1. health and fitness
2. therapy

Treatment of Adult
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Nicola Gökbuget and Dieter Hoelzer
In the early 1980s, adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia
(ALL) was a rarely curable disease with overall
survival < 10%. After adapting combinations employed by pediatric groups, the outcome improved to
30-40%. A period of stagnation followed with improvement only in distinct subgroups. In the past 5 years,
however, striking new developments have been
noticeable. Progress has been made in molecular
diagnostics of ALL. Improvements to standard
therapy including stem cell transplantation (SCT) have
occurred and a variety of new drugs for ALL are under
evaluation. Rapid diagnosis and classification of ALL
is increasingly important to identify prognostic factors
and molecular genetic subsets that will be the focus of
“targeted” therapies as we enter the era of subset
specific treatment. In the following review we will
discuss treatment of adult ALL (excluding elderly
patients,1 adolescents2 and patients with Ph/BCR-ABL
positive ALL3).
Standard Treatment of Adult ALL
In the past decade two basic types of prospective trials
have been reported in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia
(ALL) (Table 1). One is dedicated to comparative analysis
of the role of stem cell transplantation (SCT) with allogeneic SCT in all patients with sibling donors4,5,6,7; the other
group consists of studies focused on optimization of chemotherapy with SCT only for subgroups such as Philadelphia chromosome (Ph)-positive ALL8,9 or based on prognostic models.10-14 Complete response (CR) rates ranged
between 74% and 93% and the overall survival (OS) between 27% and 48%. No difference is evident for OS of
studies focused on SCT (N = 2696), with a weighted mean
of 84% for CR and 35% for OS,4-7 and studies with riskadapted approaches (N = 2443), with mean CR rate of 83%
and OS of 36%.10-14,8 Notably, only a few studies included
patients aged above 60 years.6,9-11,13
1-16 compared to 5% for an interrupted schedule (days 15,11-14) with corresponding CR rates of 76% and 82%.16
The most frequently used anthracycline is daunorubicin (DNR). One randomized study showed a diseasefree survival of 36% for DNR at 30 mg/m² compared to
30% for idarubicin (9 mg/m²) given weekly in induction.14
Many groups have replaced weekly applications by higher
doses of DNR (45-80 mg/m²) on subsequent days. Promising results of smaller trials have not always been reproduced. One possible reason is the increased hematologic
toxicity of these sequential daily dosing schedules. The
GIMEMA Study Group evaluated a previously published
regimen with high-dose anthracylines. The CR rate was
93% and event-free survival 55% in the originally published small population compared to 80% CR and 33% OS
in the larger GIMEMA multicenter trial.17 Thus, it remains
open whether intensified anthracyclines are beneficial for
all subgroups, particularly in terms of molecular remission,
and further trials are needed. The up-front application of
cyclophosphamide may be of benefit as well,8,18 although
this has not been confirmed in a randomized trial.19 The
majority of current studies in adult ALL include asparaginase during induction therapy, although total doses are
much lower than in pediatric trials. In induction asparaginase is often given parallel to steroids in patients with cytopenia and may induce additional toxicities such as coagulation disorders and hepatopathies, which are not predictable. Asparaginase may thereby lead to treatment delays and compromise dose intensity in individual patients.
Supportive care is of increasing importance during induction, including the concomitant application of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor throughout chemotherapy.8,16
Induction therapy
Standard induction of adult ALL includes at least a glucocorticoid, vincristine, an anthracycline and probably asparaginase. In response to pediatric results that show a decreased central nervous system (CNS) relapse rate and improved survival,15 prednisone is now being replaced by
dexamethasone. The dexamethasone schedule has to be
considered carefully since continuous application of higher
doses may lead to long-term complications such as avascular bone necrosis15 and to increased morbidity and mortality due to infections. The German Multicenter Study Group
(GMALL) observed in their pilot trial 06/99 an early mortality of 16% with dexamethasone 10 mg/m² given on days
Correspondence: Nicola Gökbuget, MD, J.W. Goethe University
Hospital, Med Dept II, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt,
Germany; Phone +49 (0)69 63016367; Fax +49 (0)69
63017463; Email [email protected]
Hematology 2006
Future options for induction therapy
With intensified induction in adult ALL the balance between efficacy and toxicity must be considered. Treatment133
Table 1. Results of large trials in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).*
Study
Year
Median Age
(Range)
SCT
CR Rate
Early
Death
Survival
1998
198
35 (16-83)
Ph+
85%
8%
40% (3 y)
LALA 87, France1
2000
572
33 (15-60)
PO
76%
9%
27% (10 y)
NILG 08/96, Italy7
2001
121
35 (15-74)
PR
84%
8%
48% (5 y)
CALGB 9111,
USA5
N
GMALL 05/93,
Germany8
2001
1163
35 (15-65)
PR
83%
n.r.
