as
a building block for a knowledge-based platform serving aspirations
towards
more
sustainable
tourism
and
improved
environmental
performance.
Khadaroo and Seetanah62 have found the significance of transport
infrastructure as a factor in destination development, showing it to be part
of the classical demand for international tourism functions. An application
involving the island of Mauritius is presented whereby total tourist
arrivals
are
modeled.
The
findings
show
that
tourists
from
Europe/America and Asia are particularly sensitive to the island’s
transport infrastructure. Those from Europe/America are also sensitive to
61
62
Jens Kr. Steen Jacobsen. “Monitoring motoring: A study of tourists’
viewpoints of environmental performance and protection practices.”
Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism. 7 (2) (2007): 104-119.
J. Khadaroo and B. Seetanah. “Transport infrastructure and tourism
development.” Annals of Tourism Research. 34 (4) (2007): 1021-1032.
49
its non-transport infrastructure. Both types of infrastructure, as well as
income of tourists, distance and relative prices are important ingredients in
their own respect in the tourism demand equation. Mauritius is
an expanding destination, with the European and American markets being
most promising.
Robbins et al.63 have studied that the facilitating successful access
to special events is key to their success, yet a transport and events research
agenda is still to emerge and transport is often peripheral to the tourism
destination management literature. They have used a conceptual
framework to analyse the transport implications of holding special events.
They concludes with comment on where and when it is best to host events
from a transport perspective and mechanisms to facilitate more sustainable
travel choices to events within destination areas.
Kolland64 has expressed that each society appears to generate
specific forms of tourism. Developments of tourism will be highlighted in
four stages, with a clear analytical emphasis on international tourism.
First, the article deals with general social conditions that have impacted
tourism. Furthermore, it is discussed, whether traveling has been
democratized, Le. Whether it has been made accessible to larger portions
of the population, and how the interactions between different groups of
63
64
D. Robbins et al., “Planning transport for special events: A conceptual
framework and future agenda for research.” International Journal of
Tourism Research. 9 (2007): 303-314.<http://www.interscience.
wiley.com>
F. Kolland. “Tourism and social change – Stages of development and
explanations.” SWS – Rundschau. 46 (3) (2006): 245-270.
50
protagonists (tourists, population in host countries, employees in the
tourist sector) have changed. It can be demonstrated that tourism lost its
prestigious label and that interactions between travellers and hosting
population cannot be reduced to a mere economic exchange, but that we
are faced with profound social encounters.
Nyaupane and Thapa65 have studied tourism development and
associated environmental impacts are evident in various regions of the
world as communities struggle to find an optimal balance between
economics and conservation. The growing pains of tourism development
have usually fragmented local residents with respect to their perception of
impacts and support for tourism. Empirical research has analyzed resident
perception and attitudes towards tourism destinations and rural areas. This
study was to examine the perception of environmental impacts of tourism
between residents and managers within a protected area, i.e. Annapurna
Conservation Area Project (ACAP), Nepal, India. Data were collected
on-site among local residents and managers. Environmental impacts of
tourism were operationalized using 13 items on a five-point Likert scale
(strongly agree to strongly disagree). Overall, on comparison of
descriptive and statistical analyses, local residents were consistently more
likely than managers to perceive fewer negative and greater positive
impacts of tourism on the environment.
65
Gyan P. Nyaupane and Brijesh Thapa. “Perceptions of environmental
impacts of tourism: A case study at ACAP, Nepal.” International Journal
of Sustainable Development and World Ecology. 13 (1) (2006): 51-61.
