1. family and parenting

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Redefining the Role of Altruism in Shaping Household Development
KapouMalakar
Assistant Professor
Department of Mass Communication and Journalism
School of Humanities and Social Sciences
Tezpur University
Napaam, Tezpur Assam
India
Abstract
The paper examines the current challenges to households in the face of post-material neo-liberal
society. The paper also discusses the structural changes in the family which bear impact on the
problematic aspects of children, young and the aged one in households. Family nurtures an
individual, creates and maintains emotional bonding and helps socialization. Household altruism
is found declining in the gradual waning of traditional household economy for the existence of
joint utility function and for the distribution of household income. This has resulted new challenges
to elderly people, adolescents and women members of households. The paper, while examining
the communication technology induced change to society, observe the level of change and
intervening agents of change, in line with current issues and challenges to women, elderly and
adolescents. The paper examines the complex relationship among the identified variables such as
household altruism and use of mobile phone technology, education and longing for liberty. It
emerges from the study that there isno direct co relation between education and longing for liberty,
however, the possession of mobile phone can lead to increasing desire for emancipation among
the members of households.
Keywords: Household Development, Altruism, Mobile Phone, Indian Family System, Neo
Liberal Challenges, Family Composition and Trends, Housewives and Working Wives,
Adolescents in Family , Elderly Needs, Household Economy, Women Issues
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Introduction
The family in India is understood as an ideal homogenous unit that is bound by interpersonal
relationship of the members within in parallel to a wider network of class (Manor J. 1997),
ethnicity (Goulbourne, H. and Solomos, J. 2003), caste (Sahay GR, 2004, Senart E. 1930) etc.
Family is central to Indian culture, a means to provide physical, emotional and moral safeguard
(Horden, P. and Smith, R.M. 1998) to the family members, to uphold and defend family values
and norms from the interference of external socio- economic and political forces.A family has
command over the human resources in households and it is through which family can influence
the community development.
The link between human development and family is inalienable and this link becomes more toned
up when family works for the health, education, survival and protection of an individual. Family
nurtures an individual, creates and maintains emotional bonding and helps socialization (Shangle,
S. 1995).
The institutional structure of the family is reflected in the existence of hierarchy and the degree of
influence and authority that the family exercises over the members in the midst of bond that ties
the individual to his or her family.The family is the first network in which a newborn is integrated
and it extends its relational capabilities to the community assist to identity formation in and through
given networks, and by our voluntary commitment to others. Relational capability stresses on the
quality and quantity of relationships among people generated through social networking. Mobile
phone is viewed as an item of club commodities(Coleman, 1988; Jackson and Wolinsky, 1996)
considering the networking capacity. Infinite value of mobile phone is reflected prominent when
household members talk to other ten to twenty peopleinstead of simply owning a mobile phone.
Overview of Family Trends and Composition in India
According to the statistics of Ministry of Home Affairs, Social Studies Division, 1991 the total
population of India is 846 million and they are lived in 152 million households. Households in
India are grouped into rural and urban categories where numbers of rural households’ counts for
112 million and 40 million are recorded as urban households. 43% of the all rural based families
live below the poverty line and almost half of the urban poor families live in slums (Gulati, 1995).
According to Census of India, 1981, Indian families constitute largely of nuclear families with
joint families forming about a fifth of the total households (Census of India, 1981).Around 46 %
households are found as belong to nuclear type while 27 % households are found as belong to joint
type as per census survey of 1992-93. In the preponderance of joint family system, the female
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headed households were quite an uncommon phenomenon, however, about 10 percent of all the
households are reportedly headed by women (National Family Health Survey, 1994).The
phenomenon of female-headed household represents change in authority structure within the
family characterized by the absence of husbands either byseparation or death,by transfer in job or
by swelling migration of men for employment (Mullatti, 1992 ).
An alternative pattern in the Indian family system has been noticed over the last fifteen
yearsasfamilies of single parent, families headed byfemale, familiesof dual earners and childless
families have been conspicuous (Skolnick & Skolnick 1980).
The changes existing demographic characteristics and socio-economic-political-cultural milieu of
the society have influenced the structural changes in family. As a result, the family members, their
roles and relationships along with accompanying values has been re-configured. The joint family
has been a preferred type of family in Indian culture(Gupta, 1978) because of its participatory
nature which has been gradually replaced by the modified extended family.