35% (5 y)
JALSG-ALL93, Japan2
2002
263
31 (15-59)
PO
78%
6%
30% (6 y)
UCLA, USA9
2002
84
27 (16-59)
PR
93%
1%
47% (5 y)
Sweden10
2002
153
42 (16-82)
PR
75%
n.r.
28% (5 y)
GIMEMA 0288, Italy12
2002
767
28 (12-60)
—
82%
11%
27% (9 y)
MD Anderson, USA6
2004
288
40 (15-92)
Ph+
92%
5%
38% (5 y)
EORTC ALL-3, Europe3
2004
340
33 (14-79)
PO
74%
n.r.
36%*(6 y)
LALA 94, France11
2004
922
33 (15-55)
PR
84%
5%
36% (5 y)
GOELAL02, France13
2004
198
33 (15-59)
HR
86%
2%
41% (6 y)
MRC XII/ ECOG E 2993, UK-USA4
2005
1521
15-59
PO
91%
n.r.
38% (5 y)
GIMEMA 0496,
Italy14
Pethema ALL-93, Spain15
Weighted mean
2005
450
16-60
n.r.
80%
n.r.
33% (5 y)
2005
222
27 (15-50)
HR
82%
6%
34% (5 y)
84%
7%
35%
7262
Abbreviations: Ph+, SCT in Philadelphia chromosome–positive ALL; PO, prospective SCT in all pts with donor; PR, SCT according to
prospective risk model; HR, prospective SCT in a study for HR patients only; n.r. not reported.
* Survival of CR patients
related early death occurs in up to 11% of patients and
significant morbidity results from the consequences of prolonged cytopenias, such as subsequent infections including fungal pneumonias. These toxicities may compromise
further treatment and dose intensity. The advantage of a
high CR rate may thereby be outweighed by the inability
to proceed with postremission therapy and may also compromise the outcome of subsequent SCT. Whereas a limit
for intensification of myelotoxic drugs seems to have been
reached, there is still space to intensify non-myelotoxic
drugs (Table 2).
In the future, an increase of molecular CR rates may be
the most important goal and measure for efficacy of induction therapy. Molecular remission may be defined as a level
of minimal residual disease (MRD) after induction therapy
below the detection limit of clone-specific PCR, which is
generally 10–4 (i.e., 0.01% blasts or 1 blast in 10,000 normal cells); the frequency of molecular CR in adult ALL
certainly depends on the type of induction therapy, and so
far few results are available. CR ranges from 50% for Ph+
ALL treated with imatinib and chemotherapy20 to 60% for
standard risk ALL21 and is thereby significantly lower than
in pediatric ALL.
Consolidation therapy
Intensive consolidation is standard in the treatment of ALL
based on pediatric studies and historic comparisons although randomized trials often failed to demonstrate a benefit of intensification; this may be due to insufficient num-
134
Table 2. Options for improvement of induction and
consolidation therapy in acute lymphoblastic leukemia
(ALL).
• Rapid and complete classification of newly diagnosed
leukemia
Induction
• Intensification of nonmyelotoxic drugs such as vincristine,
steroids, asparaginase
• Evaluation of drug resistance and adaptation of drug
regimens to resistance patterns
Consolidation and maintenance
• Protocol adherence to achieve better dose and time intensity
• Risk adapted indications for stem cell transplantation
• Minimal residual disease–adapted intensification cycles
• Subgroup- and minimal residual disease–adapted duration
and intensity of maintenance
• Intensification of high-dose methotrexate and asparaginase
Both
• Evaluation of molecular remission to assess newly designed
regimens
• Addition of targeted drugs such as kinase inhibitors or
monoclonal antibodies
• Age-adapted regimens (intensification in adolescents/
adaptation in elderly)
• Age-adapted rules for treatment steering
• Improved prophylaxis of infections and mucositis to reduce
mortality and morbidity
American Society of Hematology
bers of patients in these trials.5,19 Consolidation cycles in
large studies are very variable and it is impossible to evaluate their individual efficacy. In general, it seems that intensive application of HD methotrexate (MTX) is beneficial.