51
Nyaupane et al.66 have suggested that tourism development in
mountain region is reported to bring economic growth to host
communities. However, the literature reveals that the economic,
environmental and cultural impacts of tourism development in these
regions vary greatly and that a number of critical factors may explain that
variability. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explore the role of
community involvement and number/type of visitors on tourism impacts
in mountain destinations. The study followed a controlled comparison
method (Eggan, F. (1954) Social anthropology and the method of
controlled comparison. American Anthropologist, 56(5): 743-763)
including field observations and individual and group interviews in two
popular mountain destinations in Asia: Annapurna, Nepal and Northwest
Yunnan, China. The findings suggested that level of host involvement in
management and number/type of tourists helped explain these
destinations’ varying degrees of economic leakage, local control, and
socio-economic inequity. Moreover, both destinations appeared to cope
with their challenges through cooperative community efforts supported by
non-governmental agencies.
Phillips and Jones67 have identified the importance of coastal zones
to the tourism industry and the need to protect such resources is not only
66
67
Gyan P. Nyaupane et al., “The role of community involvement and
number/type of visitors on tourism impacts: A controlled comparison of
Annapurna, Nepal and Northwest Yunnan, China.” Tourism Management.
27 (6) (2006): 1373-1385.
M.R. Phillips and A.L. Jones. “Erosion and tourism infrastructure in the
coastal zone: Problems, consequences and management.” Tourism
Management. 27 (3) (2006): 517-524.
52
vital to the economy of nations but presents a growing dilemma for many
localities and regions. Beaches have becomes synonymous with tourism
and with current predictions of climate change and sea-level rise; they are
under significant threat of erosion worldwide. From an assessment of the
effects of erosion, including evaluation of impacts on coastal destinations
and tourism development, the consequences for global tourism business
are projected.
Saarinen68 has analysed that the sustainability has become
an important policy issue in tourism, it arouses discussion and criticism,
and an increasing need to understand the nature of the limits of growth.
How these limits are approached and evaluated in discussions on a local
scale. The purpose is to recognize that behind the different in their
focuses. These are referred to as resource, activity, and community-based
traditions of sustainability. Further, the relationship between sustainable
tourism and sustainable development is critically discussed.
Hughes and Allen69 have conducted a study on Central and Eastern
countries that emerged from experiences of communist government had to
re-adjust to consequent shifts in tourism flows. Cultural tourism has been
seen to have particular not only as a new growth market but also, for
political reasons, as a means of producing favourable images of theses
68
69
J. Saarinen. “Traditions of sustainability in tourism studies.” Annals of
Tourism Research. 33 (4) (2006): 1121-1140.
H. Hughes and D. Allen. “Cultural tourism in central and eastern Europe:
the views of ‘induced image formation agents’.” Tourism Management. 26
(2005): 173-183.
53
countries. Tourist board representatives in tourist-generating countries are
key agents in the image formation process. The views of such agents in
the UK were ascertained in this study in order to determine their
perceptions of cultural tourism as part of their country’s product offer, the
rational behind the promotion of this tourism and their awareness of the
consequences. This was done by interview with representatives of
a number of countries. It is concluded that cultural tourism was seen very
positively and it is of importance to all but it was seen in market rather
than in political terms. Tourist board interviewees had a particular
‘heritage’ view of cultural tourism and recognized few problems
associated with the use of culture for tourism purposes.
Shaalan70 has identified that Egypt is looking into the possibilities
for diversifying its tourism opportunities throughout the country. The
main target for expanding the tourism sector is nature-based tourism. The
coral reefs and rich marine life in South Sinai and the Red Sea coast
have-made these two areas among the premier scuba diving destinations
in the world. Many beach resorts are now in operations and there are still
hundreds to be constructed. However, previous tourism development in
Egypt has resulted in a series of negative environmental impacts. The
ambitious development plans to receive 16 million tourists by 2017 should
take into consideration sustainability concepts. The government and
developers have significant roles to play in adopting and implementing
environmentally sound policies and practices to avoid the degradation of
70
I.M. Shaalan. “Sustainable tourism development in the Red Sea of Egypt
threats and opportunities.” Journal of Cleaner Production. 13 (2) (2005):
83-87.
54
the natural heritage of Egypt for the sake of the current as well as future
generations.