A modified extended family leaves enough scope to ensure close interaction between parents and
married children even if married children does not live together with parents rather live in close
proximity to their parents (Singh, 2004). There are families with separate houses where married
sons or daughters, brothers run a common business and meet regularly during family rituals.
Examples of these functionally joint families are found in urban business communities than in
rural areas.
In SonitpurDistrict,patriarchal authority is found to vary among families, with the existence of
both ‘traditional’ patriarchal patterns and modified patriarchal forms of authority as influenced by
male’s education, occupation and income. The concept of joint family has been redefined in rural
India due to the absence of large land holdings in rural India where households based on agriculture
find difficulties to continue with joint families.
As compared to 1981 census, the pattern of change in different family types in urban areas is
almost the same as in the rural areas in 1992-93. As compared to urban areas, the number of single
member households in rural areas are less proportionate to urban areas. Migration to urban places
in search of job, settlement for job has made it obvious to have a single stay for quite a longer time.
Families with having no adult employed members tend to be the vulnerable most when
gratification of common basic needs are concerned. Jobless families cannot enjoy the basic civil
and political rights fullflegedly due to their economic disadvantages than families with
employment. Although hereditary occupation has no existence in India, then, the children of
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unemployed families are ended up being jobless themselves and likely to be the worst sufferer and
the victim of socio-economic inequality. In 2011, number of jobless families with children under
15 years counts 14% whereas number of one-parent jobless families with children under 15 years
counts for 45% (Census report, 2011).
Current Neo-liberal Challenges to Households/ Families
Neo liberal Indian families witnessed many evils such as increasing divorce and separation rates,
domestic violence, inter-generational conflicts, social problems of drug abuse, juvenile
delinquency etc. (Singh, 2004).These problems have weaken a family to cope with the pressures
of the modern life that are manifested more in cities and in urban spaces than in rural areas.
However, potential incidences of divorce, separation, drug abuses and juvenile delinquencies are
observed in rural society also. Despite the accelerating pace of urbanization and economic growth,
the basic civic facilities such as education, health, sanitation, infrastructure, transport and
communication are still lacking in both rural and urban areas in India.
Urbanization and modernization demands fluidity and flexibility in family system by booting out
the traditional hierarchal authority structure. However, occupation at a distance and being away
from geographical proximity have not altered the sense of support and togetherness among
members of the family. In the face of such post-material neo-liberal social challenges, the majority
of households seem to have survived and have modified, adjusted and adapted to changing social
norms, values and structures (Becker & Tomes,1986). Modifications in the traditional Indian
family system represent adaptation to socio-economic and personal circumstances is necessary for
survival of the family as a social unit in the face of neo-liberal political-economic forces.
The new form of family demands frequent visits of the family members away from home to family
festivals and encourages involvement and participation of all family events such as births,
marriages, deaths, and festival celebrations and so on. Thus, the family encourages and demands
the monetary aid and support in childcare and household chores from its members.
On the other hand, post-independence years was characterized by many legislation concerning the
Indian family although this legislations have gone through prolonged and bitter debate at times[2].
A legislation, Hindu Succession Act was passed in 1956 (Pylee, 1979) gave a woman member of
the householdfull ownership to the hereditary rights over household’s property.
Economic liberalization has increased competition among rural families. Increased competition
has demanded efficiency, increased productivity, sustainable production systems and quality
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control. Simultaneous development is witnessed in widespread education, training and extension
services to prepare rural women for the "free" market. Market predilection for profit has aided to
eliminate socio-cultural constraints to women's work and productivity, and dismantled legal
barriers to women's access to and control over resources such as inheritance of land, access to
financial services and credit etc. The gradual progression of information society emphasized on
the necessity to know the information needs of and by the rural women as well as the household
combined with the information services which enables rural women and households to increase
productivity.
Current Issues of Women Members in Households
Support and involvement of women in household and their contribution to national economic
development has usually been misrepresented driven by the societal discriminatory tendency based
on the division of labor by sex. In the male –female division of household task, female participation
in the household economy through the performance of domestic task, related to food preparation,
concern of health and wellbeing the household members and maintaining a clean and healthy
environment for survival of the household are not quantified in monetary terms. The ILO definition
of labor force and its contribution to the economy do not account for people who are not engaged
full time in paid work. In fact, women, children and old people who perform majority of household
activities are excluded from the ILO defined labor force.