However, in adults dosages are probably limited at 1.5-2 g/
m² if given as 24-hour infusion. Otherwise toxicities, particularly mucositis, may lead to subsequent treatment delays and decreased compliance. Toxicity, but also efficacy,
may be reduced with a shortened infusion time (e.g., 4
hours). In a pediatric trial for B-cell neoplasias 5 g/m² MTX
given as 4-hour infusion was less toxic than a 24-hour infusion, but—at least in high-risk patients—it was associated
with poorer outcome.22 The situation may change when
improved prophylaxis of mucositis, e.g., with keratinocyte
growth factor, becomes available.
Pediatric trials have underlined the important role of
dose intensification of ASP. There is also the need for intensification in adult patients, particularly in consolidation, where less toxicity can be expected compared to induction. Several studies have also demonstrated that a
modified induction (reinduction) improves outcome. The
role of HD anthracylines, podophyllotoxins and HD cytarabine in consolidation remains open, particularly if potential late effects are considered. For future studies, a design with postinduction cycles with new drugs, evaluated
by MRD measurement, may be an useful option. Furthermore, in adult ALL stricter adherence to protocols with
fewer delays, dose reductions and omission of drugs due to
toxicities may be important factors that could result in therapeutic progress (Table 2).
Maintenance therapy
Maintenance, even after intensive induction and consolidation, is still standard for ALL patients since all attempts
to omit it led to inferior long-term outcome with LFS rates
of 18-28%.23 Therefore, some groups even prolong maintenance therapy beyond 2 years of total treatment duration.
MTX, preferably given intravenously (I.V.), and mercaptopurine (MP) given orally are the backbone of maintenance. Attempts for intensification by I.V. application of
higher doses of MP did not increase efficacy in adults.9 It
may be useful to aim for leukocyte counts below 3000/µL
during maintenance24 in order to achieve optimal suppression of residual disease. Randomized trials failed to demonstrate an advantage of intensified maintenance with HD
cycles.23 However, only a few patients actually received
these regimens as scheduled; adults often show poor compliance to intensive maintenance due to toxicities and for
social reasons. Therefore, maintenance with less intensive
reinforcements, e.g., with vincristine or steroids, may be
more feasible; it is still open whether and to what extent
maintenance therapy is necessary in ALL subgroups. Patients with mature B-ALL do not require maintenance; in
T-ALL, with relapses up to 2 ½ years, it may be less important than in B-precursor ALL, with relapses up to 5 years.
Hematology 2006
Therefore, it is reasonable to test MRD evaluation for decision making on maintenance therapy in prospective studies, as is currently done in the GMALL study group.
Stem cell transplantation
Although the majority of large prospective studies in adult
ALL addressed the issue of indications for SCT in first CR,
scheduling and procedures are still not adequately standardized. To circumvent the problem with comparisons of
SCT vs. chemotherapy, several groups have developed prospective trials with a “genetic” randomization offering allogeneic (allo sib) SCT in CR1 to all patients with a sibling
donor. The study results certainly depend on the compared
“conventional” treatment approach. Some groups scheduled autologous (auto) SCT only25 and others a randomized comparison of auto SCT and chemotherapy.4,6,14,26
The preferable approach for this trial design is “intentto-treat” analysis that compares patients with donors to
those without donors. The hardest outcome parameter is
the OS of the total patient cohort, which answers the question whether an SCT-based treatment concept can improve
overall outcome. OS of studies with “genetic randomization” is not superior to chemotherapy studies (see above),
which is partly due to the fact that allo sib SCT could be
realized in only 11-38% of the patients.4-6,14,25,26 Even if
allo sib SCT yielded favorable results, due to infrequent
realization the impact on overall outcome is too small.
Donor versus no donor: Overall comparisons did not
show any difference,4-6 although there was a benefit of allo
sib SCT in high-risk patients in some,4,14 but not all,27 trials.
