ga-4 specpol - Kabatas Model United Nations Conference
Chair Report GA 4th kmun2015 KabatasMUN kmun2015 MUNKabatas kabatasmun Kabatas MUN [email protected] Letter from the Secretary-General Dear Representatives of the Distinguished Nations, I, in lieu of the Secretariat, am thrilled to welcome you to the third annual session of Kabataş Model United Nations Conference). I, Orçun DOĞMAZER, have been studying at Kabataş Erkek Lisesi for four years and am receiving the privilege to serve as the third Secretary-General of this society. KMUN Conference is the biggest student initiated organization in the illustrious 107 years old history of this community. How Buckingham Palace was used by King George III to host diverse reputed bureaucrats and royal families, likewise Kabataş High School was utilized to serve for those certain purposes at the times of Ottoman Empire. KMUN 2013 and KMUN 2014 have the distinctive honor to comprise more than 350 national and international participants. As it was planned and announced a year ago, the conference will be hosting more than 500 participants coming from various countries in 10 different committees this year. Academic and organization teams of the conference have been challenging themselves to set a different level of understanding in MUN for KMUN’s participants. Experiencing both of the previous editions of KMUN, this year’s KMUN will differ from its previous editions by not only mixing the interesting sides of the Model UN examples in Turkey, but will also try its best to combine the understanding of the international Model UN. All the research reports of the conference are written by the directors of the respective committees with the guidance of the academic team of the conference. I do thank the Student Officers namely Enes Sayın and Hazal Alay for writing this very guide for the GA-4. Appreciating their efforts on this research report, I do believe that this report will be a great start for our participant’s on their researches to prepare themselves for the debates on the given agenda items. ! 1! In case you require any further instruction as to the academic content of the GA-4, you may always contact your Committee Directors or me via [email protected] After a year full of work and dedication, I do believe that KMUN 2015 will manage to create its dreamed atmosphere by taking further steps on its previous editions. Orçun DOĞMAZER Secretary-General ! 2! Letter from the PGA Dear Participants, I consider it my greatest pleasure to join the student officers of the GA-4 in welcoming you all to Kabatas Model UN 2015. On the following pages of this document, there might be various challenges that await you, assorted problems that the rest of the world has failed in addressing to a satisfactory extent so far. I am not sure if the nature of my position permits me to say so, but I have to assert there`s absolutely no denial that what is expected of you is abundantly demanding, so much so that it is quite likely to end up being rather quixotic, just the opposite of what we all have striven for. Yet, this should not lead you to underestimate your skills, capabilities and the potential you have to offer whether you attempt to recreate a momentous event in history and alter it or cope with the contemporary obstacles on our way to stamp out the instability worldwide, and I truly am confident that this report will manage to enlighten your way throughout the journey that you have dared to go on. If you feel the need to, you may contact the committee directors or me via [email protected] to make any enquiries relating to academic matters. Have it mind that the slightest change we manage to generate will grow into something greater in time, and this May is meant to be the beginning of that change. Regards, Oya Gursoy President of the General Assembly ! 3! Letter from the Student Officers Distinguished Participants, On behalf of the academic team of the conference, we would like to welcome you all to the 3rd session of Kabatas Model United Nations 2015. Our names are Enes Sayın and Hazal Alay and we are serving as the chairpeople of the SPECPOL Committee. We want to welcome you all to the Special Political and Decolonization Committee of KMUN 2015. We are both excited to be your chairs in this “Special” committee. As you can see, our agenda items are one of the favorites among the media. No doubt you all have heard opinions of many people on these topics. In this very report, you will find information on the ongoing insurgency in Afghanistan and war crimes of any kind on the focus of the utilization of private military contractors and mercenaries. Both of these topics seem alien to majority of the people living in peace but the War in Afghanistan and the insurgency that followed is one of the longest conflicts in human history. Private military firms may sound like they’re from the middle ages but they are alive and well in the 21st century and war crimes committed by them and other parties still show us that the age of peace ushered by the foundation of UN is not yet complete. Reading the guides is one of the most essential things in MUN as they give not only basic information but history and possible questions regarding the topics. However even after the reading the guides you still have to do further research about your countries you have assigned to. Only then you will be ready to debate fluently in this committee. As the board members we want to remind our first timers that MUN is a platform that enhances your skills such as leadership, cooperation, lobbying, self-expression and public speaking and you should seize this opportunity to develop yourselves. We are looking forward to meet you in May in Kabatas’s great view of Bosporus. Please do not hesitate to contact us for your further questions via [email protected] and [email protected]. Hazal Alay&Enes Sayın ! 4! Committee Introduction General Assembly serves for all member states to have a voice opposing to the Security Council which certain states have the right to veto. Resolutions passed at the GA are not binding which means these relations do not have to be followed by all nations contrary to the Security Council; veto power is not applicable within the GA Special Political and Decolonization Committee also known as United Nations Fourth Committee (GA-4) is one of the United Nations General Assembly’s six committees. This committee tries to alleviate situations in which a region once occupied through imperialistic forces can enter a territory of self-sovereignty. After demolishment of the trusteeship system following indolence being granted to all the trust territories and now-limited number of non-self-governing territories that authority is insufficient to keep the committee busy. As a result, it was united with the Special Political Committee, which had been created as a seventh committee to deal with certain political issues after the General Assembly found that First Committee (Disarmament and Political) was too busy. The Fourth Committee deals with decolonization Palestinian refugees and human rights peacekeeping, mine action, outer space, public information, atomic radiation and University for Peace. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 5! Topic!A:!Growing!Insurgency!in!Afghanistan!in!duration!of!the! Termination!of!Combat!Operations!and!Withdrawal! Historical!Background! Afghanistan!has!been!called!the!“Graveyard!of!Empires”!for!centuries.!Throughout!history! many!superpowers!who!occupied!parts!of!Afghanistan,!from!Alexander’s!Macedonian! Empire!in!300!B.C!to!the!Soviets!in!1979,!have!faced!harsh!resistance!from!the!inhabitants.! Highly!strategic!position!of!the!region!has!been!a!huge!factor!for!their!infamous!reputation.! Afghanistan!stands!on!a!nexus!point!between!the!East!and!West,!it!sits!on!the!historical! trade!routes!of!the!Silk!Road.!These!factors!have!made!it!alluring!for!outside!powers!to! occupy!and!control!Afghanistan.!However,!the!mountainous!geography!and!the!harsh! climate!that!comes!with!it!made!things!pretty!hard!for!anyone!trying!to!get!control!of!the! region!from!the!local!militaristic!tribes!who!are! used!to!the!harsh!conditions!and!often!used!it! against!the!occupiers.!Alexander!the!Great! nearly!lost!his!life!after!getting!hit!by!an!Afghan! archer’s!arrow.!More!than!two!millenniums! later,!during!the!First!AngloSAfghan!War!the! British!Empire!suffered!one!of!its!biggest! military!catastrophes!at!the!hands!of!the! Afghan!tribes!when!a!column!of!16,500!civilians! and!soldiers!were!ambushed!at!Khyber!Pass.! Only%one%survivor%made%it%back..% Elizabeth!Thompson,!Lady!Butler,!Remnants%of%an% Assistant!surgeon!William!Brydon!was!the!only!one! Army,!1879% to!tell!the!tale.! Emirate/Kingdom!of!Afghanistan!and!the!“Great!Game”! Nonetheless,!achieving!dominance!over!Afghanistan!seemed!lucrative!to!outside!powers.!In! the!19th!century,!Afghanistan!played!an!important!role!during!the!“Great!Game”!between! the!Russian!and!British!Empires.!The!so!called!game!was!a!strategic!conflict!between!those! parties!to!achieve!dominance!in!Central!Asia.!Russian!interests!for!extending!their!border! southward!into!Central!Asia!were!seen!by!the!British!as!a!threat!to!their!“Jewel!in!the! Crown”,!India.!Iran!and!Afghanistan!were!caught!right!in!the!middle!of!this!power!struggle.! Out!of!this!concern,!the!First!AngloSAfghan!War!arose.!It!was!a!temporary!victory!for!the! British;!they!won!the!war!but!couldn’t!achieve!their!goal!and!retreated!back!to!India.!G.!R.! Gleig,!a!British!army!chaplain!wrote!these!lines!about!the!conflict!in!his!memoirs:!!“(It%was)%a% war%begun%for%no%wise%purpose,%carried%on%with%a%strange%mixture%of%rashness%and%timidity,% brought%to%a%close%after%suffering%and%disaster,%without%much%glory%attached%either%to%the% government%which%directed,%or%the%great%body%of%troops%which%waged%it.%Not%one%benefit,% political%or%military,%was%acquired%with%this%war.%Our%eventual%evacuation%of%the%country% resembled%the%retreat%of%an%army%defeated.”! ! 6! 36!years!later!when!the!Russian!influence!in!Afghanistan! actually!became!a!realistic!threat!to!British!rule!in!India,! the!British!invaded!Afghanistan!again!in!the!Second! AngloSAfghan!War.!This!time,!they!were!successful.!They! knew!their!lesson!though!and!didn’t!try!to!rule! Afghanistan!like!they!did!in!India.!With!the!Treaty!of! Gandamak!in!1879,!Emirate!of!Afghanistan!became!a! British!Dependency!and!in!exchange!for!subsidies!from! the!British!they!handed!over!their!foreign!policy!to!them.! The!year!1880!saw!the!coronation!of!the!Amir!Abdur! Cartoon%depicting%the%Amir%of%Afghanistan%between% Rahman!Khan,!a.k.a!The%Iron%Amir.!He!ruled!Afghanistan! his%“friends”%the%Russian%Bear%and%the%British%Lion% with!an!iron!fist!for!twentySone!years.!His!efforts!were!aimed!at!breaking!the!influence!of! the!local!tribes!in!order!to!establish!a!strong!central!authority!and!modernizing!the!country.! His!authoritarian!rule!laid!the!foundations!of!the!modern!Afghanistan!but!he!had!no!say!in! Afghanistan’s!foreign!policy.!Reluctantly!he!accepted!border!concessions!agreed!between! Joint!AngloSRussian!Boundary!Commission!which!took!no!account!of! Afghan!opinion.!The!controversial!Durand!Line!was!also!drawn!by!the! British!during!his!reign.!Unwillingly,!Abdur!Rahman!had!to!agree!to!the! new!boundary!which!cut!directly!through!tribes!and!completely!ignored! the!demographics!of!the!region.!Pashtuns,!the!largest!ethnic!group!in! Afghanistan!were!divided!because!of!the!Durand!line.!Today,!the!same! line!defines!the!border!between!Afghanistan!and!Pakistan.!It!has!caused! hostilities!between!the!Afghan!and!Pakistani!governments.!This!lack!of! trust!between!these!two!countries!indirectly!helped!the!rise!of!Taliban!in! PashtoJspeaking%regions%in% 20th!century.!Amir!Abdur!Rahman!Khan’s!reign!ended!in!1901.!Peaceful! Afghanistan%and%Pakistan%a.k.a% succession!of!his!oldest!son!among!his!many!sons!was!the!proof!of!his! Pashtunistan%% success!for!establishing!a!strong!central!authority.!During!the!reign!of! Habibullah!Khan,!the!Great!Game!came!to!an!end!in!1907!with!the!AngloSRussian!Entente! and!relations!between!Russia!and!Britain!normalized.!Russia!and!Britain!agreed!for!the! Afghan!neutrality!in!foreign!issues!and!not!to!interfere!in!internal!policies!of!Afghanistan! while!the!British!kept!their!grip!on!the!Afghan!foreign!policy.!When!the!WW1!broke!out,! Afghanistan!came!under!pressure!from!Turkey!to!enter!the!