Wallace71 has reported that the anthropology of tourism is
a relatively recent topic within both academic and applied anthropology
started in the 1960s and 1970s. Valene Smith’s edited work Hosts and
Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism (1977) marks the beginning of the
field as a serious academic concern. Since then it has grown rapidly.
Anthropolgists were (and some continue to be) ambivalent about studying
tourists, but initially they were concerned with the impact of tourists and
tourism on local communities, especially in rural regions. Much of the
initial findings suggested that tourism generally had negative impacts on
communities that had become tourist destinations. In this volume, the
contributing authors were asked to reflect more on the positive and
practical contributions of anthropology to the field of tourism studies and
to the tourism industry itself.
Haley et al.72 have identified and examined the attitudes of
residents in Bath, United Kingdom, towards tourism developed. The study
holds that impact research conducted on hosts’ perceptions is
predominantly descriptive and lacking in a consistent approach to
measurement. The primary aim here is to establish a benchmark study for
71
72
T. Wallace, “Tourism, tourists and anthropologists at work.” NAPA
Bulletin - Introduction. 23 (2005): 1-26. <http://www.ucpress.edu/
journals/ right.htm.>
A.J. Haley et al., “Social impacts of tourism – A case study of Bath, UK.”
Annals of Tourism Research. 32 (3) (2005): 647-668.
55
the city, enabling future longitudinal and comparative analyses of host
attitudes. A ample was secured from the residents, and factor and
regression analyses conducted, to ascertain whether there were any
underlying
dimensions
development,
and
regarding
whether
their
socio
attitudes
economic
toward
and
tourism
demographic
characteristics were useful predictors of these attitudes.
Tasi et al.73 have studied the option pricing method in the agency
problem between airlines and travel agencies. An airline Agency Option
Pricing model is employed whereby different ticket price processes, the
quantity targets of tickets sold, the correlation between the ticket price and
ticket quantity, and various incentive programs affect the agency costs
between airlines and travel agencies. It is found that airlines should
cautiously design their incentive programs to mitigate the impact caused
by the agency problem that could influence the operations of travel-related
suppliers.
Forstner74 has expressed that many community-based tourism
ventures face marketing problems similar to those of other rural
producers. They depend on intermediaries, such as private companies,
membership
organizations,
public
sector
institutions
and
non-governmental organizations, to facilitate market access. The study
73
74
H.T. Tasi et al., “A study of the option pricing method in the agency
problem between airlines and travel agents.” Journal of Air Transport
Management. 20 (2004): 151-160.
K. Forstner. “Community ventures and access to markets: The role of
intermediaries in marketing rural tourism products.” Development Policy
Review. 22 (5) (2004): 497-514.
56
analyses the strengths and weaknesses of each type of intermediary, based
on different levels of marketing support. Reflecting discussions about
marketing assistance in other rural sectors, it argues that intermediary
institutions have different areas of expertise and experience different
constraints in terms of capacity-building, marketing know-how, financial
resources and overall livelihood impacts. Instead of pursuing individual
support strategies, it is therefore necessary to develop combined
approaches of marketing assistance, depending on location, tourism
resources and existing organizational structures.
Mason75 has found that the musical heritage is a profitable resource
in the development of culture tourism worldwide, yet the identities of the
communities whose music is recontextualized at venues are frequently
co-opted in the process. Centering on an Aboriginal tourism company
operating in Ottawa, Canada, this paper demonstrates how marginalized
communities having greater control over the space where products are
consumed gain more flexibility and agency in the struggle to reappropriate
the semantic, social and economic uses of their cultural assets. The
study’s findings confirm that interpreters are responding to opportunities
generated by tourism development and changes in federal-Aboriginal
relations to challenge non-native stereotypes and resignify aesthetic forms
with indigenous meaning through musical interaction with tourists.
75
K. Mason. “Sound and meaning in aboriginal tourism.” Annals of Tourism
Research. 31 (4) (2004): 837-854.