An intent-to-treat analysis of the largest study is so far not
available,26 but OS (38%) is similar to that of other published
trials.7
Chemotherapy versus autologous SCT: In several randomized studies no significant difference was detected.4,6,14,27
The major advantage of auto SCT is probably a shorter
total therapy duration. Auto SCT may be of interest in patients with low MRD after induction, MRD negative stem
cell graft and the option to give MRD-based maintenance
after auto SCT.
Allogeneic sibling versus matched unrelated: According to the recent IMBTR data (www.imbtr.org), the OS after
allo sib SCT in patients older than 20 years is 48% compared to 42% for matched unrelated (MUD) SCT. Also, in
large prospective trials the results are similar with higher
relapse rates for sibling and higher mortality (TRM) for
MUD-SCT. The ECOG/MRC study reported an OS of 55%
for sibling, 46% for MUD SCT (restricted to Ph/BCR-ABL+
ALL) and 39% for auto SCT.26 In the GMALL study 06/99
the OS was 53% for sibling and 44% for MUD SCT.28 The
TRM for allo sib SCT in prospective trials ranged between
15% and 26%4-6,14,25-27 and was higher for MUD-SCT.26 Several factors such as intensity of therapy before SCT, preparative regimens, immunosuppressive therapy after SCT
and also the experience and conditions at SCT centers may
135
influence these outcomes. In order to achieve further reduction of TRM in MUD SCT and of relapse rate for allo
sib SCT these factors have to be carefully considered.
An evidence-based review29 concluded that SCT in
CR1 is recommended in high-risk but not in standard-risk
ALL patients. In second CR the outcome of SCT is superior
to chemotherapy. Related and unrelated SCT yield comparable results, whereas allo SCT is probably superior to auto
SCT. Results of auto SCT are not superior compared to
chemotherapy.
Future options in SCT: Larger cooperative studies are
urgently required to prospectively evaluate the optimal
integration of SCT in front-line therapy. One important
point is the balance between efficacy and toxicity of treatment before SCT and preparative regimens in order to reduce TRM. Also, the optimal timing of SCT has to be defined. MRD before and after SCT should be evaluated prospectively in order to identify decision criteria for invention of maintenance therapy and/or immunotherapy such
as donor-lymphocyte infusions.
CNS prophylaxis
Prophylaxis of CNS relapse seems to be no longer a significant problem in adult ALL. In protocols with intensive
intrathecal (i.th.) therapy and systemic HD therapy, the rate
is below 5%. Some trials including GMALL rely on CNS
irradiation.4,10,11,14 Risk factors for CNS disease such as elevated WBC or LDH, traumatic lumbar punctures and phenotypes as mature B-ALL and T-ALL are well known. Therefore, risk-adapted approaches to prophylaxis seem to be
reasonable.9 It should be kept in mind, however, that effective CNS prophylaxis not only reduces the risk of isolated
CNS relapse but also improves general outcome. De-escalation of CNS prophylaxis should therefore be done carefully. In the future the use of liposomal cytarabine for i.th.
therapy may help to reduce the number of i.th. applications, and thereby the risk of contamination, and improve
efficacy with the aim to replace CNS irradiation in defined
populations.
Prognostic Factors and
Relevant Subgroups in Adult ALL
Age
Age is probably the most important prognostic factor.24 OS
continuously decreases with increasing age from 34-57%
below 30 years to 15-17% above 50 years.5,7-9,19 Some groups
defined age above 30-35 years as indication for SCT in
CR1.27 This is probably counterproductive, since the outcome of SCT also significantly decreases with age.26
White blood cell count
An elevated WBC at diagnosis (> 30, 50 or 100,000/µL) is
associated with a higher relapse risk.4,5,9,19 In the GMALL
studies WBC > 30,000/µL in B-precursor ALL (c-/pre-BALL) was even considered as the most deleterious prognostic factor with OS of 19-29%,7,11 whereas in T-ALL WBC
was not a significant factor in a GMALL multivariate analysis.11 Furthermore, high WBC may be associated with the
risk of complications during induction and with an increased
risk of CNS relapse. The biological reason for the highly
resistant behavior of B-precursor ALL with high WBC is
unclear. In the GMALL studies these patients show a high
relapse rate but also seem to have a higher mortality with
Table 3. Characteristics of immunologic subtypes of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).