Increasing numbers of men and women are willing to establish themselves in the labor market than
to make a family. Female educational attainment and participation of women in labor force has
increased over the last three years (OCED report, 2011). Moreover, the probability of having fewer
children than previous generations is observed more when the mother gave the first childbirth at a
higher age. Number of families remained childless have increased.
The drop in the fertility rate over the past three decades across the countries leads to decline the
average household size over this period. The fallen birth rates and the increased life expectancy
lead to alter the family formation with more grandparents and fewer children are seen in the
households than before.
The financial costs of raising children including affordable housing to establish a family, concern
for providing all the means and comfort to children to meet their needs affect the fertility behavior
of the parents. Inflexible labor market often put condition because of which reconciliation of work
and care commitments is tough for a family at a time. As a result the fertility behavior is
constrained. A large gender gap is found to exist in employment and earnings. According to OECD
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report, one in eight children, on average lives in relative poverty. Households without children can
make a larger income gain as stated by the household survey findings. On the other hand, mother’s
participation in labor market would have limited effect on the relative child poverty rate due to the
increase of total household income.
Increased maternal employment has contributed to material wealth among families with children.
Employment among young women graduates was higher in 2011-12 than in 2009-10 (NSS, 2012).
In 2012, working women’scontributionto their family income has increased in comparison to
women’s earnings accounted for the families’ total income during 1980s (Ramu, 1988).
Family Influences on Adolescents
Female task related to child care and the socialization process aids to ensure that the household as
a social unit works not only for the current generation but also for the future generation as well.
Joint family can provide wider social and emotional support to the adolescents and help family
member’s personality integration which is absent for the children of nuclear families. Previous
studies on households suggested that factors such as home environment, parenting styles
(Kasesniemi&Rautiainen, 2002) and attachment relationships (Ling,2001) among members of the
households influence the emotional maturity of the adolescents of households.
The self-esteem of the adolescents in a family is positively associated with parental support
(Kaltiala-Heino, Rantanen, &Rimpela, 2000). In joint family system, there are more members in
the family adults advising young ones during their stressful period whereas such intimacy is not
found in nuclear family.
There are studies which argue the ability of fixed telephone to be a powerful means of
communication between fathers and their children in the context of ‘broken’ homes (Beck & BeckGernsheim, 1995;Castelain-Meunier, 1997; Ling&Helmersen, 2000). The mobile phone can
strengthen the parent-child relationships (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 1995). There is no legally
binding age in India to respond to the controversy regarding the age when should children in a
household be allowed to use a mobile phone. About twelve is the age when young people made
more social connections with their peers outside of family activities (Skelton, 1989). Ling and
Helmersen (2000) relate the need of a mobile phones for a child of 12-13 years old who enters
adolescence with increasing mobile literacy. The argument for owning a mobile phone for many
pre-teens as provided by Ling is rooted in western logic of liberalism. Use of mobile phone by a
child of 12-13 years old not only reinforces the status of impending adolescence, but also provides
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a means to love desired life independent of family (Ling, 2000). In a study in Australia, Matthews
(2004) found that 57% of children and adolescents at the age of 13 -14 years own a mobile phone.
Methodology Applied
The primary objective of the study is to assess theneo-liberal socio-economic challenges to
households and to find out if the adoption of mobile phone technology contribute to shape
household altruism and relational capacity concurrently increasing autonomy of the members of
the household.
The study has employed mixed method approach that involves both quantitative and qualitative
study. The study is based on both primary and secondary sources. A ‘structured questionnaire’,
wasdesigned as an instrument for data collectionto elicit information on demographic and
psychographic aspects of the household respondents. The data is obtained through executing
questionnaire, during September 1st, 2013 to August 20th, 2014. The questionnaire includes
information on housing conditions, such as the source of water supply, type of toilet facility, land
owning by household, type of house, owning of communication and information technology etc.
The secondary data were collected mostly from government departments, books, journals,
newspapers etc.
Objectives
1. To evaluate thecurrent neo-liberal challenges to the structure of households and its effects
on the members of the family
2. To assess the relationship between mobile phone and enhanced relational capacity of the
user members of the household.
3. To assess the relationship between household altruism and participation of the membersin
household economy and its subsequent income generations mediated by the use of mobile
phone
Population and variables of the Survey:
Multistage simple random sampling is used in choosing population.Three different methodologies
have been employed in this project: survey method, focus group discussion and personal interview.