57
Negi76 in his book has explored that “according to Lickorish all
persons staying for more than 12 months and less than 24 hours should be
excluded from the category of tourists. He has further suggested that for
the latter (those staying for less than 24 hours) we should use the word
“excursionists” and “tourist visitors.” He writes that the “excursionist”
should in principle be interpreted to mean any-person traveling for
pleasure for a period of less than 24 hours in a country other than in which
he resides and not undertaking any gainful occupation in the country.
Transit visitor should in principle be interpreted to any person traveling in
a country during a period of less than 24 hours provided that any stops
made are of short duration and for other than tourist purposes.”
Hampton77 has pointed out that the international tourism is
an increasingly important source of income and employment for many
developing countries with over 690 million annual international arrivals
(World Tourism Organisation data). He considers the impact of tourism in
the city of Yogyakarta, in Java, Indonesia, and asks whether one subsector
of international tourism, namely backpacker tourism, provides a way for
local people to enter this globalised industry. The study examines the
emergence of small-scale, bottom-up tourism and its transformatory effect
upon a previously poor kampong (urban village). It is suggested that the
nature of small-scale, locally owned tourism businesses, particularly their
76
77
Jagmohan Negi, International Tourism and Travel – Concepts and
Principles. p.26. [quoted by A.H. Murray Sir James, New English
Dictionary on Historical Principles. vol.1926 (Oxford) I, part I].
Mark P. Hampton. “Entry points for local tourism in developing countries:
Evidence from Yogyakarta, Indonesia.” Geografiska Annaler. 85 B (2)
(2003): 85-101.
58
minimal capital requirements, may be seen as a form of ‘pro-poor
tourism’ and may provide a useful component of local economic
development strategies for poor communities. Further, small-scale tourism
development may also be seen as an effective local response to some of
the effects of globalization, specifically increasing flows of international
tourists to developing countries.
Mbaiwa78 observed that the Okavango Delta is one of Botswana’s
leading tourist-destination areas, mainly because of the rich wildlife
resources it sustains and its scenic beauty. Tourism has stimulated the
development of a variety of allied infrastructure and facilities, such as
hotels, lodges and camps, airport and airstrips, in the Okavango region.
Through its backward linkages, wholesale and retail businesses have also
been established, especially in Maun; to offer various goods to the tourist
industry. Tarred roads and other communication facilities have also been
developed in Ngamiland district partly to facilitate tourism development.
Tourism in the Okavango Delta also provides employment opportunities
to local communities and it is a significant source of foreign exchange for
Botswana. Despite its positive socio-economic impacts, the industry is
beginning to have negative environmental impacts in the area such as the
destruction of the area’s ecology through driving outside the prescribed
trails, noise pollution and poor waste management. This, therefore,
suggests that tourism in the Okavango Delta has socio-economic and
78
I.E. Mbaiwa. “The socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism
development on the Okavango delta, north-western Botswana.” Journal of
Arid Environments. 54 (2) (2003): 447-467.
59
environmental impacts, issues which are addressed-by this paper based on
the concept of sustainability.
Tourism is one of the largest and fastest growing industries in the
world. It is an increasingly important source of income, employment and
wealth in many countries. Its rapid expansion has, however, had
detrimental environmental (and socio cultural) impacts in many regions.
In his article the investigator has examined the main economic benefits
and environmental impacts of tourism, and review the development of the
international sustainable tourism agenda. While much of international
tourism activity takes place within the developed world, this article plans
to focus on the (economic) development of the industry in developing
countries, the investigator conclude that new approaches to sustainable
tourism development in these countries should not only seek to minimize
local environmental impact, but also give greater priority to community
participation and poverty alleviation. In particular, that more emphasis
should be given to a ‘pro-poor tourism’ approach at both national and
international levels by Neto.79
Sharpley and Forster80 made a case study on the implications of
hotel employee attitudes for the development of quality tourism in
Cyprus. They concluded that the issue of quality has grown significance
79
80
F. Neto. “A new approach to sustainable tourism development: Moving
beyond environmental protection.” Natural Resources Forum. 27 (3)
(2003): 212-222.