Subgroup (Inc)
(synonyms)
Disease
characteristics*
Cytogenetic/
Molecular
Marker **
Specific
poor prognostic
factors ***
Pro-B-ALL (11%)
(CD10 neg ALL)
-high WBC (>100,000/µL in 70%)
-CD13/CD33 coexpression (> 50%)
-70% t(4;11)/ALL1-AF4
-(20% Flt3 in ALL1-AF4+)
-high risk
c-ALL (49%)
-incidence increasing with age
(75% if > 55 yrs)
-partly CD20+ (45%)
pre-B-ALL (12%)
Mature B-ALL (4%)
(L3-ALL,
Burkitt leukemia)
T-ALL (25%)
-4% t(1;19)/PBX-E2A
(pre-B only)
-large tumor mass
(LDH increased in > 90%)
-organ involvement (32%)
-CNS involvement (13%)
-CD20+ (> 80%)
-t(8;14)/c-myc-IgH
-mediastinal tumor (60%)
-CNS involvement (8%)
-high WBC (> 50,000) (46%)
Subtypes:
Early T (6%)
Thymic T (12%)
Mature T (6%)
20% t(10;14)/HOX11-TCR
< 20% t(11;14/LMO/TCR
8% SIL-TAL1
4% NUP213-ABL1
33% HOX11**
5% HOX11L2**
50% Notch1**
-WBC > 30-50,000/µL
-t(9;22)/BCR-ABL
-t(1;19)/PBX-E2A (?)
General poor
prognostic factors
-Late achievement of CR
-Poor PRED response (?)
-MRD persistence
-Increasing age
-In-vitro resistance (?)
-MDR1 function (?)
-Early, mature T-ALL
-WBC > 100,000/µL (?) -Complex aberrant karyotype (?)
-HOX11L2
Abbreviations: WBC, leukocyte count; inc, incidence; PRED, prednisone
* data from recent GMALL trials
** estimated according to GMALL data and incidence within subgroups 27
*** according to experience of the GMALL; (?) for newly proposed prognostic factors
136
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chemotherapy and SCT.28 In these patients, evaluation of
MRD, use of experimental drugs and SCT in CR1 modalities may be particularly important.
Immunophenotype
A complete immunologic characterization at diagnosis is
required to identify subtypes with different presentations
and prognoses, distinct cytogenetic and/or molecular aberrations, surface markers as potential targets for antibody
therapy and targets for other innovative therapies (Table
3). Pro-B–ALL and/or t(4;11)+ ALL is considered a poor
prognostic subgroup in many trials. It appears to be particularly susceptible to SCT.23 In the ongoing GMALL
studies, pro-B–ALL is considered an indication for SCT in
CR1. The survival was 74% for allo sibling SCT in CR1,
indicating that pro-B–ALL has the most favorable outcome
after SCT compared to other ALL subgroups.28 Common
(c)/pre-B–ALL bears a large proportion of Ph/BCR-ABL+
ALL, which will be discussed separately. Some groups consider the translocation t(1;19), which occurs in pre-B–ALL,
an unfavorable feature.14,25 Since the prognostic impact depends on the treatment regimen and the aberration is very
rare (< 3% incidence), convincing data are rare—as for many
other cytogenetic aberrations—and there is no general
agreement on its role as a prognostic factor. c/pre-B–ALL
can be subdivided into standard- and a high-risk group
with significantly different outcome (Table 3). However,
even in standard risk B-lineage ALL the outcome is not
satisfactory, and this is a major reason for slow improvement of overall results in adult ALL. Mature B-ALL is treated
according to different concepts (see below).
Many groups have confirmed the superior outcome of
T-lineage ALL compared to B-lineage.7,11 T-ALL comprises
the subtypes early T-ALL, thymic (cortical T-ALL CD1a
pos) and mature T-ALL. Within T-ALL, subtype was the
most significant prognostic factor in the GMALL studies.
The LFS was significantly poorer for early T-ALL (25%)
and mature T-ALL (28%) compared to thymic T-ALL
(63%).11 Therefore, the former subgroups are considered as
indications for SCT in CR1 in the GMALL studies. Interim
results showed that outcome can thereby be improved.28
The biologic importance of immunologic subtype
within T-ALL was underscored by the fact that elevated
expression of HOX11, HOX11L2, SIL-TAL1 and CALMAF10 is associated with subtypes, i.e., maturation states of
thymocytes (reviewed in 30). Other groups observed inferior outcomes for early T-ALL,31,32 coexpression of CD13,
CD33 and/or CD34,31 HOX11L2 and SIL-TAL+ T-ALL.32
Overexpression of HOX11, which is associated with thymic T-ALL, may confer a favorable prognosis. Notch1 activating mutations with as yet unclear prognostic relevance
were identified in up to 50% of T-ALL cases.30 They may
be targeted by γ-secretase inhibitors. Four percent of TALL show the NUP214-ABL1 aberration which may identify a target population for imatinib therapy. With current
treatment regimens, CR rates of more than 80% and a LFS
Hematology 2006
above 50% can be achieved in T-ALL.