“Holy!War”!against!the!British! but!Afghanistan!remained!neutral.!Though!Habibullah!Khan!tried!to!play!both!sides!by! accepting!the!institution!of!an!IndoSGermanSTurkish!mission!in!Kabul!in!return!for!a!huge! payment!from!the!Central!Powers!but!offered!the!British!their!resistance!against!the! diplomatic!efforts!of!Central!powers!in!return!for!an!end!to!British!control!of!Afghan!foreign! policy.!! Habibullah!Khan!was!assassinated!in!1919.!His!third!son,!Amanullah!Khan!seized!the!throne.! He!was!more!earnest!in!his!goal!of!breaking!British!control!in!Afghan!foreign!policy.!He! wanted!to!use!the!war!exhaustion!of!the!Royal!Army!due!to!WW1!to!his!benefit!and!in!a! bold!move,!declared!war!against!the!British!Empire!in!1919.!Result!of!the!war!was!indecisive.! ! 7! After!shaking!off!the!initial!state!of!shock,!the!British!achieved!a!tactical!victory!due!to!their! technological!superiority.!However,!Amanullah!Khan!achieved!his!goal!of!a!fully!independent! Afghanistan!in!the!Treaty!of!Rawalpindi!which!ended!the!war.!Meantime,!with!the!Bolshevik! Revolution,!new!phase!of!the!Great!Game!between!the!Soviet!Russia!and!the!British!started.! Soviets!provided!aid!to!Afghans!to!bring!Afghanistan!closer!to!them!and!away!from!the! British.!They!were!partly!successful,!British!influence!diminished!but!the!Afghan!public!still! resented!the!Russians!over!previous!land!concessions.!Highlight!of!Amānullāh!Khān’s!reign! was!his!implementation!of!a!reform!program!much!radical!compared!to!his!grandfather.! Using!Atatürk’s!reforms!in!Turkey!as!a!role!model,!he!focused!intensively!on!social!reforms.! In!1921!he!signed!friendship!treaties!with!both!the!Soviets!and!the!newly!found!Turkish! Republic.!He!also!brought!advisors!from!those!countries!to!help!him!in!his!reforms.!His! reforms!were!heavily!influenced!by!the!European!culture!and!mirrored!Atatürk’s!reforms!in! many!ways.!From!the!introduction!of!secular!education!to!the!ban! on!veils!for!women,!Amanullah!Khan’s!reforms!were!unheard!of!at! that!time.!He!disallowed!the!Emirate!and!declared!himself!the!King! of!Afghanistan.!It!was!during!his!reign!that!saw!the!creation!of! Afghanistan’s!first!constitution.!Civil!rights!were!guaranteed,!a! legislative!assembly!was!established,!a!new!court!system!enforced! the!secular!laws!and!privileges!for!tribal!chiefs!and!the!royal!family! were!abolished.!However!his!military!reforms!which!prevented!tribal! Amānullāh%Khan%with%Atatürk%during% his%European%tour%in%1928% leaders!from!controlling!who!joined!the!service!alienated!many!army! personnel!who!supported!him!in!his!claim!for!the!throne.!The!ulama,!Islamic!clergyman,! weren’t!too!excited!by!his!secular!reforms!either.!In!1924!reactionaries!to!Amānullāh!Khan’s! reforms!revolted!in!what!is!now!known!as!Khost!Rebellion.!King’s!forces!put!down!the! rebellion!with!great!difficulty.!Reforms!came!to!a!halt!until!1927.!In!December!1927,! Amānullāh!Khan!visited!Europe,!but!on!his!return!in!1928,!he!was!faced!by!yet!another! rebellion.!While!he!was!away,!the!British!launched!an!intensive!propaganda!campaign!in! order!to!sow!the!seeds!of!rebellion!against!his!rule.!Their!efforts!included!angering! conservatives!in!Afghanistan!by!distributing!photos!which!depicted!Amanullah!Khan’s!wife! holding!hands!with!foreign!state!officials,!by!dropping!them!off!by!planes.!Most!of!his!army! deserted!rather!than!resisting!the!rebels.!Amanullah!Khan!abdicated!the!throne!in!favor!of! his!brother!and!went!into!exile.!Most!of!the!reforms!implemented!in!his!reign!were!anulled! after!his!abdication.!His!brother!couldn’t!hold!on!to!the!throne!and!a!shortSlived!civil!war! broke!out.!A!Tajik!“folk!hero”!occupied!Kabul!and!declared!himself!Habibullah!II,!the!Amir!of! Afghanistan.!He!wasn’t!popular!among!Pashto!majority!of!the!country.!Distant!cousins!of! Amanullah!Khan!who!were!opposed!to!his!military!reforms!drove!out!the!Tajik!pretender! and!restored!the!Afghan!Kingdom.!Mohammad!Nader!Khan!was!elected!Shah!by!a!tribal! assembly.!In!order!to!appease!the!ulama!(Islamic!scholars)!and!other!conservatives!in! Afghanistan;!Nader!Khan!accused!his!predecessor,!Amanullah,!of!kufr!(being!an!infidel)! because!of!his!secular!social!reforms!and!rid!the!constitution!of!the!secular!elements.!After! years!of!militant!opposition!against!the!central!authorities!in!Afghanistan,!reigns!of!Nāder! ! 8! Khan!and!his!son!Mohammad!Zahir!provided!the!needed!stability.!Mohammad!Zahir!became! the!Shah!after!his!father!was!assassinated!in!1933.!His!reign!was!marked!by!cautious!internal! policies,!expansion!in!foreign!relations!and!economical!development!using!Afghan!funds! alone.!Afghanistan!preserved!its!neutrality!during!WW2.!Problem!of!“Pashtunistan”!caused! by!the!Durand!line!became!prominent!after!Pakistan’s!independence!from!the!British.!In! 1953!Lieutenant!General!Mohammad!Daud!Khan,!brotherSinSlaw!and!first!cousin!of!the!king,! seized!power!in!the!parliament!with!the!help!from!the!conservatives!and!became!the!lead! actor!in!Afghan!politics!as!the!Prime!Minister.!He!took!a!strong!stance!on!Pashtunistan!and! unexpectedly!turned!to!the!Soviet!Union!for!military!and!economic!relations.!This!was!a! major!change!in!political!dynamics!in!Afghanistan!even!though!the!Afghans!refused!to!take! sides!in!the!Cold!War.!Pashtunistan!issue!initiated!the!downfall!of!Daud!Khan!when!Pakistan! closed!its!Afghanistan!border!in!retaliation.!Afghanistan!became!highly!dependent!on!Soviet! Union.!To!reverse!the!trend,!Daud!Khan!resigned!in!March!1963,!and!the!border!was! reopened.!In!the!following!years!the!political!climate!in!Afghanistan!increasingly!polarized.! Several!unofficial!parties!ran!candidates!with!platforms!ranging!from!fundamentalist!Islam!to! the!extreme!left.!The!king!refused!to!promulgate!several!key!acts,!thereby!effectively! blocking!the!institutionalization!of!the!political!processes!guaranteed!in!the!constitution.! Mohammad!Daud!Khan!seized!this!opportunity!and!led!a!bloodless!coup!against!the! monarchy!with!the!assistance!of!leftist!military!officers.!Some!of!the!Islamists!were!force!to! flee!the!country.!Daud!abolished!the!constitution!and!established!the!Republic!of! Afghanistan!as!the!chairman!of!the!Central!Committee!of!the!Republic!and!prime!minister.!! Republic!of!Afghanistan!and!Civil!Wars! Daud!focused!his!efforts!on!introducing!socioeconomic!reforms,!writing!a!new!constitution! and!gradually!moving!away!from!the!socialist!ideal!his!regime!initially!embraced.!He! continued!his!resolute!stance!on!Pashtunistan!problem!and!went!as!far!as!training! insurgents!for!sabotage!and!militancy!in!Pakistan.!So!much!so!that!one!of!Bhutto's!senior! members!got!killed.!As!a!response!Pakistan!started!doing!the!same!and!promoted!a!proxy! war!in!Afghanistan!through!its!InterSServices!Intelligence!(ISI).!!Islamic!fundamentalists!in! Afghanistan!were!against!Daud’s!aggressive!foreign!policy!against!Pakistan!and!the! somewhat!close!relationship!with!the!Soviets.!Due!to!the!pressure!from!Daud’s!army!and! police!they!fled!to!Pakistan!and!received!support!from!Zulfiqar!Ali!Bhutto,!Prime!Minister!of! Pakistan,!in!their!operations!against!Daud’s!regime.!In!1977!Daud!Khan!presented!a!new! constitution!to!Loya%Jirga%(National!Assembly)!and!received!approval.!In!order!to!moderate! socialist!ideas!in!his!regime,!Daud!Khan!rid!the!cabinet!of!socialists!and!appointed!a!new! cabinet!composed!of!sycophants,!friends,!sons!of!fiends,!even!members!of!the!royal!family.! As!a!result!of!his!attempt!to!distance!himself!from!the!communist!elements!within!the!coup! that!raised!him!to!power,!there!was!a!rift!with!the!PDPA!(People’s!Democratic!Party!of! Afghanistan).!While!Daud!was!concerned!about!Afghanistan’s!dependency!on!the!Soviet! Union,!the!Soviets!were!concerned!about!the!possibility!that!Afghanistan!would!soon! become!closer!to!the!West,!especially!the!United!States!and!Moscow!highly!criticized!Daud’s! ! 9! moves!against!the!communists.!In!1978,!a!prominent!member!of!PDPA!was!killed!and!his! funeral!served!as!a!rallying!point!for!the!socialists.!Daud!ordered!the!arrest!of!PDPA!leaders! though!he!was!late.!Before!his!arrest,!Hafizullah!Amin,!a!U.S.Seducated! People’s!Party!leader,!contacted!party!members!in!the!armed!forces!and! devised!a!makeshift!but!successful!coup.!Daud!Khan!and!most!of!his!family! were!killed,!and!the!Democratic!Republic!of!Afghanistan!(DRA)!was!born!on! April!27,!1978.!This!date!also!marked!the!beginning!of!the!long!series!of! conflicts!that!continue!today.!There!have!been!many!uprisings!against!the! PDPA!rule!mostly!from!the!people!in!the!country!side!who!were!familiar! with!Marxist!broadcasts!from!Soviet!Central!Asia!and!assumed!that!the! People’s!Party!was!communist!and!proSSoviet.!The!reform!programs!Swhich! threatened!to!undermine!basic!Afghan!cultural!patternsS!and!political! repression!antagonized!large!segments!of!the!population.!Afghan! leadership!under!Prime!Minister!Nur!Muhammad!Taraki!called!the!Soviets! for!assistance!in!order!to!suppress!the!uprisings.!Alexei!Kosygin,!chairman!of! Local%newspaper%headline%after% the%Saur%Revolution%which% the!USSR!council!of!Ministers!replied!to!Taraki’s!requests!by!saying!“We% toppled%Daud%Khan’s%regime% believe%it%would%be%a%fatal%mistake%to%commit%ground%troops.%[...]%If%our% troops%went%in,%the%situation%in%your%country%would%not%improve.%On%the%contrary,%it%would%get% worse.%Our%troops%would%have%to%struggle%not%only%with%an%external%aggressor,%but%with%a% significant%part%of%your%own%people.%And%the%people%would%never%forgive%such%things."