R. Sharpley and G. Forster. “The implications of hotel employee attitudes
for the development of quality tourism: the case of Cyprus.” Tourism
Management. 24 (6) (2003): 687-697.
60
for tourism businesses and destinations alike. This has been influenced by
a number of factors, such as expansion of consumer rights and the alleged
emergence ‘new’, quality conscious tourists. In particular, it is the need to
retain or increase competitive advantage that has underpinned the drive
for quality in tourism-certainly, many destinations, especially those
operating in the highly competitive summer-sun market, are now adopting
quality tourism development strategies. However, little or no attention has
been paid to the role of tourism industry employees, particularly those in
hotels, in the success of quality management programmes. The purpose of
this study is to address this omission. Based upon a survey of hotel
employees in Cyprus, a number of factors have been identified that may
support or limit the drive towards quality service provision, with a variety
of implications for the destination as a whole as well as individual hotels.
In particular, hotel management should implement strategies based on
reward systems, empowerment and reducing staff turnover, whilst there is
an important co-ordination and guidance role to be played by the national
tourism organization.
Teye et al.81 have stated that in recent years, tourism has been
playing a more significant role in the economics of several African
countries, including Ghana. The purpose of their study is to examine
attitude of residents of two of its towns toward tourism development.
Factor analysis of scaled items measuring their attitudes resulted in seven
tourism-related factors: social interaction with tourists, beneficial cultural
81
V. Teye et al., “Resident’s attitudes toward tourism development.” Annals
of Tourism Research. 29 (3) (2002): 668-688.
61
influences, welfare impacts, negative interference in daily life, economic
costs, sexual permissiveness, and perception of crowding. Results indicate
residents’ expectations from tourism development were not met and also
individuals working in related businesses have negative attitudes toward
the industry.
Karma82 has explained that the environmental impacts of tourism
development can also be direct, indirect and induced effects apart from
being positive and negative. The direct positive environmental impacts of
tourism include the preservation and restoration of historic monuments or
heritage sites, the establishment of national parks and wild life
sanctuaries, the protection of reefs and beaches, the maintenance of forests
etc. On the contrary, tourism development may have direct negative
environmental impacts on the quality of air, water and noise levels.
Williams and Balaz83 have stated that the domestic tourism is not
homogenous understate socialism but involves collective, commercial,
and informal provision. Moreover, it has not been monolithically
institutionalized, but is significantly influenced by different social and
cultural legacies in the Czech and Slovak territories. During the
transformation there was an apparent paradox, for some forms of holiday
increased during the economic crisis. However, this can be seen as
82
83
Krishna K. Karma, Economics of Tourism Pricing Impacts Forecasting,
p.212.
Allan M. Williams and Vladimir Balaz, “From collective provision to
commodification of tourism?” Annals of Tourism Research. 28 (1) (2001):
27-49.
62
a logical outcome to changing economic conditions, and access to tourism
actually became more socially differentiated. They conclude that
extensive privatization has not meant a unilinear and inexorable shift to
a market system, for tourism remains a bricolage of collective, market,
and informal provision.
Fleischer and Felsenstein84 have studied that the promotion of
small-scale tourism is intuitively perceived as a suitable forms of
economic development for rural areas. However, its impact is
controversial and not always obvious. To examine these issues, they have
presented an empirical analysis of public support to small-scale tourism
enterprises in rural areas in Israel. Using the tools of cost-effectiveness
and cost-benefit analysis, public assistance for this type of activity is
shown to be able to generate considerable returns. Methodological issues
in this kind of analysis are also discussed and are presented the policy
implications arising with respect to the suitability of different forms of
tourism activity in rural area.