The composition of household is determined by various socio-economic elements identified
variables : (1) Educational level of the head of family: (Illiterate, Literate-up to Primary, Middle
complete, High school and above); (2) Place of Residence (Urban, Rural); and (3) Sex and
occupation of the head of family (Male, Female); (4) Landowning Status (Yes, No); (5) Ages of
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the members of family (less than 35 years, 36-60 years and above 60);(6) Size of family
(Small;Nuclear family of 1-3 members, Medium- Nuclear family of 4-6 members, Semi-Largejoint type of family of 7-9 members, Large- joint extended family of 10 and above. The variables
are identified on the basis of the literature review and previous empirical findings.The paper
examines the complex relationship among the identified variables such as household altruism and
use of technology, education and longing for liberty.
The questionnaire is distributed among40 households of 14 selected villages from 14 development
blocks of Sonitpur District, two wards of Guwahati Metro.Overall sample size from development
block are 640 households. Women and elderly folk of households in Sonitpur District and in
Guwahati are separately interviewed on their interest in information need and the use of mobile
phone technology.
Information sources in households are measured by the possession of various communication
technology such as TV, radio, computer, internet, newspaper, mobile phone etc. This is
accompanied by the attitude of the members of the household towards the awareness of events in
their surrounding and the interest of the household members to get informed or to participate in
such events. Higher possession of number of communication technologies in a household makes
obvious co-relationship with higher information needs of the concerned household. Higher the
needs for information, higher the capability of the members of the households. Nevertheless, the
need is no longer separated from the affordability and status seeking attitude of the respondent
members of the household. Altruism found in household is not negatively related to increased
autonomy of the members of households.
Empirical Reflection of ‘Altruism’inHousehold Economy and Relationships
The concept of altruism has been developed further by Gary Becker (1981), who defines it as the
positive dependence of one person's utility function on the wellbeing of another person. Becker
concludes that altruism is a sufficient condition for the existence of a joint utility function,
although, at times, conflicts may arise over the distribution of household income (Becker, G., 1981
& Tomes, N. 1986). Becker also established the co relation between the total income of the
household and the intra household altruism-wealth.
The percentage of households that own land and farm their own land have been declined in the
pretext of capitalist induced development which is portrayed by the survey responses of the
households. Those households with declining ownership of lands have gradually shifted to the
wage labor.
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However, there are few cases where the household economy is still based on older male ownership
and control of land, where older people wield considerable bargaining power. Increasing
landlessness among farm families diminishes the relative value of parental assets. On the other
hand, the potential market employment is opened by the capitalist development in society makes
many children less economically dependent upon inheritance of parental properties. However, this
transformation declines the actual income flows from adult children to parents although altruism
in the family continues to provide family members with certain amount of security and protection
against risk.
Neo classical theorist implies that the degree of dictatorship and the degree of altruism in the family
remain constant over time. This may affect the relative role of women and children in household
decision making. The head of the household is the titular head possess the sovereign power within
the family and the primary decider of altruism in households.
Parental authority over young children is determined by a framework of altruistic dictator who
decides upon household roles and duties. Since children are not capable of making decisions until
they reach a certain age, decisions are often made in the children’s interest by parents. However,
23 years old young children in a household who are capable of making independent decisions are
often expected to contribute to the household's joint utility function. Children's earning capacities
can have significant influence to household’s wealth. Children in nuclear, semi-nuclear families
can make significant contribution to their parents' income as they do not have to take the burden
of having large families of their own. In rural and urban Assam, although the age trend is more or
less subtle, it is found that children of age of 25 to 34 can positively contribute to household income
than the Children between the ages of 16 to 24.
Children living outside the household don’t usually function as an altruistic one and any income
flows from the adult members living outside the family will be determined partly by the concerned
adult member’s own preferences.
In a joint family, children have multiple parents and many adult figures to emulate, whereas in a
nuclear family, a child has a limited set of adult models. However, sense of personal bond with
the parents, scope of developing self-identity varies across types of families.
Sense of
independence and added responsibilities of children have less co-relation with the type of families
- joint and nuclear.
Neo liberal economy which is based on information imposes more on the children of households
to acquire technical skills, information processing skills.