!!Leonid! Brezhnev,!head!of!state!of!the!Soviet!Union,!also!refused!Taraki’s!requests.!He!advised!Taraki! to!ease!up!on!radical!socialist!reforms!and!focus!on!gaining!support!for!his!regime.!Instead,! the!government!of!DRA!announced!and!implemented!a!hostile!doctrine!against!any!political! dissent,!whether!inside!or!outside!the!party.!Close!relationship!between!Taraki!and!his! defense!minister!Hafızullah!Amin!deteriorated!quickly!after!a!few!months!when!Soviet! officials!in!Kabul!suspected!Amin!of!being!an!agent!of!the!CIA.!Taraki!increased!his!efforts!to! neutralize!Amin!but!he!failed!his!attempt!to!kill!him!and!got!arrested!by!Amin!instead.!Amin! contacted!Brezhnev!and!asked!what!he!should!do!with!Taraki.!Brezhnev!said!it!was!his! choice.!Amin!falsely!believed!he!had!the!backing!of!the!Soviets!and!killed!Taraki.!Rebellions! became!worse!when!Amin!became!the!President.!His!efforts!to!persuade!the!Afghan!people! that!their!regime!was!not!unSIslamic!were!not!successful.!Between!the!Saur!Revolution!and! the!Soviet!intervention!on!1979,!as!many!as!27,000!political!prisoners!were!executed!in!the! infamous!PulSeSCharkhi!prison.!Many!religious,!intellectual!and!traditional!elite!escaped!the! country.!The!Soviets!were!afraid!Amin!would!follow!a!proSUS!policy!and!intervened!in! Afghanistan!in!order!to!replace!Amin!on!behalf!of!the!TwentySYear!Treaty!of!Friendship! between!Afghanistan!and!the!Soviet!Union!which!allowed!Soviet!troops!to!intervene!when! Afghan!government!requested!its!assistance.!Before!being!retracted!back!to!US!after!their! ambassador!was!assassinated,!US!Embassy!in!Kabul!contacted!Washington!D.C!and!stated:! “What%the%British%first,%and%later%the%Americans,%tried%to%prevent%for%a%hundred%years%has% happened:%the%Russian%Bear%has%moved%south%of%the%Hindu%Kush.”!Soviet!troops!entered! Afghanistan!on!December!1979!and!their!first!major!operation!was!“StormS333”!in!which! ! 10! Soviet!Forces!stormed!the!Tajbeg! Palace!and!captured!Afghan! President!Amin.!An!unknown!number! of!Afghan!palace!guards!were!killed! while!150!were!captured.!His!11SyearS old!son!died!due!to!shrapnel! wounds.!The!Soviets!installed!Babrak! Karmal!as!Amin's!successor.!By!early! 1980!several!regional!groups,! collectively!known! as!mujahedeen!(meaning:!“those!who! engage!in!jihad”),!had!united!inside! Afghanistan,!or!across!the!border!in!Peshawar,!Pakistan,!to!resist!the!Soviet!invaders!and!the! SovietSbacked!Afghan!army.!Pakistan,!along!with!the!United!States,!China,!and!several! European!and!Arab!states—most!notably!Saudi!Arabia—were!soon!providing!small!amounts! of!financial!and!military!aid!to!the!mujahedeen.!As!this!assistance!grew,!the!Pakistani! military’s!InterSService!Intelligence!Directorate!(ISI)!assumed!primary!responsibility!for! funneling!the!money!and!weapons!to!Afghan!resistance!groups.!Pakistani!authorities!were! determined!to!exercise!tight!control!over!all!such!groups,!and!upwards!of!40!separate! resistance!and!refugee!organizations!coalesced,!under!Pakistani!influence,!around!seven! resistance!parties.!In!the!meantime!UN!General!Assembly!passed!a!resolution!“strongly! deploring”!the!intervention!with!104!votes!in!favor!and!18!votes!against.!It!was!one!of!the! most!lopsided!votes!in!UNGA!history.!With!the!military!intervention!the!Soviets!intended!to! stabilize!their!client!regime!which!they!spent!lavish!amounts!of!aid!and!attention.!Military! objectives!were!to!secure!Kabul,!the!capital,!and!the!main!lines!of!communication.!After!the! objectives!have!been!completed!the!small!intervention!force!would!assume!a!low!profile! while!the!forces!of!the!Democratic!Republic!of!Afghanistan!restored!government!authority!in! the!outlying!provinces.!However,!this!was!not!the!case.!DRA!was!burdened!by!factionalism! which!contributed!to!their!incompetence!in!ruling!the!country.!Factionalism!was!only!one!of! the!factors!of!demoralization!within!its!army.!Soviet!forces!were!seen!by!the!Afghan!public! as!the!godless!people!who!occupied!their!land!and!DRA!were!seen!as!the!godless!Afghans! who!coSoperated!with!the!Soviets.!!Failures!of!the!Soviet!military!operations!in!the! countryside!added!to!the!demoralization!that!plagued!the!Afghan!army!which!in!turn! suffered!from!a!high!rate!of!desertion.!Nine!operations!were!made!into!the!Panjshir!valley! alone;!none!of!them!secured!a!long!term!victory!in!the!region!for!the!communists.!Leader!of! the!Mujahedeen!in!the!region,!Ahmad!Shah!Massoud!an!ethnic!Tajik!became!the!hero!of!the! resistance!against!Soviets!and!later!against!the!Taliban.!!A!pattern!emerged!that!would!in! large!measure!define!the!war!in!Afghanistan.!The!Soviet!force!swept!aside!the!Mujahedeen,! superior!firepower!devastating!villages!controlled!by!them.!The!result,!however,!was! deceptive.!The!Mujahedeen!withdrew!to!avoid!the!heaviest!blows!and!suffered!only!modest! losses.!Furthermore,!thousands!of!villagers!were!abruptly!transformed!into!refugees,!now! ! 11! more!steadfastly!hostile!than!ever!to!the!new!regime.!After!a!brief!stay,!Soviet!forces,!who! were!in!no!position!logistically!to!occupy!the!valleys,!withdrew.!This!foreshadowed!what! became!a!pervasive!pattern:!tactical!successes!that!did!not!add!up!to!tangible,!strategic! gains.!Soviets!realized!this!pattern!soon!enough!but!having!staked!their!prestige!on!their! Afghan!adventure,!they!could!not!comfortably!withdraw.!Still,!they!didn’t!change!their! heavyShanded!methods!which!placed!Soviet!Army!in!a!position!where!it!had!to!fight!not!only! scattered!bands!of!guerrillas!but!virtually!the!entire!Afghan!population.!Babrak!Karmal!said! of!this!condition:!“If%sending%in%the%troops%was%a%mistake,%it%was%caused%by%a%failure%to% understand%AfghanistanJby%a%poor%knowledge%of%the%country%and%the%Afghan%character."!The! Mujahedeen!were!remarkably!wellSschooled!in!the!Soviet!style!of!warfare.!Many!Afghan! resistance!fighters!were!former!officers!in!the!Afghan! Army!who!had!even!received!military!schooling!in!the! USSR.!Every!passing!year!the!aid!from!Western!states! to!mujahedeen!intensified.!!They!were!receiving!more! advanced!weapons!from!the!West!with!the!ISI!of! Pakistan.!When!CIA!provided!Stinger!missiles!to!Afghan! mujahedeen!in!1986,!Soviets!began!to!lose!a!helicopter! a!month.!Soviet!leadership!blamed!the!Afghan! government!for!the!unsuccessful!outcome!of!the!war! “To%watch%the%courageous%Afghan%freedom%fighters%battle% modern%arsenals%with%simple%handJheld%weapons%is%an% and!Babrak!Kamal!was!ousted!from!the!presidency.! inspiration%to%those%who%love%freedom."%Ronald%Reagan,% Ahmedzai!Nadjibullah!was!installed!as!the!President!of! President%of%the%United%States% Afghanistan!but!he!could!do!little!to!change!the!situation.! An!unsuccessful!“National!Reconciliation”!began!under!his! tenure!which!aimed!to!establish!national!unity.!A!new! constitution!was!ratified!by!the!Loya%Jirga.!OneSparty! system!was!abolished!and!twoSparliament!system!was! introduced.!Even!the!country’s!name!was!changed!back!to! its!old!version!–Republic!of!Afghanistan.!Islam!became!the! official!state!religion.!However!these!steps!did!not! persuaded!the!mujahedeen!who!ignored!the!requests!for! Introduction%of%the%Stinger%missile%caused%a%lot%of% causilties%for%the%Soviet%side.%Soviet%airforce%had%to%be% a!sixSmonth!ceasefire.!Soviets!finally!left!Afghanistan!in! more%careful%and%couldn’t%assist%the%ground%forces%as%it% 1989!leaving!behind!only!a!handful!of!advisors!to!guide! did%before.% the!Afghan!government.!Without!the!Soviet!military! assistance!Afghan!government!could!only!resist!the!mujahedeen!a!few!years.! ! Taliban`s!Rise!to!Power! Nadjibullah!was!finally!ousted!from!power!in!April!1992,!soon!after!the!breakup!of!the!Soviet! Union!(which!had!continued!to!provide!military!and!economic!assistance!to!the!Kabul! government).!A!coalition!built!mainly!of!the!mujahedeen!parties!that!had!fought!the! ! 12! communists!set!up!a!fragile!interim!government,!but!general!peace!and!stability!remained!a! distant!hope.!As!rival!militias!competed!for!influence,!interethnic!tensions!flared,!and!the! economy!lay!in!ruins.! Under!an!arrangement!to!provide!for!the!rotation!of!the!executive!office!between!different! factions,!the!presidency!passed!after!two!months!from!interim!president!Sebghatullah! Mujaddedi!to!Burhanuddin!Rabbani.!Rabbani,!however,!refused!to!relinquish!power!to!his! successor!after!the!expiration!of!his!twoSyear!term!in!office.!Over!the!next!three!years,! rocket!attacks!by!opposition!forces—primarily!those!of!Gulbuddin!Hekmatyar,!the!leader!of! the!Islamic!Party—caused!severe!damage!to!large!sections!of!the!capital.!Delivery!of!food! from!international!aid!organizations!and!the!UN!became!indispensable.! Outside!of!Kabul,!law!and!order!broke!down!across!much!of!the!country,!and!Afghanistan! became,!in!effect,!a!country!ruled!by!militia!leaders!and!warlords!who!exacted!road!taxes! and!transit!fees!from!trucks!engaged!in!crossSborder!trading!and!promoted!extortion!in!most! other!areas!of!normal!life.!Kidnappings,!whether!for!sadism!or!profit,!were!not!uncommon,! and!the!people!generally!fell!into!a!state!of!despair.! Partly!in!response!to!this!situation,!the!Taliban!Smeaning!“students”!in!PersianS!emerged!in! the!fall!of!1994.!The!movement’s!spiritual!and!political!leader!was!a!former!mujahedeen! fighter,!Mullah!Mohammad!Omar,!who!was!best!known!for!his!displays!of!piety!and! participation!in!the!fight!against!the!Soviet!occupation.!Drawing!its!recruits! from!madrasah!(religious!school)!students!in!Pakistan!and!the!southern!province!of! Kandahar,!the!Taliban!gained!international!attention!when!it!was!able!to!defeat!those! groups!preying!on!the!transit!trade!and!when!it!succeeded!in!ridding!Kandahar!of!its! predatory!and!corrupt!governors.!The!Taliban’s!eventual!success!in!extending!its!territorial! control!is!largely!attributable!to!the!warSweariness!of!the!Afghan!people.!In!a!short!time! others!joined!the!students;!including!fighters!formerly!associated!with!the!communists!and!a! number!of!mujahedeen!defectors!Smany!of!whom!were!induced!to!switch!sides!by!generous! payments!funded!by!the!government!of!Saudi!Arabia,!then!a!major!Taliban!supporter.! The! Taliban! also! won! the! early! backing! of! senior! Pakistani! officials! Sincluding! members! of! Pakistan’s!ISIS!who,!along!with!companies!involved!in!crossSborder!trading,!were!anxious!to! secure!a!road!route!through!Afghanistan!to!the!markets!in!Central!Asia.!These!same!officials! felt! that! the! development! of! lucrative! gas! and! oil! pipelines! from! Central! Asian! fields! to! Pakistan!would!also!be!achieved!sooner!were!the!Taliban!to!wrest!full!control!of!the!country! from!other!factions.!Importantly,!Taliban!rule!promised!for!Pakistan!a!pliant,!friendly!regime! in!Kabul,!which!contrasted!with!previous!Afghan!governments!that!often!deflected!Pakistani! influence! in! Afghanistan’s! domestic! affairs! through! political! proposals! to! India,! Pakistan’s! archrival.!Despite!the!Taliban’s!mostly!Pashtun!membership,!the!absence!from!their!agenda! of! the! familiar! irredentist! Pashtun! claims! against! Pashtun! regions! of! Pakistan! Sthe! Pashtunistan!issueS!made!the!Taliban!a!seemingly!safe!choice.! ! 13! However,!the!Taliban’s!initial!appeal!counted!heavily!on!uniting!those!Pashtuns!deeply! resentful!of!the!Rabbani!government,!which!was!dominated!by!ethnic!Tajiks.!Not!until!the! Taliban!ventured!into!areas!of!the!country!populated!largely!by!nonSPashtuns!could!its!wider! popular!acceptance!be!tested.!MinoritySdominated!Herat,!Afghanistan’s!third!largest!city,! fell!to!Taliban!fighters!in!September!1995,!and!a!year!later!the!Taliban!captured! multiethnic!Kabul,!setting!to!flight!both!antigovernment!troops!and!those!of!Rabbani.!The! northern!city!of!MazārSe!Sharīf,!populated!by!many! ethnic!Uzbeks,!fell!in!August!1998.!By!2001!the!Taliban’s! power!extended!over!more!than!nineStenths!of!the! country,!and!in!most!areas!under!its!control!the!militia! succeeded!in!disarming!the!local!inhabitants.!A!loose! coalition!of!mujahideen!militias!known!as!the!Northern! Alliance!maintained!control!of!a!small!section!of!northern! Afghanistan.!Fighters!for!the!Northern!Alliance,! particularly!those!under!the!command!of!Ahmad!Shah! Massoud,!remained!the!only!major!obstacle!to!a!final!Taliban!victory.! Pakistan,!Saudi!Arabia,!and!the!United!Arab!Emirates!gave!formal!recognition!to!the!Taliban! government!after!the!fall!of!Kabul,!but!the!movement!was!denied!Afghanistan’s!seat!at!the! UN!and!came!under!vigorous!international!criticism!for!its!extreme!views!Swith!regard!to! women!in!particularS!and!its!human!rights!record.!Refusal!by!the!Taliban!to!extradite!Osama! bin!Laden,!an!Islamic!extremist!accused!by!the!United!States!of!planning!violent!acts!and! organizing!a!global!terrorist!network,!led!to!UN!sanctions!against!the!regime!in!November! 