1. law, govt and politics
2. government

Chair Report
GA 4th
kmun2015
KabatasMUN
kmun2015
MUNKabatas
kabatasmun
Kabatas MUN
[email protected]
Letter from the Secretary-General
Dear Representatives of the Distinguished Nations,
I, in lieu of the Secretariat, am thrilled to welcome you to the third annual session of
Kabataş Model United Nations Conference). I, Orçun DOĞMAZER, have been
studying at Kabataş Erkek Lisesi for four years and am receiving the privilege to
serve as the third Secretary-General of this society.
KMUN Conference is the biggest student initiated organization in the illustrious 107
years old history of this community. How Buckingham Palace was used by King
George III to host diverse reputed bureaucrats and royal families, likewise Kabataş
High School was utilized to serve for those certain purposes at the times of Ottoman
Empire. KMUN 2013 and KMUN 2014 have the distinctive honor to comprise more
than 350 national and international participants. As it was planned and announced a
year ago, the conference will be hosting more than 500 participants coming from
various countries in 10 different committees this year.
Academic and organization teams of the conference have been challenging
themselves to set a different level of understanding in MUN for KMUN’s participants.
Experiencing both of the previous editions of KMUN, this year’s KMUN will differ from
its previous editions by not only mixing the interesting sides of the Model UN
examples in Turkey, but will also try its best to combine the understanding of the
international Model UN.
All the research reports of the conference are written by the directors of the
respective committees with the guidance of the academic team of the conference. I
do thank the Student Officers namely Enes Sayın and Hazal Alay for writing this very
guide for the GA-4. Appreciating their efforts on this research report, I do believe that
this report will be a great start for our participant’s on their researches to prepare
themselves for the debates on the given agenda items.
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In case you require any further instruction as to the academic content of the GA-4,
you may always contact your Committee Directors or me via
[email protected]
After a year full of work and dedication, I do believe that KMUN 2015 will manage to
create its dreamed atmosphere by taking further steps on its previous editions.
Orçun DOĞMAZER
Secretary-General
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Letter from the PGA
Dear Participants,
I consider it my greatest pleasure to join the student officers of the GA-4 in welcoming
you all to Kabatas Model UN 2015.
On the following pages of this document, there might be various challenges that
await you, assorted problems that the rest of the world has failed in addressing to a
satisfactory extent so far. I am not sure if the nature of my position permits me to say
so, but I have to assert there`s absolutely no denial that what is expected of you is
abundantly demanding, so much so that it is quite likely to end up being rather
quixotic, just the opposite of what we all have striven for.
Yet, this should not lead you to underestimate your skills, capabilities and the
potential you have to offer whether you attempt to recreate a momentous event in
history and alter it or cope with the contemporary obstacles on our way to stamp out
the instability worldwide, and I truly am confident that this report will manage to
enlighten your way throughout the journey that you have dared to go on.
If you feel the need to, you may contact the committee directors or me via
[email protected] to make any enquiries relating to academic matters.
Have it mind that the slightest change we manage to generate will grow into
something greater in time, and this May is meant to be the beginning of that change.
Regards,
Oya Gursoy
President of the General Assembly
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Letter from the Student Officers
Distinguished Participants,
On behalf of the academic team of the conference, we would like to welcome you all
to the 3rd session of Kabatas Model United Nations 2015. Our names are Enes
Sayın and Hazal Alay and we are serving as the chairpeople of the SPECPOL
Committee. We want to welcome you all to the Special Political and Decolonization
Committee of KMUN 2015. We are both excited to be your chairs in this “Special”
committee. As you can see, our agenda items are one of the favorites among the
media. No doubt you all have heard opinions of many people on these topics.
In this very report, you will find information on the ongoing insurgency in Afghanistan
and war crimes of any kind on the focus of the utilization of private military
contractors and mercenaries. Both of these topics seem alien to majority of the
people living in peace but the War in Afghanistan and the insurgency that followed is
one of the longest conflicts in human history. Private military firms may sound like
they’re from the middle ages but they are alive and well in the 21st century and war
crimes committed by them and other parties still show us that the age of peace
ushered by the foundation of UN is not yet complete. Reading the guides is one of
the most essential things in MUN as they give not only basic information but history
and possible questions regarding the topics. However even after the reading the
guides you still have to do further research about your countries you have assigned
to. Only then you will be ready to debate fluently in this committee.
As the board members we want to remind our first timers that MUN is a platform that
enhances your skills such as leadership, cooperation, lobbying, self-expression and
public speaking and you should seize this opportunity to develop yourselves.