Interestingly, outcome after SCT also appears to be
influenced by immunophenotypes. In the GMALL studies
the most favorable OS after SCT was achieved for pro-B–
ALL and early T-ALL whereas it was poorest in c/pre-B–
ALL with high WBC.28
Treatment response and minimal residual disease
Beside age the most relevant prognostic factor in ALL is
the achievement of CR, as underlined by the favorable outcome in children.19 Further prognostic factors related to
treatment response are delayed time to CR or response to
prednisone therapy. A more accurate approach to assess
individual response is minimal residual disease (MRD)
evaluation24,23 since this is an independent prognostic factor that reflects primary drug resistance as well as individual realization of therapy and unknown host factors.
Two major aims were followed with longitudinal MRD
evaluation in adult ALL. The first was to identify patients
with high risk of relapse as candidates for treatment intensification with SCT or experimental therapy. In general,
the decrease of MRD occurs more slowly in adults, and
fewer patients reach a negative status.33 Decision making
immediately after induction is therefore too early. However, after start of consolidation, high MRD (> 10–4) at any
time-point is associated with a high relapse risk of 66-88%,21
and the predictive value increases at later time-points
(months 6-9).33 In the GMALL studies patients, with high
MRD (> 10–4) after induction and first consolidation are
identified as high risk and are candidates for SCT in CR1.34
The second aim, to identify patients with low risk of
relapse in whom treatment reduction may be justified, is
more difficult to reach. An early and rapid decrease of MRD
during induction is associated with a relapse risk of only
8%.21 However, this is observed in only 10% of the adult
patients. In the GMALL studies, patients with negative
MRD status after induction, which is repeatedly confirmed
during the first year and measured with two sensitive markers, are considered as MRD low risk. Thirty percent of the
patients fulfill these criteria.
MRD evaluation furthermore offers the option of assessing molecular CR and thereby evaluating different induction therapies and detecting molecular relapses. These
are two important new items for follow-up analysis in adult
ALL. Even in some phase II studies, “molecular relapse” is
already an inclusion criterion. This makes sense since patients with increase of MRD above 10–4 after achievement
of molecular CR are at high risk of relapse (> 80%) and
therapeutic action should be taken.
MRD evaluation has certain limitations. The technical procedure is time consuming and expensive and requires highly specialized staff. The predictive value depends on the technical quality such as sensitivity (10–4),
number of targets (at least two for immunoglobulin or TCRrearrangements) and on the frequency of evaluations (3
monthly). At least in multicenter studies these prerequi137
sites can often not be fulfilled. Sensitivity of MRD-evaluation, with the exception of BCR-ABL–based analysis, is also
not sufficient to evaluate the efficacy of consolidation cycles
since in most patients MRD is then below the detection limit.
New integrated risk classification
A variety of “molecular” markers newly detected by
microarray analysis have been proposed as prognostic factors.35 Other “clinical” factors such as obesity, underweight,
or even female gender have been proposed as high-risk
features in different studies.7,31 Certainly the prognostic
relevance of new “clinical” or “molecular” prognostic factors also depends on the applied treatment regimen. Therefore, and also to keep risk stratification practicable, the
integration of new prognostic factors in risk models has to
be done carefully, particularly because risk factors generally lead to the indication of SCT in CR1 with considerable morbidity and mortality. However, molecular aberrations with prognostic relevance may stimulate the analysis
of underlying mechanisms and possible new drug targets.
Overall Treatment Strategies in Adult ALL
Treatment of adult ALL is becoming more complicated,
due to the increasing tendency to treat based on biologic
risk group. Treatment approach also depends on factors
unrelated to the disease biology such as the availability of
a stem cell donor, co-morbid conditions, treatment response
and availability of targeted drugs (Figure 1). Prognostic
factors and patient characteristics therefore no longer serve
only for identification of candidates for SCT in first CR but
to define individualized treatment approaches (examples
of which are discussed below).