Jithendran and Baum85 pointed out human resources development
for tourism in India has a very recent origin and suffers from lack of
a strategic approach. The sustainability oriented development of Indian
tourism would require HRD strategies focusing on sustainability based
84
85
A. Fleischer and D. Felsenstein. “Support for rural tourism does it make a
difference?” Annals of Tourism Research. 27 (4) (2000): 1007-1024.
K.J. Jithendran and T. Baum. “Human resources development and
sustainability – The case of Indian tourism.” International Journal of
Tourism Research. 2 (2000): 403-421.
63
industry practices, tourism development, value systems and behavioral
patterns among all the stakeholders. The important target groups in such
an approach would be the tourism industry personnel, the host community
and the tourists.
Introduction of tourism at the school level on a more
extensive basis throughout the country, provision of vocational and
professional courses based on the assessment of actual skill requirements
on the industry, streamlining of the tourism education at the university
level, especially in terms of course contents, delivery and industry
responsiveness are some of the strategies to be adopted by the India
tourism for HRD at the pre-employment level. Co-operation and
communication between the education and industry in development and
delivery of education and training, and establishment of systems to
provide education and training available at the local level to equip people
in remote and marginal level to equip people in remote and marginal areas
are also equally important.
Cleverdon and Kalisch86 have explored that the tourism as an
industry is increasing rapidly in developing countries. Due to historical
inequality in global trading relationships on the basis of ‘core-periphery’
dependency globalization and liberalized free trade, mainstream mass
tourism reinforces the social and economic disadvantages of southern
destinations. The ‘Fair Trade Movement’ has sought to redress unequal
trading by promoting fait trade in commodities with small producers in
the South, enabling them to take control over the production and
86
R. Cleverdon and A. Kalisch. “Fair trade in tourism.” International
Journal of Tourism Research. 2 (2000): 171-187.
64
marketing process and challenging the power of transnational corporation.
They have examined the feasibility of fair trade in tourism. It explores the
obstacles and opportunities that might lead to establishing a definition of
fair trade in tourism, incorporating criteria that would be workable and
practical for both partners in the South and North.
Evans87 has studied the tourism policy in London in the context of
local environmental plans and control government policy for tourism and
hotel development. Rationales for local authority tourism policies are
assessed in relation to city-level planning imperatives and local land-use
plan formulation. A comparative analysis of borough development plans
and the treatment of tourism is based on a survey of London’s 33 unitary
authorities. He presents a World City case study of urban tourism from the
position of the environmental planning process and in the light of the
highly concentrated distribution of hotel provision and tourist activity in
London.
Li88 has found that many persuasions have recognized the
experiential features of geography, such as the consciousness arising from
the spatial and temporal bonds between people and places. Until recently,
however, tourism researchers have largely overlooked those features. In
partial
87
88
response
to
this
omission,
the
investigator
presents
G. Evans. “Planning for urban tourism: A critique of borough development
plans and tourism policy in London.” International Journal of Tourism
Research. 2 (2000): 307-326.
Y. Li. “Geographical consciousness and tourism experience.” Annals of
Tourism Research. 27 (4) (2000): 863-883.
65
a phenomenological exploration of leisure tourism experience. By
describing the lived experiences of Canadian and how geographical
consciousness influences the tourists’ experiences.
Baum and Hagen89 have studied that the issue of seasonality is well
documented in the tourism literature, particularly in relation to peripheral
regions of northern Europe and North America. The reasons for
significant variation on the demand-side are also well documented and
relate to climatic, demographic, lifestyle as well as structural or
institutional factors. A review of tourism development policies for most
peripheral tourism destination regions in the British Isles, Scandinavia and
Canada reveals ‘extending the season’ or ‘reducing the impact of
seasonality’ as a key objective. There has been very mixed success in
achieving this objective and, where it has been possible, other structural
factors within the economy or society (such as school vacation dates) have
impeded the impact of response.
Hashimoto90 has conducted a study on “comparative evolutionary
trends in environmental policy: reflections on tourism development.” As
tourism is an industry that involves the environment and natural resources,
its physical and social impacts have reached a point where they can be no
longer neglected. Numerous conferences and conventions have taken
89
90
Tom Baum and Laura Hagen. “Responses to seasonality: the experiences
of peripheral destinations.” International Journal of Tourism Research. 1
(1999): 299-312.