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The neoclassical approach emphasized on the economic explanation of behavior of the household
members rather than a simple description of tastes, preferences, cultures, or traditions in
households. It is difficult to aggregate the individual household member’s tastes and preferences
with a household’s joint utility functions. In the similar way larger social utility function can hardly
reduce to individual utilities. However, single converged device mobile phone can translate social
utility function into individual utility function, hence, in a joint family set up too, it helps to
understand and to gratify the individual needs and preferences. However, Increase in women's
influence on household decisions clearly represents changes in joint utility functions.
The Need of the Aged in Family
Survey responses suggest that the aged continue to be the head of the household even after his
retirement from work (self- employed/government or private employed) and are consulted on vital
household decisions even if it is a token gesture. The family as well as neighborhood, and the
community extend help in the socio-psychological well-being of the aged.
The age-grade hierarchical system of joint family, elderly people are respected and have the
authority. However, the sense of loyalty and reverence towards their elders has changed for
younger generation of late. Technology has allowed a horizontal communication among the
younger and elder members of a family which has replaced submissiveness, deference of young to
elderly by assertiveness, friendliness and love among the household members.
Increased urbanization has adversely affected the family and particularly the aged in rural areas.
Older generation lost the support of their children due to migration of the younger adults of the
family to towns and to foreign countries. Older generation is reluctant to migrate along with their
children. The obvious reasons count for shortage of housing facilities in towns and of imaginary
difficulty of the aged in adjusting to the new life style and not willing to leave live in their homes
where they have been living throughout their lives.
The traditional role of a women as a caregivers (Blau& Kahn,2007) to the children and the oldies
in the family, however, have transformed with gradually increasing women labor force work
outside the household. As a result, old aged people in households are taking up the responsibilities
of caring for the grandchildren, and managing for themselves.
Elderly people are experienced most, however, psychologically vulnerable because of their
experience of the stage of transition from independence to interdependence to total dependence.
Experiencing and feeling dependent after a fulfilling independent life produces stress and strain to
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the old generation. Elderly widows are compelled to depend upon children or on others. The usual
traditional obligation of male children of the households over their parents have also changed and
daughters are found coming forward to assume the responsibilities of parents.
However, Information and communication technology, especially mobile phone services can be
helpful to the elderly people to overcome the crisis of dependency with its aid to stay independent.
Mobile phone is proved to be useful for the well-being of old people in order to maintain
relationship with his or her family members and as a means to have a safety net both in relation to
health and personal security.
The state has been entrusted with certain duties towards the elderly person under the framework
of constitutional provision. Accordingly, elderly people in India can secure the right to education,
to work and to public assistance if unemployed, old aged, sick and disabledor undeserved by other
means, right to claim maintenance from his or her children(Pylee, 1979).
Discussion
The composition of the surveyed households varies across the villages, however, households in
Sonitpur District is largely traditional, extended but less joint conjugal. There are single-parent
families, isolated from kin and ‘female households’, where mother is the only breadwinner with a
little support from friends and relatives. Households can expect likely support from the community
members based on the relationship with neighborhood and village community.
Household members are found to use cell phone for the purposes such as formal and official
information searching, research, and reading news. Use of mobile internet for information seeking
purpose, of late, has been popular in rural Sonitpur district. These users members of households
mostly belong to the age bracket of 18 to 40 years and use smart phone converged with internet
technology for email and chatting with friends, colleague and relatives.
Survey findings also suggest the proposition of income in household and the income earned from
primary and secondary occupation. It is found that 40% of total households surveyed are engaged
in formal occupation and 60% of them are found to engage in informal sector activities.
Survey findings on the ratio of income earned from primary and secondary occupation bring out
that 40 percent of total households are found in 20:80 and 20 percent of total households fall in
40: 60 while 60 percent is from 50:50. Household income per month is the indicator of economic
prosperity of the household. The survey findings bring out that total income of some households
rest in 15000-20000 from the primary sector. However, income from the secondary sources add
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another 6000 in the household and the contributor of this amount is mostly the women and young
folk in the household.
Cell phone helps to reduce travel time and monetary costs; decrease physical risks; and accomplish
any task related journey. Increased temporal accessibility enables people to manage several
activities regardless of their physical location. Mobile phones can enable the adult members of
households to draw complex interactions and coordination between different portfolio of income
sources and geographically distant productive activities, thus, allow rural households to engage in
many activities simultaneously which can further be translated into improved income earning and
cost savings.