We are looking forward to meet you in May in Kabatas’s great view of Bosporus.
Please do not hesitate to contact us for your further questions via
[email protected] and [email protected].
Hazal Alay&Enes Sayın
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Committee Introduction
General Assembly serves for all member states to have a voice opposing to the Security
Council which certain states have the right to veto.
Resolutions passed at the GA are not binding which means these relations do not have to be
followed by all nations contrary to the Security Council; veto power is not applicable within
the GA
Special Political and Decolonization Committee also known as United Nations Fourth
Committee (GA-4) is one of the United Nations General Assembly’s six committees. This
committee tries to alleviate situations in which a region once occupied through imperialistic
forces can enter a territory of self-sovereignty.
After demolishment of the trusteeship system following indolence being granted to all the
trust territories and now-limited number of non-self-governing territories that authority is
insufficient to keep the committee busy. As a result, it was united with the Special Political
Committee, which had been created as a seventh committee to deal with certain political
issues after the General Assembly found that First Committee (Disarmament and Political)
was too busy. The Fourth Committee deals with decolonization Palestinian refugees and
human rights peacekeeping, mine action, outer space, public information, atomic radiation
and University for Peace.
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Topic!A:!Growing!Insurgency!in!Afghanistan!in!duration!of!the!
Termination!of!Combat!Operations!and!Withdrawal!
Historical!Background!
Afghanistan!has!been!called!the!“Graveyard!of!Empires”!for!centuries.!Throughout!history!
many!superpowers!who!occupied!parts!of!Afghanistan,!from!Alexander’s!Macedonian!
Empire!in!300!B.C!to!the!Soviets!in!1979,!have!faced!harsh!resistance!from!the!inhabitants.!
Highly!strategic!position!of!the!region!has!been!a!huge!factor!for!their!infamous!reputation.!
Afghanistan!stands!on!a!nexus!point!between!the!East!and!West,!it!sits!on!the!historical!
trade!routes!of!the!Silk!Road.!These!factors!have!made!it!alluring!for!outside!powers!to!
occupy!and!control!Afghanistan.!However,!the!mountainous!geography!and!the!harsh!
climate!that!comes!with!it!made!things!pretty!hard!for!anyone!trying!to!get!control!of!the!
region!from!the!local!militaristic!tribes!who!are!
used!to!the!harsh!conditions!and!often!used!it!
against!the!occupiers.!Alexander!the!Great!
nearly!lost!his!life!after!getting!hit!by!an!Afghan!
archer’s!arrow.!More!than!two!millenniums!
later,!during!the!First!AngloSAfghan!War!the!
British!Empire!suffered!one!of!its!biggest!
military!catastrophes!at!the!hands!of!the!
Afghan!tribes!when!a!column!of!16,500!civilians!
and!soldiers!were!ambushed!at!Khyber!Pass.!
Only%one%survivor%made%it%back..%
Elizabeth!Thompson,!Lady!Butler,!Remnants%of%an%
Assistant!surgeon!William!Brydon!was!the!only!one!
Army,!1879%
to!tell!the!tale.!
Emirate/Kingdom!of!Afghanistan!and!the!“Great!Game”!
Nonetheless,!achieving!dominance!over!Afghanistan!seemed!lucrative!to!outside!powers.!In!
the!19th!century,!Afghanistan!played!an!important!role!during!the!“Great!Game”!between!
the!Russian!and!British!Empires.!The!so!called!game!was!a!strategic!conflict!between!those!
parties!to!achieve!dominance!in!Central!Asia.!Russian!interests!for!extending!their!border!
southward!into!Central!Asia!were!seen!by!the!British!as!a!threat!to!their!“Jewel!in!the!
Crown”,!India.!Iran!and!Afghanistan!were!caught!right!in!the!middle!of!this!power!struggle.!
Out!of!this!concern,!the!First!AngloSAfghan!War!arose.!It!was!a!temporary!victory!for!the!
British;!they!won!the!war!but!couldn’t!achieve!their!goal!and!retreated!back!to!India.!G.!R.!
Gleig,!a!British!army!chaplain!wrote!these!lines!about!the!conflict!in!his!memoirs:!!“(It%was)%a%
war%begun%for%no%wise%purpose,%carried%on%with%a%strange%mixture%of%rashness%and%timidity,%
brought%to%a%close%after%suffering%and%disaster,%without%much%glory%attached%either%to%the%
government%which%directed,%or%the%great%body%of%troops%which%waged%it.%Not%one%benefit,%
political%or%military,%was%acquired%with%this%war.%Our%eventual%evacuation%of%the%country%
resembled%the%retreat%of%an%army%defeated.”!