1999!and!again!in!January!2001.!The!Taliban!was!also!accused!of!harboring!and!training! militants—many!of!whom!were!holdovers!from!the!war!against!the!Soviets—planning! insurgencies!in!the!Central!Asian!republics!and!China.!Iran!objected!to!the!treatment!of!the! Shiite!Muslim!population!and!to!the!Taliban’s!alleged!association!with!groups!that!smuggled! narcotics!across!the!Iranian!frontier.!Pakistani!authorities,!although!concerned!about!the! possible!ramifications!of!Islamic!radicalism!on!their!own!society,!continued!to!assist!the! Taliban!economically!and!were!given!varying!degrees!of!credit!for!aiding!the!Taliban!in!its! military!successes.! Fighting!between!the!Taliban!and!the!Northern!Alliance!continued,!and!the!international! community!made!little!headway!toward!inducing!the!combatants!to!observe!a!ceaseSfire!or! in!convincing!the!Taliban!to!share!power!in!a!broadly!representative!national!government.! Although!foreign!humanitarian!assistance!to!the!Afghans!continued,!largeSscale! reconstruction!was!not!addressed.!Just!as!the!commitment!of!international!agencies!and! donors!was!uncertain,!the!capacity!of!Taliban!leaders!to!manage!a!rebuilding!effort! remained!questionable.!The!transition!from!a!heavily!criminalized!domestic!and!regional! economy!Sbased!on!smuggling!weapons!and!narcotics!and!the!uncontrolled!exploitation!of! Afghanistan’s!natural!resourcesS!remained!indispensable!for!the!country’s!rehabilitation!and! for!a!sustainable!peace.! ! 14! Struggle!for!Democracy! Conditions!continued!to!deteriorate!in!late!2001.!Blame!for!the!terrorist!attacks!on! the!World!Trade!Center!in!New!York!City!and!a!simultaneous!attack!on!the!Pentagon!near! Washington,!D.C.,!on!September!11!quickly!centered!on!members!of!a!Muslim!extremist! group,!alSQaeda,!based!in!Afghanistan!and!headed!by!bin!Laden.!The!Taliban!refused! repeated!U.S.!demands!to!extradite!bin!Laden!and!his!associates!and!to!dismantle!terrorist! training!facilities!in!Afghanistan.!Within!weeks!of!the!attacks,!the!United!States!and!Britain! launched!an!intensive!bombing!campaign!against!the!Taliban!and!provided!significant! logistical!support!to!Northern!Alliance!forces!in!an!attempt!to!force!the!regime!to!yield!to!its! demands.!Devastated!by!the!U.S.!bombardment,!Taliban!forces!collapsed!within!days!of!a! wellScoordinated!ground!offensive!launched!in!midSNovember!by!Northern!Alliance!troops! and!U.S.!Special!Forces.!On!December!7!the!Taliban!surrendered!Kandahar,!the!militia’s!base! of!power!and!the!last!city!under!its!control.!At!nearly!the!same!time,!representatives!of! several!antiSTaliban!groups!met!in!Bonn,!Germany,!an!agreement!was!signed!which!named! an!interim!administration,!which!was!installed!two!weeks!later.!This!administration!held! power!until!June!2002!when!a!Loya%Jirga!was!convened!that!selected!a!transitional! government!to!rule!the!country!until!national!elections!could!be!held!and!a!new!constitution! drafted.! In!December!2003!another!Loya%Jirga!was!convened!to!consider!a!draft!constitution!that!had! been!released!in!November.!In!January!2004,!after!three!weeks!of!debate,!the!Loya%Jirga! approved!the!constitution,!which!called!for!a!directly!elected!president!and!a!twoSchamber! legislature.!It!was!then!signed!into!law!by!Hamid!Karzai,!leader!of!the!transitional! government.!Democratic!elections,!in!which!women!were!granted!the!right!to!vote,!were! held!in!October!2004,!and!Karzai!was!elected!president,!winning!55!percent!of!the!vote.! In!March!2005!Karzai!announced!that!legislative!elections!would!be!held!later!that!year.! Although!alSQaeda!and!Taliban!elements!had!threatened!to!disrupt!the!elections,!they!took! place!on!Sept.!18,!2005!Sthe!first!time!in!more!than!30!years!that!such!elections!were!heldS and!in!December!the!newly!elected!National!Assembly!convened!its!first!session.!Ongoing! violence!throughout!2005!increased!steeply!at!year’s!end!and!worsened!considerably!the! following!year!as!instability!and!warfare!spread.!Attacks!and!violent!exchanges!between!the! U.S.Sled!coalition!and!the!Taliban!forces!became!more!frequent,!particularly!in!the!eastern! and!southern!provinces,!and!casualties!increased.!In!July!2006,!North!Atlantic!Treaty! Organization!(NATO)!troops!replaced!the!U.S.Sled!coalition!at!the!head!of!military!operations! in!the!south,!and!in!October!they!also!took!command!of!the!eastern!provinces,!thus! assuming!control!of!international!military!operations!across!the!entire!country.!Fighting! between!NATO!and!Taliban!forces!continued,!and!civilian!casualties!remained!numerous;!in! 2008!they!reached!their!highest!levels!since!the!start!of!the!war.!In!keeping!with!campaign! statements!that!the!war!in!Afghanistan!would!require!greater!attention!and!commitment!on! the!part!of!the!United!States,!newly!elected!U.S.!Pres.!Barack!Obama!announced!in!February! ! 15! 2009!that!some!17,000!additional!U.S.!troops!would!be!sent!to!Afghanistan!in!the!spring!and! early!summer!of!that!year.! Karzai’s!term!as!president!was!due!to!expire!in!May!2009,!and!at!that!time!he!was! constitutionally!obligated!to!step!down.!Because!of!logistical!and!security!reasons,!however,! the!approaching!presidential!election!Sin!which!Karzai!would!be!a!candidateS!was!postponed! from!May!to!August!of!that!year.!Karzai!asserted!that!for!reasons!of!security!he!should! remain!in!office!until!the!election!took!place.!Critics!were!concerned!that!maintaining!his! position!would!give!Karzai!an!undue!electoral!advantage,!and!they!urged!him!to!step!down! as!mandated!by!the!constitution!and!turn!power!over!to!an!interim!government.!In!March! 2009!the!Supreme!Court!ruled!that!Karzai!could!legally!retain!his!position!until!the!election! in!August.!Discontent!with!Karzai’s!leadership!produced!a!number!of!presidential!hopefuls,! though!Karzai!was!deftly!able!to!neutralize!or!secure!the!backing!of!most!of!those!who!might! have!challenged!him.! The!presidential!election!was!held!on!Aug.!20,!2009,!and!was!followed!by!weeks!of!political! turmoil.!In!September!a!preliminary!count!awarded!Karzai!almost!55!percent!of!the!vote,! thus!indicating!that!he!had!won!an!outright!victory!over!his!closest!challenger,!former! foreign!minister!Abdullah!Abdullah.!With!more!than!2,000!complaints!of!fraud!and! intimidation,!however,!the!United!NationsSbacked!Electoral!Complaints!Commission!(ECC)! ordered!an!audit!of!suspect!polling!stations,!including!those!that!registered!a!turnout! exceeding!100!percent,!and!began!an!investigation!into!fraud!allegations.!In!midSOctober!the! ECC!ruled!that!the!fraudulent!activity!was!pervasive!enough!to!invalidate!votes!from!more! than!200!polling!stations.!As!a!result!of!the!ruling,!almost!oneSthird!of!Karzai’s!votes!were! invalidated,!and!his!proportion!of!the!vote!slipped!to!49.7!percent,!just!below!the!majority! he!had!claimed!and!low!enough!to!warrant!a!second!round!of!elections.!Although!Karzai! initially!resisted!the!call!for!a!runoff,!on!October!20!he!conceded!to!a!second!round!of!polling! between!himself!and!Abdullah,!which!was!scheduled!for!November!7.!Shortly!thereafter,! however,!Abdullah!withdrew!from!the!race,!a!decision!he!cited!as!being!in!the!country’s!best! interest.!The!runoff!election!was!canceled,!and!shortly!thereafter!Karzai!was!inaugurated!as! president!for!a!second!term.! Opium!production!reached!record!levels!within!a!few!years!of!the!ouster!of!the!Taliban! government:!it!was!estimated!that!Afghanistan!produced!more!than!nineStenths!of!the! world’s!opiates.!Complicating!government!efforts!to!curtail!production!was!the!fact!that! many!segments!of!the!population,!including!the!Taliban!and!supporters!of!the!central! government,!profited!from!opium!production.!Indeed,!the!Taliban!derived!a!substantial! income!from!the!industry,!using!the!proceeds!to!fund!their!insurgency.! Insurgent!attacks!increased!in!2009.!By!the!middle!of!the!year,!U.S.!commanders!had! become!convinced!that!troop!levels!in!Afghanistan!were!too!low!to!implement!their! counterinsurgency!strategy,!which!called!for!international!forces!to!focus!on!protecting!the! population!and!securing!areas!for!reconstruction!projects,!rather!than!simply!killing!large! ! 16! numbers!of!insurgents.!After!some!debate!within!the!Obama!administration,!Obama! announced!in!December!2009!that!the!U.S.!would!temporarily!increase!the!number!of! troops!in!Afghanistan!by!30,000.!This!increase!in!troop!strength!would!be!tied!to!an! accelerated!timetable!for!the!training!of!Afghan!security!forces!and!the!transfer!of!security! responsibilities!from!NATO!to!the!Afghan!government.! The!number!of!NATO!troops!in!Afghanistan!peaked!in!2010!at!nearly!150,000.!The!increase! in!troops!delivered!mixed!results;!although!NATO!troops!were!able!to!sweep!the!Taliban!out! of!areas!that!it!had!previously!controlled,!militants!continued!to!launch!devastating!surprise! attacks!against!military,!government,!and!civilian!targets.!Two!factors!that!allowed!the! Taliban!to!remain!resilient!in!spite!of!NATO’s!territorial!gains!were!the!widespread! unpopularity!of!the!Afghan!central!government!and!NATO!among!Afghans!and!the!presence! of!a!safe!haven!for!Taliban!fighters!across!the!eastern!border!in!Pakistan.! With!a!military!resolution!to!the!conflict!seeming!increasingly!unlikely,!and!public!support! for!the!war!declining!in!both!Europe!and!the!U.S.,!NATO!members!agreed!in!November!2010! to!withdraw!combat!troops!by!2014.!The!apparent!stalemate!between!international!troops! and!the!Taliban!also!made!U.S.!and!NATO!leaders!more!willing!to!explore!prospects!for!a! negotiated!political!settlement!with!the!Taliban.!However,!diplomatic!contact!between!the! U.S.!and!the!Taliban!in!2011!and!2012!was!intermittent!and!failed!to!make!progress!toward! an!agreement.! Meanwhile,!the!situation!of!the!Afghan!central!government!remained!precarious.!Afghans’! confidence!in!governing!institutions!was!low,!in!large!part!because!of!rampant!corruption!at! the!local,!provincial,!and!national!levels.!Parliamentary!elections!in!2010!were!marred!by!low! turnout!in!areas!where!Taliban!threats!kept!voters!away!from!the!polls,!while!lastSminute! changes!to!electoral!law!and!new!allegations!of!vote!rigging!further!damaged!the!credibility! of!the!electoral!process.! The!gradual!transfer!of!security!responsibilities!to!Afghan!forces!began!in!2011!and!was! accompanied!by!a!significant!reduction!in!the!number!of!NATO!troops!from!peak!levels!in! 2010.!However,!many!observers!questioned!Afghan!forces’!ability!to!control!the!country! after!the!withdrawal!of!NATO!in!2014.! Current!Situation! In!2014!Afghanistan!held!a!presidential!election!to!pick!a!successor!to!Karzai,!who!was! constitutionally!barred!from!seeking!another!term!in!office.!As!was!widely!expected,!the! start!of!the!presidential!campaign!in!February!was!met!with!an!upsurge!of!insurgent! violence,!but!the!first!round!of!voting!was!held!on!schedule!in!April.!A!runoff!between!the! two!leading!candidates,!Abdullah!Abdullah!and!Ashraf!Ghani,!followed!in!June.!A!preliminary! count!placed!Ghani!ahead,!but!Abdullah!demanded!a!recount,!charging!that!as!many!as!two! million!of!the!ballots!for!Ghani!were!fraudulent.!With!both!candidates!claiming!victory,!a! period!of!deadlock!followed.!In!July,!under!pressure!from!the!United!States,!both!sides! ! 