Almost half (49 percent) of the total household heads positively assured that mobile phone usage
has improved coordination of rituals, festivals such as marriage, funerals, religious activities and
other social functions. Coordination of social events is mostly achieved through sending short
messages to multiple recipients. Use of mobile phone reduces time and monetary costs associated
with the coordination of social activities. Mobile communication is used to enrich the social capital
in the common, shared and collective cultural ambience of the village societies. In fact, mobile
usage has made the monetary transaction become speedier.
In rural Sonitpur District, mobile phones enable the members of the households to cut down travel
costs and maximize the positive outcomes of necessary journeys. Mobile phone amplifies
efficiency in activities by increasing temporal accessibility and saving time and money thus, enable
prompt communication in any business-related activities.
Another important use of mobile phone is getting support during emergencies. There are many
households use mobile phones to report crime to police and warn other villagers and co-ordinate
meetings to find out a resolution to any community problem. Since there is a lack of necessary
social services in many rural areas, mobile phones can be used to seek for help during urgent
situations. The phones were also used to consult distant veterinarians in case of livestock problems.
In the surveyed villages, participants of households reported that events of maternal mortality have
dropped compared to previous years after the use of cell phone which facilitates speedy and
instantaneous communication to hospital.
Around 65percent of women members of the households are found to use mobile phone to make
invitations to relatives and friends on the occasions and 60 percent of surveyed women are found
to use mobile phone to communicate with children’s school teachers.
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40 percent of total women members of surveyed households are mostly marginal women workers
in the villages. These womenhave been using the mobile phone to communicate with clients,
suppliers or producers belonging to associations, which indicates a connection with marketing
decisions. 35 percent of total women of the surveyed households are farmers and are found to use
the mobile phone to obtain information about crop or livestock production. This indicates the
connection of women members of the households with production decisions. It has made it evident
thatrelational capability has been improved with the use of the mobile phone which has resulted
benefits in business and earning of income.
Mobile phone ownership provides improved access to health, education, business and employment
prospects for households after they are being connected. Women surveyed across low and middleincome households in Sonitpur District believe that a mobile phone helps them to connect with
others it their needs and to lead a more productive and secured life. Women business owners in
particular perceive the phone as an essential productivity tool which has supported them to unlock
economic opportunities, with more than half saying they have used a mobile phone to earn
additional income. 85 percent of women state that they have started feeling more independent with
a mobile phone, however, the amount of time they spent in household has not reduced. It is also
found that many women contribute to the respective household economy by selling their handicraft
products like mats, clothes etc.
The use of mobile phones has helped rural traders to find better market and to check out price
information, to make advance arrangements with suppliers and customers, to avoid unnecessary
travel thus, helps to save time and money. Enabling prompt communication of business
information, mobile phone can reduce costs and speed up transaction processes, thus, improve
rural businesses.
Survey findings show that rural women who are working outside home, in farms and other
enterprises have considered mobile phones as a tool to improve their standard of living. Nearly all
working women in household own a mobile phone. After owning a mobile phone rural women can
easily find a part time employment or engagement for them to stand on their feet or to generate
additional income for household. Farmer’s households are found using mobile phones to improve
farming practices and maximize the sale of their goods.
The level of spending on mobile phone suggests surveyed many households give huge worth to a
mobile phone. Every households in rural and urban areas including BPL (Below Poverty line)
householdstoo even own at least mobile phone. Women members of surveyed households fall in
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the income bracket of Rs.1500 to 3000 are relatively hesitant to keep a mobile phone in their
custody are of late found to be motivated to purchase and to own a phone to primarily stay
connected with friends and family members. These women spends almost 10 percent of their
monthly household income on average on the mobile phone services which has embraced the
return ofenhancingrelational capability, autonomy, thus maintain the function of shaping of
altruism in household.
Within the family, the adoption of the mobile phone has meant to change power and control in the
parent-child relationship by allowing more autonomy to childrenandby helping parents to minutely
co-ordinatedaily life. Survey negates thepotential negative impact of the adoption of mobile phone
on family relationships.