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36!years!later!when!the!Russian!influence!in!Afghanistan!
actually!became!a!realistic!threat!to!British!rule!in!India,!
the!British!invaded!Afghanistan!again!in!the!Second!
AngloSAfghan!War.!This!time,!they!were!successful.!They!
knew!their!lesson!though!and!didn’t!try!to!rule!
Afghanistan!like!they!did!in!India.!With!the!Treaty!of!
Gandamak!in!1879,!Emirate!of!Afghanistan!became!a!
British!Dependency!and!in!exchange!for!subsidies!from!
the!British!they!handed!over!their!foreign!policy!to!them.!
The!year!1880!saw!the!coronation!of!the!Amir!Abdur!
Cartoon%depicting%the%Amir%of%Afghanistan%between%
Rahman!Khan,!a.k.a!The%Iron%Amir.!He!ruled!Afghanistan! his%“friends”%the%Russian%Bear%and%the%British%Lion%
with!an!iron!fist!for!twentySone!years.!His!efforts!were!aimed!at!breaking!the!influence!of!
the!local!tribes!in!order!to!establish!a!strong!central!authority!and!modernizing!the!country.!
His!authoritarian!rule!laid!the!foundations!of!the!modern!Afghanistan!but!he!had!no!say!in!
Afghanistan’s!foreign!policy.!Reluctantly!he!accepted!border!concessions!agreed!between!
Joint!AngloSRussian!Boundary!Commission!which!took!no!account!of!
Afghan!opinion.!The!controversial!Durand!Line!was!also!drawn!by!the!
British!during!his!reign.!Unwillingly,!Abdur!Rahman!had!to!agree!to!the!
new!boundary!which!cut!directly!through!tribes!and!completely!ignored!
the!demographics!of!the!region.!Pashtuns,!the!largest!ethnic!group!in!
Afghanistan!were!divided!because!of!the!Durand!line.!Today,!the!same!
line!defines!the!border!between!Afghanistan!and!Pakistan.!It!has!caused!
hostilities!between!the!Afghan!and!Pakistani!governments.!This!lack!of!
trust!between!these!two!countries!indirectly!helped!the!rise!of!Taliban!in!
PashtoJspeaking%regions%in%
20th!century.!Amir!Abdur!Rahman!Khan’s!reign!ended!in!1901.!Peaceful!
Afghanistan%and%Pakistan%a.k.a%
succession!of!his!oldest!son!among!his!many!sons!was!the!proof!of!his!
Pashtunistan%%
success!for!establishing!a!strong!central!authority.!During!the!reign!of!
Habibullah!Khan,!the!Great!Game!came!to!an!end!in!1907!with!the!AngloSRussian!Entente!
and!relations!between!Russia!and!Britain!normalized.!Russia!and!Britain!agreed!for!the!
Afghan!neutrality!in!foreign!issues!and!not!to!interfere!in!internal!policies!of!Afghanistan!
while!the!British!kept!their!grip!on!the!Afghan!foreign!policy.!When!the!WW1!broke!out,!
Afghanistan!came!under!pressure!from!Turkey!to!enter!the!“Holy!War”!against!the!British!
but!Afghanistan!remained!neutral.!Though!Habibullah!Khan!tried!to!play!both!sides!by!
accepting!the!institution!of!an!IndoSGermanSTurkish!mission!in!Kabul!in!return!for!a!huge!
payment!from!the!Central!Powers!but!offered!the!British!their!resistance!against!the!
diplomatic!efforts!of!Central!powers!in!return!for!an!end!to!British!control!of!Afghan!foreign!
policy.!!
Habibullah!Khan!was!assassinated!in!1919.!His!third!son,!Amanullah!Khan!seized!the!throne.!
He!was!more!earnest!in!his!goal!of!breaking!British!control!in!Afghan!foreign!policy.!He!
wanted!to!use!the!war!exhaustion!of!the!Royal!Army!due!to!WW1!to!his!benefit!and!in!a!
bold!move,!declared!war!against!the!British!Empire!in!1919.!Result!of!the!war!was!indecisive.!
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After!shaking!off!the!initial!state!of!shock,!the!British!achieved!a!tactical!victory!due!to!their!
technological!superiority.!However,!Amanullah!Khan!achieved!his!goal!of!a!fully!independent!