A. Hashimoto. “Comparative evolutionary trends in environmental policy:
Reflections on tourism development.” International Journal of Tourism
Research. 1 (1999): 195-216.
66
place, and the tourism industry has initiated not only intellectual
campaigns, but also action programmes, the tourism industry and its
“environmentally friendly” movement, however, do not stand on their
own; they are often influenced by national environmental policies. In this
study, the current national environmental policies of Britain, Germany,
China, Taiwan and Japan are summarized and differences in their
respective emphases are highlighted along with the resulting implication
for tourism.
Welford et al.91 have criticized some of the literature and guidance
provided for businesses considering responses to the environmental
aspects and impacts of their tourist activities. It concentrates on the role of
individual business organizations within the tourism industry and
examines both supply-side (production) and demand-side (consumption)
policies. In its review of a number of guidelines the study attempts to
make recommendations for improving both the provision of tourism
services through supply chain management and destination management,
and the education of the consumer in ways which make tourism more
consistent with the concept of sustainable development. This emphasizes
the need for businesses involved in tourism provision not only to look at
the supply side and the demand side of their activities but also to provide
stronger signals between the two parts so that more meaningful progress is
made towards sustainable tourism. It places considerable emphasis on the
role of intermediaries in bridging the gap between demand and supply.
91
R. Welford et al., “Tourism and sustainable development: An analysis of
policy and guidelines for managing provision and consumption.”
Sustainable Development. 7 (1999): 165-177.
67
Carlsen92 have argued that the tourism destination management is
an increasingly competitive and complex business involving the
coordination of economic, social and geographic elements within
a designated tourist area. Traditional research in tourism destination
management has tended to use a reductionist approach in order to monitor
certain flow variables (visitor numbers, expenditure) or to measure
discrete relationships between variables (tourist expenditure and
employment, visitor numbers and social impacts). The limitations of this
approach in research are now becoming apparent, as tourism development
impinges on many elements within a destination, and a new approach to
research in tourism destination management is needed.
A systems approach to tourism management in small island tourist
destinations (less than one million population) using soft systems
methodology (SSM) is discussed. It is envisaged that SSM would best be
applied to management of island tourism destinations because it can
accommodate social and environmental process, as well as economic
factors that have been the foci of previous research. Furthermore, it is
argued that the tourism system is an open system in that it responds to
change in social, natural and economic factors and is evolving toward an
increasing state of complexity.
92
Jack Carlsen. “A systems approach to Island tourism destination
management.” Systems Research and Behavioral Science. 16 (1999): 321327.
68
Hall93 has raised several conceptual questions concerning the actual
and symbolic representations of inequality and differentiation expressed in
leisure and tourism mobility which have significance for members of host
communities visited, transport and land use planning in host areas, tourists
and the tourism industry. Within this framework, the article explores two
sets of conceptual issues which are positioned at the interface of transport
and tourism. First, transport has the potential to act as a gate keeper to
culture contact, constraining or encouraging host-tourists interaction.
Second, the role of tourist mobility at a local level can be critical for
issues of inequality and externality effects. The substantial tourism
impacts literature has only occasionally addressed social dimensions of
leisure transport’s external costs, and the transport geography literature
has rarely acknowledged the differentiation of tourists and non-tourists
competing for transport and transport space. It is included that transport
and land-use planners need to recognize and respond to tourism’s
externalities and their implications for inequality and sustainability issues.
Hall94 has studied a limited number of analyses undertaken on
tourism development and post-socialist processes of restructuring in
Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), most attention has been paid to the
more advanced societies of Central Europe. By contrast, Europe’s less
developed and relative unstable south-eastern corner, where tourism
development issues may take on a different complexion, has been
93
94
Derek R. Hall. “Conceptualising tourism transport: inequality and
externality issue.” Journal of Transport Geography. 7 (1999): 181-188.