The challenges in the co-ordination and communication between parents and children after owning
a mobile phone are apparent in surveyed households. Many parents report about the event of
conflicts between adolescents and themselves on the payment of mobile phone bill. 27 percent of
young people reported that they were unable to contact their parents urgently mainly because they
were out of credit. 6 percent of parents of the surveyed have no idea about the mobile phone bill
of their dependent children and how do their children manage to pay off the bill. While 30 percent
of the children or the students do not know about their bill per month as the entire expenses are
bore by parents. Remaining 42 percent of the children report their accountability of owning a
mobile phone to parents, thus, inform parents about the bill and a few uses of phone.
About 12 percent of the parents are conscious about the perceived danger of obsessive use of
mobile phone considering the most obvious sleeping disorder. Many parents dismiss the use of
mobile phone as punishment and some set a common rule for children having mobile phone by
not allowing to keep mobile phone with children at night considering the sleeping issue. Many
youth are reportedly being awakened every night by a text message or voice call.
Changes in Household Structure and Its Implications in Parent-Child
Relationships
The young and adolescents belonging to nuclear families are found confident compared to that
ofjoint family. Majority of the adolescents in joint family are seen suffered from lower levels of
self-confidence and this is expressed through their inhibition in taking decisions, hesitation in
starting new jobs, confused state, feeling of rejection and insecurity, discouragement, frustrations
and maladjustments towards life.
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As compared to joint families, children or youth of nuclear families are encouraged to function in
an individualized manner, take initiative, and act independently. Since adolescents must spend
time daily in their daily family environment, it is one of the most fundamental and central
environment in their lives. But, high load of work, lack of independence results lower level of
confidence.
In joint families, although no significant gender difference on emotional security and emotional
maturity is observed yet the males show a higher level of emotional security. The importance and
priority the young male receive in a joint family make them emotionally more secured. Many
parents are overprotective to their daughters driven by safety and security which makes young girls
dependent and unsecured than young male. Female children in joint families are encouraged to
develop the qualities of emotional maturity such as adaptability, flexibility and sense of
responsibility which is found less in nuclear families.
The communication between parents and children is vertically one sided where children are
expected to listen, respect, and obey their parents in the traditional Indian family. More than
encouraging for independence in thought, action, or behavior, jointly sharing of responsibilities
are mostly sought after from young adolescents in the family. The desire for emancipation and
liberation from family are found among many urban young adolescents who have undergone the
stress and trauma in the absence of privacy. The education and longing for liberty has no corelation but media exposure is found a relation to the increasing desire for emancipation.
Use of mobile phone technology has transformed the traditional notion of parental authorityas
mediated through face to face negotiation. Parents exert a certain degree of mediated control over
children in public space by the giving permission to usemobile phone. Phone oriented technology
such as location tracking, texting, and phoning help parents to keep track of their children. This
has established the practice of “remote mothering” as cited by Geser (2004) in his study.
Mobile phone allows parents the space and freedom to do their job,simultaneously performing the
duty of child rearing by keeping their children in instant notice (Davie,Panting, & Charlton 2004).
One of the most prominent reasons that parents want their children to possess mobile phone is for
safety reason. While the use of mobile phone allows young members of the family to extend their
freedoms, its use also expand parents’ control and authority over their children. Srivastava (2005)
argues that individual nature of mobile phone has weakened the collective identity of the family
especially when parents do not know what their children are doing with the mobile phone and who
the friend of their children are.
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Parents in many respondent households have expressed not to have any bindings or rules regarding
the use of mobile phone set for children who own a mobile phone. Many parents consider the
importance of binding rules on children on the uses mobile phone. Many parents oppose the
perceived altruism for household through mediated communication by the owning and using of
mobile phone. They are concerned about the negative consequences of allowing their child to
possess a mobile phone.
Unlike Net Safe survey in New Zealand (Net Safe, 2005), the concept of “pinched” money is not
applicable to the children of surveyed District of Assam, India.Ling (2000) argues in his study that
youth’s ability to earn the money and budget for their mobile phone has confirmed their adulthood
symbolically. Due to the familial custom in India, children before 21 years of age are not allowed
to contribute to household income if there is no compulsions driven by poverty.
Findings and Summary
Western civilization have come to view the family as a sanctuary of privacy and intimacy, a
‘heaven in a heartless world’ wherein outside authorities must not interfere. The contemporary
family fails to serve many welfare indicators, which demands the reassessment of the role and
aims of family policy. Family ‘failure’ is mounting as women’s conventional caring role reduces,
and intergenerational co-residence of family members has disappeared. Men have contributed
gradually to home production which may have an off-setting effect. But, it is seen that men are
unlikely to substitute fully for the decline in female domestic work.