Subgroup-adjusted treatment
The best example is probably mature B-ALL and Burkitt’s
lymphoma, which is generally treated in separate studies
with short intensive cycles, leading to improvement in OS
rate from < 10% to > 50%. Since B-ALL shows CD20 expression in > 80% of the cases treatment was further refined
by integration of anti-CD20 before each chemotherapy
cycle with very promising results of 70-80% OS in preliminary analyses.36,37
Age-adapted treatment
Subgroup-adapted therapies also have to be defined for
patients at both ends of the age spectrum of adult ALL:
elderly1 and adolescent2 patients.
Individualized treatment
According to MRD: The approaches to integrate MRD
analysis in prospective risk stratification of adults can be
different in terms of (1) time-point; (2) selection of patients
for MRD risk stratification; (3) combination of MRD-based
and conventional-risk factors; and (4) MRD-based treatment decisions. It is hardly possible to identify adult lowrisk patients in whom reduction of therapy would be justified. In the GMALL study these patients are defined according to very strict criteria (see above) in order to omit
maintenance therapy. Even so, 20-30% of these patients
relapse. The major aim of MRD-based studies is to identify
patients with high risk of relapse for treatment intensification by SCT since very few adults are candidates for “deescalation” of therapy. It remains to be demonstrated that
this is an effective strategy, since patients with high MRD
before SCT have an increased risk of relapse and could
probably benefit from additional conventional (even experimental) therapy to reduce tumor load. On the other hand,
it has to be questioned whether patients who are candidates for SCT based on conventional or molecular risk factors should receive allo SCT if they are MRD negative.
Thus, the best strategy is not yet known and must be tested
prospectively.
Figure 1. Course of therapy in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia and potential influencing factors.
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American Society of Hematology
According to drug resistance: Expression of MDR-1
(multidrug resistance gene 1) has been associated with a
poorer prognosis in ALL.17,31 Also, in-vitro sensitvity testing was able to identify patients with resistance to conventional cytostatic drugs which was associated with an inferior
prognosis. More recently it was demonstrated that in-vitro
resistance is associated with distinct gene expression profiles.38 In-vitro resistance testing is also increasingly used for
preclinical effectivity testing of potential new cytostatic drugs.
In the future it may be possible to predict response to induction regimens to adapt therapy to individual susceptibility.
Risk-adapted indications for SCT
There is no general agreement on indications for SCT in
first CR, but until results of the ECOG/MRC study are available the evidence is in favor of risk-adapted approaches.29
SCT indications have to keep the balance between the expected reduced relapse risk and increased mortality. Also,
late effects are more pronounced in SCT patients, the quality of life seems to be poorer and the risk of rapid procedure-related death is 20-30% compared to chemotherapy
with more prolonged risks. SCT in CR1 from sibling or
unrelated donor seems to be justified in subgroups of ALL
with OS below 40% with chemotherapy and should probably not be offered to patients with OS above 50%. These
outcomes clearly depend on the different chemotherapy
regimens. The role of auto SCT remains to be determined
in optimized schedules. For older high-risk patients and
those with contraindications for conventional SCT,
nonmyeloablative SCT may be a reasonable alternative to
be studied in prospective trials with an expected LFS of
34% if performed in first CR.39
Targeted therapies
Ph/BCR-ABL+ ALL: New molecular therapeutic strategies with
imatinib and other new kinase inhibitors led to a considerable improvement of this formerly most unfavorable subgroup.
These issues were discussed extensively elsewhere.3
Antibody therapy: ALL blast cells express a variety of
specific antigens such as CD20, CD19, CD22, CD33, CD52
that may serve as targets for treatment with monoclonal
antibodies (MoAb). MoAb therapy is an attractive treatment approach in ALL since it is targeted, subtype-specific, and has different mechanisms of action and side effects than chemotherapy. Application may be most promising in the setting of MRD. The anti-CD20 antibody has
been successfully integrated in therapy of mature B-ALL.