Derek R. Hall. “Tourism development and sustainability issues in central
and south-eastern Europe.” Tourism Management. 19 (5) (1998): 423-431.
69
relatively neglected. Within this context, tourism’s role in post-socialist
restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe is examined, reflecting on
issues of mass tourism and niche segregation. Rural tourism is examined
as a vehicle for sustainable development in South-eastern Europe, and
some of the paradoxes facing issues of sustainability in tourism
development are examined in relation to recent development processes.
With a dynamic mix of mass and niche markets to target, the potential of
rural tourism development in South-Eastern Europe continues to be
constrained by regional instability.
Singh95 has suggested that the steps taken by the government to
increase the foreign tourist traffic to India include vigorous publicity
campaigns with emphasis on consumer advertising, setting up of public
relations with overseas media agencies, tour operator and travel agencies
promotion of special interest tourism and marked India in segments
launching off season schemes and promotional schemes, development of
infrastructural facilities of transport systems including charter traffic etc.
Dorairajan96 has said that the most important economic benefit of
tourism is the earnings of foreign exchange. The receipts from
international tourism provide a valuable source of earnings for many
countries both developed as well as developing. The importance of
earnings for developed counties is however, much more than those for
95
96
K. Singh, Fifty Year of India Tourism Policy. New Delhi: Kanishka
Publishers and Distributors (1998): 26.
N. Dorairajan, “Projections – Prospects and Problems.” National Seminar
on 9th Five Year Plan, December 11-13, 1997, p.96.
70
developed countries. Although tourism is sensitive to the level of
economy activity in the tourist generating countries, it provides more
stable earnings than being provided by primary products. The income
from tourism has tended to increase at a higher rate then merchandise
export in a number of countries. There is now almost an assumed channel
of financial flows from the richer countries to the not so richer, raising the
lather’s export earnings and rate of economic growth.
Johnson97 has reviewed some of the developments which, since
1989, have taken place in the tourism industry of the two republics which
make up the former Czechoslovakia. These developments are placed in
their political, economic and institutional context. The focus is on foreign
visitors and inward tourists. The problems of data availability are noted
and evidence is provided indicating the overwhelming significance of
non-staying excursionists and the relatively short duration of stays made
by tourists. The dominance of Prague as a destination is indicated. Visitor
characteristics, popular destinations and the problems facing the tourism
industry are discussed. Tourist visitors to the republics are likely to
continue to be the rather more specialized interest groups. Policies are
needed to improve infrastructure, promote the integration of tourist
services, maintain visitor numbers and encourage guests to stay longer,
visit additional locations and increase their spending.
97
M. Johnson. “Czech and Slovak tourism.” Tourism Management. 16 (1)
(1995): 21-28.
71
Godfrey98 reported that the Human Settlements Committee of the
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe held its 18th Meeting of
Experts on Human Settlements Problems in Southern Europe in Nicosia,
Cyprus, 6-8 June 1994. The key theme of discussion concerned the
problems and prospects of planning for sustainable tourism in
Mediterranean countries. Conference delegates were primarily national
government officials concerned with the planning and management of
natural and human habitats in their respective countries.
Sen99 who undertook the study on behalf of ICRIER, has argued
that the economic cost of providing accommodation alone would far out
weight the gross benefits of mass tourism not taking into account the
deleterious effects of mass tourism on environment and local culture. On
the other hand, it was found that five star deluxe hotels employ per room
merely 60 per cent of the persons that would be employed in the four or
three star hotels. Sen, therefore has concluded that the employment effect
of mass tourism would be only about 33 per cent higher than that of elite
tourism.
98
99
Kerry B. Godfrey. “Planning for sustainable tourism development in the
med.” Tourism Management. 16 (3) (1995): 243-245.
P. Sen. The future of international Tourism: with reference to India.
Working Paper No.26.