Family below medium income cannot afford the services of commercial care. As women’s
revolution takes a matured turns, demand for child care and elderly care also inevitably grows
within a family.
Modern societies therefore face problems of cumulative welfare failure to the extent that neither
markets nor families are capable of responding adequately to social needs. Since the traditional
caring reservoir of non-employed older daughters is disappearing and since commercial residential
services are hugely expensive, care for the aging people in households have also diminished.
However, if women remain locked into familial care obligations, families and society also forgo a
potentially huge source of income. Continued adherence to a familialistic policy can lead to void
in welfare policy for the households and thus, bring adverse effects on economic efficiency of the
households.
The real challenge is to forge policies that enable families to attain their private wishes and
simultaneously, produce public goods. In early stages of modern welfare state was premised on
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familialism based on the assumption of the male breadwinner and female home-maker in family.
Contemporary changing scenario has compelled the welfare state to focus more income
maintenance with effective social service provision in favor of the children and frail elderly.The
welfare of families is therefore the mainspring of a well-functioning economy. Reasons for
efficiency in household productivity and equity in gender in households implies the welfare based
reform for household. Any social policy cannot be anathema to family formation by dropping the
fertility and the rise of childlessness especially among higher educated women.
The family remains a cornerstone of society and the challenge is to forge policies that support it.
To minimize the penalty of motherhood and to reconcile motherhood and careers, a ‘mother
friendly’ policy is required to suffice. The connected technology model prioritizes home help and
seeks to minimize the use of expensive outside residential care, however, any need for connected
technology and outside residential care is likely to correlate with social status. Social class brings
a huge differences in life expectancy by social class as the high income earners are likely to be
overrepresented as long-term care receivers. A fully financed or subsidized home as assisted by
government can meet the requirement of the family in the face of the absence of care mechanism.
The development of a household could be measured not only in income figures but also in greater
access to knowledge, better nutrition and health services, more secured livelihoods, security
against crime and physical violence, satisfying leisure hours, political and cultural freedom and a
sense of participation in community activities.
The co-relation between receptiveness to mobile phone and receptiveness to women’s participation
in workforce is found too prominent in the survey. Mobile phone can be a means to enrich family
life and family’s environment. Mobile phone can be an effective tool to disseminate and diffuse
information among family members and thus, be helpful in strengthening the family unit and to
promote child development. Mobile phone makes effective use of human resources and give value
for time. It introduced efficient work ethics. Mobile phone is perceived as a labor saving device
which is the main focus of household model to human development. Adoption of mobile phone
by all the members of the household represent pro-social attitude of the family. Access to and
owning mobile phone can increase connectivity among the household members, within or outside
the household and in between household and society. It will improve the reliability, trust and
confidence. Members of household can easily switch to multiple identities. Development is
possible through greater network society which overcomes the time and space.
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Adoption of mobile phone has changed the outcome of household economy, occupation and
employment, work ethics and practices in households and create new societal values and ideas.
Mobile phone adoption can ensure both human and non-human communication, interpersonal and
multimedia communication through which household members can aware of health and well-being
of family members, friends, and relatives.
Mobile phone can be a solution when there is little official support for protection against natural
disasters in rural areas - flooding, drought, erosion, fire. When there is lack of opportunities and
seasonal fluctuations in remunerative employment, cell phone can be a solution.
Adoption and effective use of mobile phone aids to reconstruct household values, imbibe new
gender discourses regarding women rights and gender equity, give visibility and transparency to
women abuses and injustice.
Human development quintessentially entails not only economic prosperity, but also leading a
healthy and learned life while enjoying guaranteed human rights, participatory rights and adequate
social, cultural and political freedom. The need for expansion and utilization of human capabilities
are also underscored in the human development paradigm.
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Endnotes:
[1] Two words ‘family’ and ‘household’ are used interchangeably in the paper
[2]Although Article 44 of the Constitution states that the State shall endeavor to secure for the citizens a
uniform civil code throughout the territory of India. Existed Secular family laws in India such as the Child
Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, Hindu Marriage Act of 1955; the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act,
1972; Special Marriage Act, 1974; Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, and provisions made in the Criminal
Procedure Code and Indian Penal Code(Pylee, 1979, p. 471).
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