17! agreed!in!principle!to!accept!the!results!of!an!internationally!supervised!audit!of!the!vote! and!to!form!a!national!unity!government!in!which!the!winner!would!take!the!position!of! president!and!the!losing!side!would!nominate!someone!to!occupy!a!newly!created!office! with!powers!similar!to!those!of!a!prime!minister.!The!situation,!however,!remained!delicate;! disagreements!between!the!two!sides!threatened!to!derail!the!process!before!a!final! agreement!could!be!reached.!On!21st!of!September!Ghani!and!Abdullah!signed!an! agreement!under!which!Ghani!would!become!president!and!Abdullah!or!a!nominee!from!his! party!would!take!the!new!position!of!chief!executive!officer.!Ashraf!Ghani!is!a!prominent! Afghan!intellectual.!He!has!received!his!higher!education!from!American!University!in!Beirut! and!Columbia!University.!He!had!lectures!in!UC!Berkeley!and!John!Hopkins!University.!He! started!working!in!the!World!Bank!until!9/11!when!he!left!his!job!to!go!back!to!Afghanistan.! After!becoming!President,!Ghani!announced!an!ambitious!development!plan!for!Afghanistan! and!focused!his!efforts!on!establishing!peace!in!order!to!implement!his!plans.!He!reached! out!to!Taliban!in!a!different!manner!than!Karzai.!"Ashraf%Ghani's%rhetoric%is%important.%It% showed%a%different%approach%than%that%of%Karzai.!Everything%Ghani%has%said%has%been% centered%around%peace."!said!Abdul!Salam!Rocketi,!a!former!Taliban!military!commander.! Ghani!also!made!solid!efforts!to!increase!Afghanistan’s!relationship!with!Pakistan!which!he! sees!as!an!essential!part!of!finishing!the!insurgency.!Afghan!troops!launched!attacks!against! antiSPakistan!militants!who!crossed!into!Afghan!territory,!captured!a!top!Pakistani!Taliban! commander!and!handed!him!over!Pakistan,!even!withdrawn!its!request!for!arms!from!India.! However!there!have!been!criticisms!within!Afghanistan!to!Ghani’s!friendly!approach!to! Pakistan.!Critics!think!that!Pakistan!is!not!doing!its!part!to!stop!the!insurgents.! Lastly,!there!has!been!official!confirmation!by!the!Afghan!Ministry!of!Interior!that!ISIS!gained! presence!in!Afghanistan.!A!handful!of!insurgents!have!changed!their!white!Taliban!flag!to!a! black!one.!Taliban!strongly!opposed!ISIS’s!presence!in!Afghanistan!and!both!sides!declared! Jihad!on!each!another.!By!late!January!ISIS!recruited!more!than!a!hundred!members!from! Afghanistan.!However,!by!the!end!of!January!2015,!65!of!the!militants!were!either!captured! or!killed!by!the!Taliban,!and!ISIL's!top!Afghan!recruiter,!Mullah!Abdul!Rauf,!was!killed!in!a! U.S.!drone!strike!in!February!2015.! ! ! Points!to!Consider! Being!one!of!the!longest!conflicts!in!human!history,!finishing!the!conflict!in!Afghanistan!is!a! hard!task.!Social!dynamic!is!complex!and!since!the!dawn!of!time!no!government!can!boast! that!they!have!achieved!complete!authority!over!the!Afghan!population.!It!is!advised!to!split! this!issue!into!key!points!in!order!to!deal!with!them!efficiently.!! First!issue!is!ensuring!security!of!the!Afghan!population.!Responsibility!of!security!has!been! transferred!to!Afghan!authorities!in!2013.!ISAF’s!mission!has!been!terminated!in!2014!and! ! 18! with!it!NATO!removed!all!of!its!combat! personnel!from!Afghanistan.!Resolute! Support!mission!was!established!after!ISAF! in!order!to!help!Afghan!security!forces!in! this!transition!period.!But!critics!argued!that! it!was!a!symbolic!change!and!RS!continued! the!role!of!ISAF!even!though!RS!is! designated!as!a!nonScombat!mission.!There! has!also!have!been!many!criticism!for!the! Afghan!army!and!police!both!of!which!have! a!bad!history!with!corruption!and!indiscipline.! Counter%Insurgency%(COIN)%strategy%adopted%by%NATO% Taliban!of!course!have!tried!to!use!termination! of!ISAF!to!their!benefit!and!increased!their!attacks!on!Afghan!officials.!After!facing!criticisms! for!the!counterSinsurgency!strategy,!US!wanted!to!quicken!the!process!of!getting!their! combat!troops!out!and!leave!the!bulk!of!the!fighting!to!Afghan!troops.!However!the! indiscipline!and!corruption!in!the!Afghan!army!doesn’t!give!much!confidence!to!the! international!community.! Second!issue!is!cutting!funding!to!insurgent!groups.!There!are!two!major!sources!for!the! insurgent!groups.!External!funding!originates!in!other!Islamic!states!and!gets!delivered!via! couriers!and!hawalas.!It!is!nearly!impossible!to!track!these!transitions!since!no!there!is!no! paper!trail.!It!relies!on!a!network!of!brokers!to!send!money!to!various!locations.!Broker! reputations!are!built!mainly!on!trust!and!regular!people!use!this!system!as!well.!This!is!one! of!the!reasons!why!it!is!hard!to!track!down!dirty!money.!During!an!interview,!a!former!U.S.! counterSterrorism!official!said:!“You%can%literally%drive%a%car%with%$10,000,%$20,000%or%a% million%dollars%from%XYZ%country%to%Syria.%Not%a%whole%lot%we%can%do.”!In!one!of!its!reports,! Financial!Action!Task!Force!(FATF)!recommended!a!few!measures!to!diminish!hawala!based! funding!to!the!insurgency!groups!by!regulating!the!hawala!system,!registering!hawaladars% with!the!governments!and!taxing!the!hawala!system.!They!have!stated!that!elimination!of! this!system!is!impossible!but!advised!on!imposing!sanctions!on!hawaladars!who!won’t! register.!This!is!only!the!cap!of!the!iceberg!of!course.!Internal!funding!covers!most!of!the! expenditures!of!the!insurgent!groups!and!most!of!that!comes!from!opium!production!which! provides!approximately!%70!of!the!funds!for!the!Taliban.!!President!Karzai!stated!in!one!of! his!speeches!that:!“Either%Afghanistan%destroys%opium%or%opium%will%destroy%Afghanistan.”! Looking!to!the!statistics,!so!far!opium!is!leading!the!battle!against!the!Afghan!government.! Despite!efforts!from!ISAF!and!Afghan!government,!opium!production!rose!regularly!and!it’s! now!being!produced!on!a!whole!time!high!capacity.!Main!reason!for!this!trend!is!the! devastating!poverty!among!Afghan!population.!After!years!of!conflict!many!poor!farmers! turned!to!opium!cultivation!to!make!a!living!because!of!the!relatively!high!rate!of!return.! Opium!is!grown!legally!is!some!countries!for!medical!purposes,!but!huge!demand!in!the!illicit! market,!coupled!with!saturation!of!the!licit!market,!is!driving!Afghanistan!to!supply!illegal! ! 19! opium.!In!2004,!approximately!523!tons!of!morphine!were!produced!4!worldwide!from! opium!for!medical!purposes.12!Opium!is!also!refined!for!use!in!legal!prescription!painkillers! such!as!OxyContin!and!Vicodin.13!However,!Australia!and!France!currently!produce!about! half!the!world’s!opium!used!for!medical!purposes,!with!India,!Turkey,!Spain,!and!Hungary! producing!a!majority!of!the!rest,!leaving!little!flexibility!for!Afghanistan!to!enter!this!market.! Instead,!almost!all!of!it!ends!up!on!the!international!market!as!heroin.!The!Karzai! government!made!opium!poppy!cultivation!and!trafficking!illegal!in!2002!but!when!an! Afghan!farmer!can!make!17!times!more!profit!growing!opium!poppy!compared!to!growing! wheat!it!didn’t!have!much!effect!on!farmers.!Revenue!from!opium!harvest!brought!in!over! $3!billion!to!Afghanistan,!more!than!35!percent!of!the!country’s!total!gross!national!product.! However!less!than!20!percent!of!the!$3!billion!in!opium!profits!actually!goes!to!impoverished! farmers,!while!6!more!than!80!percent!goes!into!the!pockets!of!Afghan’s!opium!traffickers! and!kingpins!and!their!political!connections.28!Even!heftier!profits!are!generated!outside!of! Afghanistan!by!international!drug!traffickers!and!dealers.!Corruption!associated!with!the! opium!economy!has!spread!to!all!levels!of!the!Afghan!government!from!the!police!to!the! parliament,!and!is!eroding!the!rule!of!law.!Farmers!routinely!bribe!police!and! counternarcotics!eradication!personnel!to!turn!a!blind!eye.!Law!enforcement!personnel!are! also!paid!off!by!drug!traffickers!to!ignore!or,!in!some!cases,!protect!their!movements.!Afghan! government!officials!are!now!believed!to!be!involved!in!at!least!70!percent!of!opium! trafficking,!and!experts!estimate!that!at!least!13!former!or!present!provincial!governors!are! directly!involved!in!the!drug!trade.31!Furthermore,!up!to!25!percent!of!the!249!elected! members!of!parliament!are!also!suspected!of!being!involved!in!the!drug!trade.!When! referring!to!Afghanistan’s!Ministry!of!Interior,!Syed!Ikramuddin,!Afghan’s!Minister!of!Labor,! said:!“Except!for!the!Minister!of!Interior!himself,!all!the!lower!people!from!the!heads!of! department!down!are!involved!in!supporting!drug!smuggling.”33!For!example,!in!a!single! raid,!nine!tons!of!opium!were!recovered!from!the!offices!of!the!Governor!of!Afghan’s! Helmand!Province.!While!the!governor!was!eventually!replaced,!no!punitive!action!was! taken!against!him,!and!he!moved!on!to!a!highSlevel!position!in!parliament.!This!case!is!not! unusual,!with!corrupt!officials!routinely!being!simply!reassigned!rather!than!removed!from! office.!Taliban!are!now!using!Afghan’s!opium!industry!as!a!source!of!funds!as!well!as!an! avenue!to!gain!the!allegiance!of! the!Afghan!people,!particularly! poor!rural!Afghans!discontented! with!the!U.S.!and!NATOS supported!Karzai!government.! Former!governor!of!the!southern! province!of!Helmand!stated!that:! “The!Taliban!have!forged!an! alliance!with!drug!smugglers,! providing!protection!for!drug! convoys!and!mounting!attacks!to! ! 20! keep!the!government!away!and!the!poppy!flourishing.”!! US!have!adopted!a!counternarcotics!(CON)!strategy!while!dealing!with!this!issue!however! there!have!been!many!obstacles!against!implementing!the!strategy!efficiently.!Lack!of! security!and!lack!of!alternatives!for!the!farmers!are!the!prominent!factors.!While!98!percent! of!Afghan!opium!farmers!are!ready!to!stop!opium!poppy!cultivation!if!access!to!an!alternate! livelihood!is!provided,!relatively!few!of!them!have!realistic!alternatives!available.!There!has! been!criticism!on!how!CON!was!implemented.!Many!critics!believe!eradication!part!of!CON! should!be!deemphasized!because!it!makes!farmers!more!frustrated!and!close!to!the! insurgent!cause.!A!few!measures!that!can!be!taken!are!focusing!on!longSterm!alternative! livelihoods!for!opium!farmers,!aggressively!pursuing!drug!kingpins!and!corrupt!government! officials!and!exploring!the!possibility!of!Afghanistan’s!entry!to!the!legal!opium!market.! Third!issue!is!education.!Education!plays!a!huge!role!in!diminishing!the!influence!of!insurgent! groups.!Since!its!formation!Taliban!have!opposed!school’s!which!gave!