It has also been explored in several pilot studies for CD20+
B-precursor ALL. In a GMALL protocol for elderly patients,
rituximab was added before chemotherapy cycles starting
from induction for a total of 8 applications. The combination of hyper-CVAD regimen with rituximab in B-precursor ALL was feasible, and a favorable outcome of CD20+
ALL was reported (reviewed in 40). Several studies with
anti-CD52, either in relapse or in a state of MRD, are ongoing. The CALGB has integrated anti-CD52 as consolidation in front-line therapy and demonstrated feasibility in a
dose-finding study. Efficacy data are not yet available.41
Further antibodies are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4. Potential new drugs for the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).40,22
Drug
Mechanism of action
Subgroup
Evidence inALL
Monoclonal antibodies
Rituximab
Alemtuzumab
Gemtuzumab
Epratuzumab
Trastuzumab
antiCD20
antiCD52
antiCD33
antiCD22
Anti-HER2
B-lin
B-/T-lin
CD33+ e.g., early T, pro B
B-lin
n.s.
Trials de novo ALL
Trials de novo ALL
Case reports
Cytostatic drugs
Clofarabine
Nelarabine
Forodesine
Purine analogue
Purine analogue
PNP
n.s.
T-lin
T-lin (B-Lin ?)
Phase I-II trials
Phase I-II trials
Phase I-II trials
Liposomal preparations
I.th. Cytarabine
Daunorubicine
Vincristine
Prolonged action
Less cardiotoxicity (?)
Less neurotoxicity (?)
CNS involvement
n.s.
n.s.
Trials relapsed ALL
Trials relapsed ALL
Kinase inhibitors
Imatinib
Dasatinib
Nilotinib
Abl tyrosine kinase
Abl-Src kinase inhibitor
Abl-kinase inhibitor
Ph/BCR-ABL+
Ph/BCR-ABL+
Ph/BCR-ABL+
Trials de novo ALL
Phase I-II trials
Phase I-II trials
Other
Tipifarnib
LY450139, MK0752
Rapamycin and other
PKC412 and other
Farnesyl-transferase inhibitor
γ-Secretase inhibitor
mTOR inhibitor
FLT3 inhibitor
(T-ALL ?)
Notch1 aberrant T-ALL
n.s.
MLL rearranged
Phase I-II trials
Abbreviations: B-lin, B-lineage; T-lin, T-lineage; n.s., not specified so far; PNP, purine nucleoside phosphorylase inhibitor
Hematology 2006
139
Targeted therapy in T-ALL
Several new options for targeted therapy for T-ALL (Table
4) are forthcoming and, based on results in phase I-II studies, it will be necessary to define priorities. Thus, the purine analogue Nelarabine could be soon integrated in prospective trials of front-line therapy as consolidation cycle.
Other drugs, such as Forodesine, a purine nucleoside phosphorylase inhibitor, may be useful during maintenance
therapy if efficacy is proven.
Evaluation of new cytostatic drugs
Advances in the understanding of molecular mechanisms
of disease, the successful model of imatinib and the increasing interest of pharmaceutical companies in orphan
diseases has led to the development of several new therapeutic approaches for ALL (Table 4). For some of them,
early clinical data are becoming available and many of
these drugs fit in subtype adjusted, targeted therapies. Evidence-based priorities for clinical evaluation in relapsed ALL
and for integration in front-line therapy have to be defined
that take the number of targets and drugs into account.
Future Risk Stratification and
Treatment Concepts for Adult ALL
Risk and subtype adjusted treatment strategies led to considerable improvement of outcome in mature B-ALL, TALL and Ph+ ALL, but to a lesser extent in adult patients
with B-precursor ALL. Future concepts will integrate a variety of additional factors, thereby resulting in a more complex, flexible and patient specific treatment approach (Figure 1). In addition to these sophisticated approaches a better adherence to protocols, support of patients to improve
their compliance and documentation of compliance are warranted in adult ALL. Treatment should be done at experienced centers only and closer cooperation between internal medicine and pediatrics, including cooperative studies, would be desirable.
The design of prospective trials will be challenging
since they will focus even more on smaller subgroups of
ALL and window studies with new drugs. These trials will
only be possible in larger, international study groups that
are able to recruit sufficient patient numbers. In Europe an
important step toward this goal was made by the foundation of a European Working Group for Adult ALL
(EWALL).42 In order to enable any intergroup comparison,
international efforts similar to those undertaken in childhood ALL are required to define uniform criteria for diagnostic classification, definition of subgroups and even prognostic factors.
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