“western!style”! education!and!promoted!education!from!madrassas!and!prohibited!secular!education.!Girls! were!forbidden!from!receiving!education.!Since!the!fall!of!Taliban!there!has!been!relative! success!on!education.!Approximately!ten!million!students!are!attending!schools!according!to! figures!from!2013.!However!there!are!still!many!challenges.!Although!there!is!extensive! funding!for!education!in!Afghanistan,!a!lot!of!that!money!is!not!used!in!education!and! sometimes!trickles!down!to!the!pockets!of!corrupt!officials.!Especially!the!schools!in!the! countryside!suffer!from!lack!of!funding.!Security!is!also!a!major!problem,!most!parents!living! in!conflict!areas!don’t!want!to!send!their!children!to!schools!especially!their!daughters.!Also! lack!of!female!teachers!keeps!girls!from!going!to!school!since!a!lot!of!conservative!parents! refuse!to!send!their!daughters!to!school!if!there!are!no!female!teachers.! Previous!UN!Resolutions! Between!1996!and!2001!when!Taliban!was!in!power,!9!resolutions!passed!in!UNSC! concerning!the!situation!in!Afghanistan.!First!of!those!resolutions!addressed!the!concerns! about!the!Taliban!regime!on!human!rights!issues!–especially!against!womenS!and!for!the! establishment!of!a!ceasefire!between!the!parties!in!Afghanistan.!After!the!1998!US!Embassy! bombings!in!Eastern!Africa!by!AlSQaeda,!Taliban!was!accused!of!harboring!Osama!Bin!Laden.! In!Resolution!1267,!the!UNSC!demanded!Taliban!to!extradite!Osama!Bin!Laden.!In!Resolution! 1333!the!UNSC!demanded!Taliban!to!“cease%the%provision%of%sanctuary%and%training%for% international%terrorists%and%their%organizations,%take%appropriate%effective%measures%to% ensure%that%the%3%territory%under%its%control%is%not%used%for%terrorist%installations%and%camps,% or%for%the%preparation%or%organization%of%terrorist%acts%against%other%States%or%their%citizens,% and%cooperate%with%international%efforts%to%bring%indicted%terrorists%to%justice”!and!to!comply! with!previous!resolutions!passed!in!UNSC.!However!these!resolutions!were!not!taken! seriously!by!the!Taliban!government!in!Kabul.!Resolution!1267!UN!initiated!the!first!set!of! sanctions!against!the!Taliban!regime!including!freezing!funds!controlled!by!Taliban.!Arms! and!diplomatic!embargoes!came!in!2000!with!the!Resolution!1333.!After!the!US!Invasion,!the! ! 21! UN!authorized!the!establishment!of!an!International!Security!Assistance!Force!(ISAF)!for!the! purpose!of!assisting!the!Afghan!Interim!Authority!which!was!established!at!the!International! Conference!on!Afghanistan!in!Bonn,!Germany.!In!2002!with!the!UNSC!Resolution!1401! United!Nations!Assistance!Mission!in!Afghanistan!was!established!in!order!to!assist!people!of! Afghanistan!and!lay!the!foundations!of!sustainable!development.!While!Resolution!1419! addressed!UNSC’s!support!to!the!transitional!government!headed!by!Hamid!Karzai.!Since!the! fall!of!the!Taliban!government!there!has!been!32!resolutions!on!Afghanistan!on!UNSC.!In! those!resolutions!the!UNSC;!addressed!the!human!rights!violations!in!Afghanistan!and!called! upon!the!international!community,!extended!the!authorities!of!ISAF!and!UNAMA!on!a!12! month!basis,!stressed!the!importance!of!reducing!opium!production!in!order!to!cut!supplies! of!terrorist!organizations.!They!have!achieved,!at!best,!partial!success!in!their!aims.!After! ISAF’s!mission!has!been!terminated!and!the!process!of!giving!the!responsibility!of!security!to! the!Afghan!authorities!began,!UNSC!focused!its!efforts!on!promoting!UNAMA!throughout! Afghanistan.! USEFUL!LINKS! COMPREHENSIVE!UNSC!RESOLUTIONS! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1267(1999)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1333(2000)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1401(2002)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1419(2002)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1746(2007)!! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1806(2008)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1817(2008)!! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1868(2009)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1917(2010)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1974(2011)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2041(2012)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2069(2012)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2096(2013)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2145(2014)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2145(2014)! http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2210%20(2015)! “State!of!the!Insurgency”!Presentation!by!NATO!(Unclassified):! • http://www.defensestudies.org/wpScontent/uploads/2010/01/isafSstateSofStheS insurgencyS231000Sdec.pdf! “Opium!and!Afghanistan:!Reassessing!the!U.S.!Counternarcotics!strategy”:! ! 22! • http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub804.pdf! “The!Afghanistan!Compact”!agreed!by!the!Republic!of!Afghanistan!and!the!International! community!during!the!International!Conference!on!Afghanistan!(2006):! • http://www.nato.int/isaf/docu/epub/pdf/afghanistan_compact.pdf! “From!Soldier!to!Civilian:!Disarmament!Demobilization!Reintegration!in!Afghanistan”!by! Danish!Institute!for!International!Studies:! • http://www.diis.dk/files/media/documents/publications/rp2006S7web.pdf! “Ethnoscapes,!National!Territorialisation,!and!the!Afghan!War”!by!Conrad!Schetter:! • http://www.zef.de/module/register/media/3083_Afghanistan_English_geopolitics_d raft.pdf! The!“Hawala”!system:! • http://globalsecuritystudies.com/Faith%20Hawala%20FINAL.pdf! UNAMA!FAQ:! • http://unama.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=12269&language=enSUS! Bibliography! • • • • • • • • • • ! http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/57411/miltonSbearden/afghanistanS graveyardSofSempires! http://www.nam.ac.uk/exhibitions/onlineSexhibitions/roadSkabul/thirdSafghanSwar! http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpS dyn/content/article/2009/05/10/AR2009051001959.html! Conflict!in!Afghanistan:!A!Historical!Encyclopedia:! http://books.google.com.tr/books?id=bv4hzxpo424C&pg=PA148&redir_esc=y#v=one page&q&f=false!! First!AngloSAfghan!war!S>!http://memory.loc.gov/cgiS bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0012)! http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/144382.stm! https://news.google.co.nz/newspapers?id=MQwVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jQIEAAAAIBAJ&pg =6049,7393411&dq=soviet+invasion+of+afghanistan&hl=en! http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/2001/sovietS afghan_compoundSwarfare.htm! Who!are!Taliban:!http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/144382.stm!! Chronology!of!the!War!in!Afghanistan!(since!2001):! http://www.cfr.org/afghanistan/usSwarSafghanistan/p20018! 23! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ! http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpS dyn/content/article/2010/09/22/AR2010092206141.html! http://www.latimes.com/opinion/opSed/laSoeSchayesSafghanistanSelectionsS 20140923Sstory.html! http://archive.armytimes.com/article/20091008/NEWS/910080310/CorruptionS indisciplineSslowSAfghanStraining! http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/08/22/usSafghanistanS idUSTRE57E0D620090822! http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124986154654218153#articleTabs%3Darticle! http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/7/30/pentagonSsaysS anyfullwithdrawalofustroopsunlikelyin2014.html! http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/9/10/stringSofS bombingskill11inafghanistan.html! http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/09/world/asia/frustratedSobamaSconsidersSfullS troopSwithdrawalSfromSafghanistan.html?hp&_r=1&pagewanted=all! http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130618/karzaiSannouncesSafghanS securityShandover! http://www.ibtimes.com/afghanistanSopiumSproductionSrecordShighSamidS instabilitySslowingSeconomyShighSdemandS1715675! http://www.ibtimes.com/islamicSstateShowSterroristSgroupsSmoveSmillionsSwithoutS paperStrailS1698544! https://news.vice.com/article/afghanistansSopiumSeconomySisSdoingSbetterSthanS ever! https://news.vice.com/article/theSusSjustScantSstopSblowingSbillionsSinSafghanistan! http://nationalinterest.org/blog/theSskeptics/opiumSeconomyS4206! http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/10/afghanistanSopiumSpoppySheroinS recordSlevels! http://www.bbc.com/news/worldSasiaS22150482! http://thediplomat.com/2014/12/aSsolutionSforSafghanistansSopiumScrisis/! https://raziasrayofhope.org/educationSinSafghanistan.html! http://www.latimes.com/world/afghanistanSpakistan/laSfgSafghanistanSghaniSusS 20150322Sstory.html! http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/ghanisStalibanSpredicament/! http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2015/01/afghanSofficialsSconfirmSisilS presenceS201511815245847478.html! http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/isisSinSafghanistanSisSaSdisasterSwaitingStoS happenS10099198.html! http://www.ibtimes.com/isisSafghanistanSsaysSseniorSarmySofficialSmilitantsShaveS raisedSblackSflagsSsouthernS1787158! 24! • http://www.breitbart.com/nationalSsecurity/2015/04/22/reportSisisStalibanSdeclareS jihadSonSeachSother/! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 25! Topic!B:!Eradicating!War!Crimes!of!Any!Kind!on!the!Focus!of!the! Utilization!of!Private!Military!Contractors!and!Mercenaries! Key!Terminology! International!and!nonSinternational!armed!conflicts! The! Statute! of! the! International! Criminal! Court! defines! war! crimes! as,! inter! alia,! “serious! violations!of!the!laws!and!customs!applicable!in!international!armed!conflict”!and!“serious! violations! of! the! laws! and! customs! applicable! in! an! armed! conflict! not! of! an! international! character”.! Basically,! International! armed! conflicts! are! when! there! are! two! or! more! States! and! nonS international!armed!conflicts!are!between!government!forces!and!nonSgovernmental!armed! groups,!or!between!such!groups!only.!! This!definition!encloses!in!Article!3!of!the!Geneva!Convention!of!1959!and!nonSinternational! armed!conflicts!in!Art!1.!of!Additional!Protocol!II.! According!to!these!laws,!there!is!no!other!type!of!armed!conflict.! ! Customary!and!conventional!law! Customary!laws!are!common!rules!that!do!not!lie!in!the!Convention!but!rather!in!practices! adopted!by!the!States! Conventional!Laws!are!laws!that!are!signed!by!several!states!to!come!to!a!common!ground.! ! Definition!of!the!War!Crime! ICC%defines%war%crimes%as;! “War%crimes”%include%grave%breaches%of%the%Geneva%Conventions%and%other%serious%violations% of%the%laws%and%customs%applicable%in%international%armed%conflict%and%in%conflicts%"not%of%an% international% character"% listed% in% the% Rome% Statute,% when% they% are% committed% as% part% of% a% plan%or%policy%or%on%a%large%scale.%These%prohibited%acts%include:! •%%%%murder;! •%%%%mutilation,%cruel%treatment%and%torture;! •%%%%taking%of%hostages;! •%%%%intentionally%directing%attacks%against%the%civilian%population;! ! 26! •% % % % intentionally% directing% attacks% against% buildings% dedicated% to% religion,% education,% art,% science%or%charitable%purposes,%historical%monuments%or%hospitals;! •%%%%pillaging;! •%%%%rape,%sexual%slavery,%forced%pregnancy%or%any%other%form%of%sexual%violence;! •%%%%conscripting%or%enlisting%children%under%the%age%of%15%years%into%armed%forces%or%groups%or% using%them%to%participate%actively%in%hostilities.! Rules!of!War!! As! people! did! try! to! limit! the! brutality! of! the! war,! states! came! together! to! write! the! First! Geneva!Convention!in!1865!until!the!birth!of!modern!international!humanitarian!law.!They! are!some!basic!limits!to!protect!the!ones!who!do!not!fight!as!well!as!those!who!are!no!longer! able!to!fight.! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 27! Civilians! States!should!take!all!precautions!to!avoid!it,!however;!as!the!charts!above!show!states!are! getting!more!and!more!brutal!to!civilians!even!according!to!humanitarian!law.! Detainees!Laws!of!War!! Detainees! laws! of! war! prohibit! torture! and! other! brutal! actions! to! detainees! that! do! not! differ! from! their! past! actions,! they! should! receive! food! and! water! and! they! should! be! allowed! to! communicate.! Further! you! will! see! a! case! study! on! Abu! Ghraib! Prison! which! is! stated! in! Iraq! where! United! States! Army! and! Central! Intelligence! Agency! has! committed! a! series! of! human! rights! violations! such! as! physical! and! sexual! abuse,! torture,! rape,! sodomy! and! murder! which! did! come! to! light! with! reports! of! Amnesty! International! and! the! Associated!Press!in!2003.! Medical!Aid!Services! When! medical! workers! are! harmed! it! is! deadly! for! both! sides! as! medical! workers! do! not,! most!of!the!time,!work!for!one!side,!so!states!also!should!take!precautions!further.! As!indicated,!during!wartime!medical!workers!put!a!sign!on!their!arms.! Soldiers!should!not!interfere!to!medics!and!cannot!indicate!who!they!should!treat!or!not.! Red!Cross!must!not!be!attacked.! Limits!to!Warfare! As! technology! advanced! rules! of! war! also! should! adapt! as! some! weapons! and! methods! of! warfare! do! not! distinguish! between! fighters! and! civilians! limits! on! the! use! has! agreed.! However,!these!rules!are!not!yet!able!to!cover!all!the!blanks!as!maybe!in!the!future!there! will! be! no! human! fighter! but! robots! or! unmanned! aerial! vehicle! that! may! not! be! able! to! ! 28! differ!fighters!and!civilians.! Private!Military!Firms!and!Mercenaries! Private!military!firms! Private!military!firms!(PMFs)!are!companies!specialized!to!sell!military!skills.!They!started!in! 20th!century,!they!have!done!many!task!such!as!but!limited!to:!conducting!tactical!combat! operations,!strategic!planning,!intelligence,!operational!and!logistics!support,!troop!training,! technical! assistance.! PMFs! are! differing! from! small! consulting! corporations,! comprised! of! retired!generals!to!enormous!transnational!firms!that!are!capable!of!doing!everything!from! providing! hundreds! of! armed! commandos! to! supply! the! logistics! for! entire! military! operations.! These! firms! are! operating! more! than! 50! states,! from! Saudi! Arabia! to! Sierra! Leone.!! Today’s!one!of!the!most!powerful!armed!force,!USA,!has!become!one!of!the!main!client!of! this!industry.!The!US!Defense!Department!has!contracted!more!than!3!thousand!USSbased! firms!between!1994S2002,!valued!approximately!300!billion!dollars.! ! Private!Military!Firms!recurrently!settled!the!contracted!private!guards!in!positions!of!danger! and! vulnerability,! (i.e! the! private! contractors! of! Blackwater,! killed! in! Fallujah! in! 2004)! purportedly! due! to! the! absence! of! the! necessary! safety! means! that! Blackwater! was! supposed!to!provide!in!order!to!accomplish!the!mission.! This!milestone!transposed!the!progress!of!the!war!and!the!possession!by!the!United!States! in! Iraq.! It! is! considered! as! the! climax! in! the! possession! of! Iraq.! This! induced! to! a! failed! US! operation!to!reclaim!control!of!the!city.!In!2004!a!successful!reclaiming!operation!in!the!city,! called!Operation!Phantom!Fury,!which!resulted!in!the!death!of!over!1,350!fighters.! The!U.S.!military!first!controverted!the!usage!of!the!white!phosphorus!as!an!antiSpersonnel! weapon!in!Fallujah,!but!later!backed!off,!and!admitted!usage!of!the!inflammatory!in!the!city! as! an! abusive! weapon.! Reports! following! the! events! of! November! 2004! have! claimed! war! crimes,!and!a!massacre!by!U.S.!personnel.!! ! ! ! 29! Mercenaries! Rule% 108.% Mercenaries,% as% defined% in% Additional% Protocol% I,% do% not% have% the% right% to% combatant% or% prisonerJofJwar% status.% They% may% not% be% convicted% or% sentenced% without% previous%trial.! Definition!of!mercenaries! Additional%Protocol%I%defines%a%mercenary%as%a%person%who:! a)%is%specially%recruited%locally%or%abroad%in%order%to%fight%in%an%armed%conflict;! b)%does,%in%fact,%take%a%direct%part%in%the%hostilities;! c)%is%motivated%to%take%part%in%the%hostilities%essentially%by%the%desire%for%private%gain% and,% in% fact,% is% promised,% by% or% on% behalf% of% a% Party% to% the% conflict,% material% compensation% substantially%in%excess%of%that%promised%or%paid%to%combatants%of%similar%ranks%and%functions% in%the%armed%forces%of%that%Party;! d)%is%neither%a%national%of%a%Party%to%the%conflict%nor%a%resident%of%territory%controlled% by%a%Party%to%the%conflict;! e)%is%not%a%member%of%the%armed%forces%of%a%Party%to%the%conflict;%and! f)%has%not%been%sent%by%a%State%which%is%not%a%Party%to%the%conflict%on%official%duty%as%a% member%of%its%armed%forces.! International! Committee! of! Red! Cross! further! explains! as;This% definition% is% very% restrictive% because%it%requires%that%all%six%conditions%be%cumulatively%fulfilled.%In%addition,%the%definition% requires%evidence%that%a%person%accused%of%being%a%mercenary%is%“motivated%to%take%part%in% the% hostilities% essentially% by% the% desire% for% private% gain”% and% is% promised% “material% compensation%substantially%in%excess%of%that%promised%or%paid%to%combatants%of%similar%ranks% and%functions%in%the%armed%forces”.! ! International!and!NonSInternational!Armed!Conflicts! Protocol!1!sets!forth!that!mercenaries!do!not!have!the!right!to!combatant!or!prisonerSofSwar! status.A! mercenary! in! an! armed! conflict! is! punished! ! under! the! legislation! of! a! number! of! States.However!as!years!past!definition!of!mercenaries!lost!much!of!its!meaning!as!it!is!very! restrictive.! Further,! because! of! the! opposition! of! African! states! against! mercenary! activity! ! 30! was!primarily!related!to!the!conflicts!of!national!liberation!where!mercenaries!were!fighting! against!people’s!right!to!exercise!their!right!to!selfSdetermination.! ! The!Geneva!Conventions!and!Related!Articles! ! Introduction!to!Geneva!Conventions! Geneva!Conventions!are!4!treaties!and!2!protocols.!All!the!member!states!of!United!Nations! has!ratified!the!conventions,!however!Additional!Protocols!to!Geneva!Conventions!adopted! in! 1988! containing! the! most! pertinent,! detailed! and! virulent! protections! of! international! humanitarian!law!for!people!and!objects!in!modern!warfare!are!still!not!ratified!by!a!number! of! States! continuously! engaged! in! armed! conflicts,! namely! the! United! States,! Israel,! India,! Pakistan,!Iraq,!Iran,!and!others.!! ! Geneva!Convention!and!War!Crimes! The!Geneva!Conventions!are!a!group!of!treaties!upon!the!treatment!of!civilians,!prisoners!of! war! and! soldiers! who! are! otherwise! accomplished! outside! the! fight! or! inadequate! of! fighting.!The!first!convention!was!proposed!by!the!International!Committee!for!Relief!to!the! Wounded!(which!became!the!International!Committee!for!the!Red!Cross!and!Red!Crescent).! This!convention!assembled!a!pact!to!assure!wounded!and!sick!soldiers!during!wartime.!The! Swiss! Government! gave! carte! blanche! to! have! the! Conventions! in! Geneva,! several! years! later,! a! similar! pact! to! assure! shipwreck! soldiers! was! assembled.! The! version,! written! in! 1949,!!including!three!more!protocols,!are!still!in!use.! ! Convention( (I)( for( the( Amelioration( of( the( Condition( of( the( Wounded( and( Sick( in( Armed( Forces(in(the(Field.((Geneva,(12(August(1949)( The! Convention! I! had! been! written! in! August,! 1949,! assures! soldiers! are! not! capable! of! fighting! anymore! and! medical! personnel! against! attack,! execution! without! judgment,! torture,!and!assaults!upon!personal!dignity.!! ! Article(3! “(1)%Persons%taking%no%active%part%in%the%hostilities,%including%members%of%armed%forces%who% have%laid%down%their%arms%and%those%placed%hors%de%combat%by%sickness,%wounds,%detention,% ! 31! or% any% other% cause,% shall% in% all% circumstances% be% treated% humanely,% without% any% adverse% distinction%founded%on%race,%colour,%religion%or%faith,%sex,%birth%or%wealth,%or%any%other%similar% criteria.! %%%%%To% this% end,% the% following% acts% are% and% shall% remain% prohibited% at% any% time% and% in% any% place%whatsoever%with%respect%to%the%aboveJmentioned%persons:%%%%%!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! violence%to%life%and%person,%in%particular,%the%murder%of%all%kinds,%mutilation,%cruel%treatment% and%torture;%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%! (b)%taking%of%hostages;! (c)%outrages%upon%personal%dignity,%in%particular,%humiliating%and%degrading%treatment;! (d)% the% passing% of% sentences% and% the% carrying% out% of% executions% without% previous% judgment% pronounced%by%a%regularly%constituted%court,%affording%all%the%judicial%guarantees%which%are% recognized%as%indispensable%by%civilized%peoples.%%%%%%%%%%%%%! (2)%The%wounded%and%sick%shall%be%collected%and%cared%for.%%%%%%%%%%%! An%impartial%humanitarian%body,%such%as%the%International%Committee%of%the%Red%Cross,%may% offer%its%services%to%the%Parties%to%the%conflict.%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%! The% Parties% to% the% conflict% should% further% endeavor% to% bring% into% force,% by% means% of% special% agreements,%all%or%part%of%the%other%provisions%of%the%present%Convention.! The%application%of%the%preceding%provisions%shall%not%affect%the%legal%status%of%the%Parties%to% the%conflict.“! %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%! These!clauses!show!rules!of!wars!as!Geneva!Conventions!are!customary!laws!the!states!that! ratified! these! conventions! should! proceed! according! to! them! if! not! this! classifies! them! as! war! crimes.! Apart! from! the! First! Convention! other! Conventions! also! protects! rights! of! civilians,!detainees!and!PoWs.!To!summarize!all!conventions;! !!!!!!!!! Convention( (II)( for( the( Amelioration( of( the( Condition( of( Wounded,( Sick( and( Shipwrecked( Members(of(Armed(Forces(at(Sea!(Geneva,!12!August!1949)! Convention!II!had!been!written!in!August!1949,!prolonged!the!assurances!pointed!out!in!the! first!Convention!to!shipwrecked!soldiers!and!other!naval!forces.! ! ( ( ! 32! Convention((III)(relative(to(the(Treatment(of(Prisoners(of(War.((Geneva,(12(August(1949)! Convention!III!had!been!written!in!August!1949,!elucidated!what!a!Prisoner!of!War!(POW)! was,!and!bestowed!them!proper!and!humane!treatment!as!stated!in!the!first!Convention.!! ! Convention((IV)(relative(to(the(Protection(of(Civilian(Persons(in(Time(of(War.((Geneva,(12( August(1949.)( Convention! IV! had! been! written! in! August! 1949,! civilians! are! protected! from! inhumane! treatment!and!attacks.!Furthermore,!supplementary!requirements!regarding!the!treatment! of! civilians! were! added.! Especially,! it! disallows! attacks! on! civilian! hospitals,! medical! transports,!etc.!It!also!defines!the!right!of!POWs!and!those!who!commit!acts!of!sabotage.!! Protocol( Additional( to( the( Geneva( Conventions( of( 12( August( 1949,( and( relating( to( the( Protection(of(Victims(of(International(Armed(Conflicts,(Protocol(I.((8(June(1977)( Protocol! I! had! been! written! in! June! 1977,! the! Nations! signed! for! additional! regulations! on! the!treatment!of!“protected!persons”!as!stated!in!the!original!Conventions.!Moreover,!new! requirements! regarding! the! treatment! of! the! deceased,! cultural! artifacts,! and! dangerous! targets!were!formed.! !Protocol( Additional( to( the( Geneva( Conventions( of( 12( August( 1949,( and( relating( to( the( Protection(of(Victims(of(NonOInternational(Armed(Conflicts,(Protocol(II.((8(June(1977)( Protocol!II!had!been!written!in!June!1977,!the!fundamentals!of!“humane!treatment”!were! elucidated.! Additionally,! the! rights! of! imprisoned! persons! were! cited,! accommodating! protections!for!POWs.!! !Protocol( additional( to( the( Geneva( Conventions( of( 12( August( 1949,( and( relating( to( the( Adoption(of(an(Additional(Distinctive(Emblem,(Protocol(III.((8(December(2005)( ! ! ! 33! Signatories! ! Green:!!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!ISIII! Violet:!!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!I!and!III! Orange:!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!III! Blue:!!!!!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!ISII! Yellow:!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!I! Red:!!!!!!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!no!P! ! Consequences!of!Geneva!Conventions!and!the!Additional!Protocols! The! Geneva! Conventions! and! the! Additional! Protocols! are! the! basis! of! International! Humanitarian! Law! that! adjusts! the! conduct! of! armed! conflict! and! seeks! to! restrict! the! aftermath.! They! especially! protect! civilians,! health! and! aid! workers! and! those! who! are! no! longer!participating!in!the!war,!such!as!wounded,!sick!and!shipwrecked!soldiers!and!POWs.! The!Conventions!and!their!Protocols!contain!severe!rules!to!conduct!“grave!breaches”!such! as!willful!killing,!torture!or!inhuman!treatment,!willfully!depriving!a!prisoner!of!war,!unlawful! confinement!of!a!protected!person,!seriously!endangering!by!any!willful!and!unjustified!act! ! 34! or! omission! etc.! Those! responsible! for! “grave! breaches”! must! be! sought,! investigated! or! surrendered,!whatever!nationality!they!may!hold.! ! Case!Study!Abu!Ghraib!Prison! “The% US% commander% in% charge% of% military% jails% in% Iraq,% Major% General% Geoffrey% Miller,% has% confirmed%that%a%battery%of%50Jodd%special%"coercive%techniques"%can%be%used%against%enemy% detainees.% The% general,% who% previously% ran% the% prison% camp% at% Guantanamo% Bay,% said% his% main%role%was%to%extract%as%much%intelligence%as%possible.”! —The%Guardian! ! Introduction! Abu! Ghraib! prison! was! firstly! used! by! the! government! of! Saddam! Hussein! then! with! the! invasion!of!United!States,!prison!started!to!be!used!by!US!Army.! !On!20!June!2003,!Abdel!Salam!Sidahmed,!Deputy!Director!of!AI's!Middle!East!Program:"The! notorious!Abu!Ghraib!Prison,!centre!of!torture!and!mass!executions!under!Saddam!Hussein,! is!yet!again!a!prison!cut!off!from!the!outside!world.!On!13!June,!there!was!a!protest!in!this! prison! against! indefinite! detention! without! trial.! Troops! from! the! occupying! powers! killed! one! person! and! wounded! seven."! That! was! the! first! hint! about! the! abuses! at! Abu! Ghraib! prison!and!that!it!came!to!light!to!condition!of!detainees!as;!exposed!to!extreme!heat,!not! provided!clothing,!and!forced!to!use!open!trenches!for!toilets.!The!tortures!included!denial! of!sleep!for!extended!periods,!exposure!to!bright!lights!and!loud!music,!and!being!restrained! in!uncomfortable!positions.! On! 1! November! 2003,! Associated! Press’s! report! "In! Iraq's! American! detention! camps,! forbidden!talk!can!earn!a!prisoner!hours!bound!and!stretched!out!in!the!sun,!and!detainees! swinging! tent! poles! rise! up! regularly! against! their! jailers,! according! to! recently! released! Iraqis."!The!report!continued!to!elucidate!terrifying!abuse!of!the!prisoners!at!the!hands!of! their!American!captors:!"'They!confined!us!like!sheep,'!the!newly!freed!Saad!Naif,!38,!said!of! the! Americans.'They! hit! people.! They! humiliated! people.'"! In! response,! U.S.! BrigadierS General!Janis!Karpinski,!at!the!time!in!charge!of!all!U.S.!detention!facilities!in!Iraq,!claimed! that!prisoners!were!being!treated!"humanely!and!fairly."!The!AP!report!also!stated!that!as!of! 1!November!2003,!there!were!two!legal!cases!pending!against!U.S.!military!personnel,!one! involving!the!beating!of!an!Iraqi!prisoner,!the!other!about!the!death!of!a!prisoner!in!custody.! ! 35! ! The!administrative!power!of!that!time,!George!W.!Bush,!tried!to!depict!the!abuses!as!some! incidents,! not! how! general! U.S.! policy! is,! which! some! humanitarian! organizations! as! Red! Cross,! Amnesty! International! and! Human! Rights! Watch! strongly! objected! and! did! their! further!investigations!on!the!matter!and!they!announced!that!these!abuses!were!not!some! random!incidents!but!a!segment!of!a!bigger!pie!of!torture!and!brutal!treatment!at!American! overseas! detention! centers,! including! those! in! Iraq,! Afghanistan! and! Guantanamo! Bay.! Human! rights! violations! in! Guantanamo! Bay! are! also! should! be! kept! in! mind.! The! main! problem!with!these!issues!was!the!authorization!for!the!torture!had!come!from!high!orders! with! accusations! being! made! that! Secretary! of! Defense,! Donald! Rumsfeld! had! authorized! them.! ! Seventeen! soldiers! and! officers! have! been! removed! from! duty! and! eleven! soldiers! were! charged! with! dereliction! of! duty,! maltreatment,! aggravated! assault! and! battery! by! the! US! Department!of!Defense.!The!prosecution!continued!from!2004!to!2006!that!convicted!these! soldiers! in! courtsSmartial! and! sentenced! to! military! prison,! and! dishonorably! discharged! from!service.! ! Torture!Memos!came!out!several!years!later!which!are!prepared!before!Iraq!Invasion!by!US! Department! of! Justice,! authorized! some! specified! interrogation! techniques,! mostly! involve! the!torture!of!detainees.!This!is!a!subject!on!discuss!as!Geneva!Conventions!did!not!apply!to! American!interrogators!overseas.! !!!!! !!!!Human!Right!Violations!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!Death%of%Manadel%alJJamadi% After! interrogations! and! tortures,! Manadel! alSJamadi! killed! by! a! CIA! officer! and! a! private! contractor!in!November!2003.!However,!US!military!called!this!death!a!homicide.! ! !!!!!!!!!Prisoner%Rape% Antonio! Taguba,! a! major! general! in! the! US! Army,! stated! in! Taguba! Report! that! PoWs! had! been! sodomized! with! ‘’a! chemical! light! and! perhaps! a! broomstick’’,! several! years! after! he! further!stated!that!there!are!some!photographic!evidence!of!rape!in!Abu!Ghraib!prison.! ! 36! Statements!continue!as,!an!Iraqi!teenage!boy!engaging!in!sexual!intercourse!with!an!Army! translator! while! a! female! soldier! taking! their! pictures.! Barack! Obama’s! comment! on! these! photos!was!"These!pictures!show!torture,!abuse,!rape!and!every!indecency.’’!Barack!Obama! had!permitted!to!release!these!pictures!however!he!then!changed!his!mind!as!these!pictures! may!put!troops!in!danger!and!‘’inflame!antiSAmerican!public!opinion’’.! !!!!!!!!! !!!!!!Other%Abuses% !!!!a.!Forcing!them!to!do!things!that!against!their!religion!and!ethical!view! !!!!b.!pounding!wounded!limbs!with!metal!batons! !!!!c.!pouring!phosphoric!acid!on!detainees! !!!!d.!tying!ropes!to!the!detainees!legs!or!penises!and!dragging!them!across!the!floor.! !!!!e.!systematic!torture! ! Conclusion! Since!the!beginning!of!the!21st!century!method!of!warfare!has!changed,!before!it!was!men! in!uniform,!fighting!for!their!country!predetermined!by!ideals!of!patriotism!but!today!men,! women! even! the! children! fight! for! organizations! that! range! from! terrorist! groups! to! drug! cartels!stimulated!from!religion!and!ethnic!grievance!to!profit!motive.!War!crime!is!a!severe! crime,! such! as! genocide! or! the! mistreatment! of! prisoners! of! war,! committed! during! a! war! and!considered!in!the!assault!on!the!conventions!of!warfare.!There!have!been!a!lot!of!cases! where! these! sorts! of! criminals! have! taken! place.! Victims! of! war! have! not! gotten! a! little! or! any!justice!at!all!we!have!to!come!up!with!a!solution!to!punish!these!harsh!crimes.! War!Crimes!are!committed!by!breaching!two!main!principles;!!!!! •!The!Principle!of!Necessity:!that!gives!you!the!right!to!kill!your!enemy!when!it!is!fully! necessary.! •The!Principle!of!Humanity!tells!you!that!you!should!not!give!any!additional!suffering! to!your!opponent! These!two!principles!are!fundamental!of!wars!and!when!it!breaches!it!becomes!a!war!crime.! Important!laws!as!PoWs!having!rights!and!should!never!be!executed!or!wounded!after!they! surrender.!! ! 37! In!conclusion!we!are!hoping!you!to!write!your!resolution!in!accordance!to!fill!todays!treaties! blanks! and! possible! solutions! to! any! further! war! crimes! as! Syria! where! there! are! still! investigations!going!on.! ! Suggested!Videos! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQ0x5ZLbeqQ! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HwpzzAefx9M! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZ_Vxoyu8zY! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SNneFCxJmA! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FGpaOp6_I7M! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQ0x5ZLbeqQ! ! Bibliography! 1949%Geneva%Convention%(I)%for%the%Amelioration%of%the%Condition%of%the%Wounded%and%Sick%in% Armed%Forces%in%the%Field% https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=4825657B0C7E6BF0C12563 CD002D6B0B&action=openDocument! ! Geneva%Convention%(II)%on%the%Wounded,%Sick%and%Shipwrecked%of%Armed%Forces%at%Sea,%1949% and%its%commentary! https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=2F5AA9B07AB61934C12563 CD002D6B25&action=openDocument! Geneva!Convention!(III)!on!Prisoners!of!War,!1949!and!its!commentary! https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=77CB9983BE01D004C12563 CD002D6B3E&action=openDocument! Geneva!Convention!(IV)!on!Civilians,!1949!and!its!commentary! https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=AE2D398352C5B028C12563 CD002D6B5C&action=openDocument! Additional!Protocol!(I)!to!the!Geneva!Conventions,!1977!and!its!commentary! https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=D9E6B6264D7723C3C12563 CD002D6CE4&action=openDocument! Additional!Protocol!(II)!to!the!Geneva!Conventions,!1977!and!its!commentary! ! 38! https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=AA0C5BCBAB5C4A85C12563 CD002D6D09&action=openDocument! Additional!Protocol!(III)!to!the!Geneva!Conventions,!2005!and!its!commentary! https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=8BC1504B556D2F80C12571 0F002F4B28&action=openDocument! Hersh,!Seymour!M.!"Torture!at!Abu!Ghraib."!(2004).! http://www.veronaschools.org/cms/lib02/NJ01001379/Centricity/Domain/588/Torture%20 at%20Abu%20Ghraib.pdf! Guarding!Abu,!Military!Police!Brigade.!"Why!ordinary!people!torture!enemy!prisoners."! (2004).! http://psychoanalystsopposewar.org/resources_files/Why_Ordinarty_People_Torture_Ene my_Prisoners_Fiske.pdf! The!Privatization!of!war!mercenaries!private!military!and!security!companies;! http://www.globalresearch.ca/theSprivatizationSofSwarSmercenariesSprivateSmilitarySandS securityScompaniesSpmsc/21826! Iraq!S!Human!Rights!Watch! http://www.hrw.org/middleSeastnSafrica/iraq! ! ! 39!
© Copyright 2024