Afghanistan!in!the!Treaty!of!Rawalpindi!which!ended!the!war.!Meantime,!with!the!Bolshevik!
Revolution,!new!phase!of!the!Great!Game!between!the!Soviet!Russia!and!the!British!started.!
Soviets!provided!aid!to!Afghans!to!bring!Afghanistan!closer!to!them!and!away!from!the!
British.!They!were!partly!successful,!British!influence!diminished!but!the!Afghan!public!still!
resented!the!Russians!over!previous!land!concessions.!Highlight!of!Amānullāh!Khān’s!reign!
was!his!implementation!of!a!reform!program!much!radical!compared!to!his!grandfather.!
Using!Atatürk’s!reforms!in!Turkey!as!a!role!model,!he!focused!intensively!on!social!reforms.!
In!1921!he!signed!friendship!treaties!with!both!the!Soviets!and!the!newly!found!Turkish!
Republic.!He!also!brought!advisors!from!those!countries!to!help!him!in!his!reforms.!His!
reforms!were!heavily!influenced!by!the!European!culture!and!mirrored!Atatürk’s!reforms!in!
many!ways.!From!the!introduction!of!secular!education!to!the!ban!
on!veils!for!women,!Amanullah!Khan’s!reforms!were!unheard!of!at!
that!time.!He!disallowed!the!Emirate!and!declared!himself!the!King!
of!Afghanistan.!It!was!during!his!reign!that!saw!the!creation!of!
Afghanistan’s!first!constitution.!Civil!rights!were!guaranteed,!a!
legislative!assembly!was!established,!a!new!court!system!enforced!
the!secular!laws!and!privileges!for!tribal!chiefs!and!the!royal!family!
were!abolished.!However!his!military!reforms!which!prevented!tribal! Amānullāh%Khan%with%Atatürk%during%
his%European%tour%in%1928%
leaders!from!controlling!who!joined!the!service!alienated!many!army!
personnel!who!supported!him!in!his!claim!for!the!throne.!The!ulama,!Islamic!clergyman,!
weren’t!too!excited!by!his!secular!reforms!either.!In!1924!reactionaries!to!Amānullāh!Khan’s!
reforms!revolted!in!what!is!now!known!as!Khost!Rebellion.!King’s!forces!put!down!the!
rebellion!with!great!difficulty.!Reforms!came!to!a!halt!until!1927.!In!December!1927,!
Amānullāh!Khan!visited!Europe,!but!on!his!return!in!1928,!he!was!faced!by!yet!another!
rebellion.!While!he!was!away,!the!British!launched!an!intensive!propaganda!campaign!in!
order!to!sow!the!seeds!of!rebellion!against!his!rule.!Their!efforts!included!angering!
conservatives!in!Afghanistan!by!distributing!photos!which!depicted!Amanullah!Khan’s!wife!
holding!hands!with!foreign!state!officials,!by!dropping!them!off!by!planes.!Most!of!his!army!
deserted!rather!than!resisting!the!rebels.!Amanullah!Khan!abdicated!the!throne!in!favor!of!
his!brother!and!went!into!exile.!Most!of!the!reforms!implemented!in!his!reign!were!anulled!
after!his!abdication.!His!brother!couldn’t!hold!on!to!the!throne!and!a!shortSlived!civil!war!
broke!out.!A!Tajik!“folk!hero”!occupied!Kabul!and!declared!himself!Habibullah!II,!the!Amir!of!
Afghanistan.!He!wasn’t!popular!among!Pashto!majority!of!the!country.!Distant!cousins!of!
Amanullah!Khan!who!were!opposed!to!his!military!reforms!drove!out!the!Tajik!pretender!
and!restored!the!Afghan!Kingdom.!Mohammad!Nader!Khan!was!elected!Shah!by!a!tribal!
assembly.!In!order!to!appease!the!ulama!(Islamic!scholars)!and!other!conservatives!in!
Afghanistan;!Nader!Khan!accused!his!predecessor,!Amanullah,!of!kufr!(being!an!infidel)!
because!of!his!secular!social!reforms!and!rid!the!constitution!of!the!secular!elements.!After!
years!of!militant!opposition!against!the!central!authorities!in!Afghanistan,!reigns!of!Nāder!
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Khan!and!his!son!Mohammad!Zahir!provided!the!needed!stability.!Mohammad!Zahir!became!
the!Shah!after!his!father!was!assassinated!in!1933.!His!reign!was!marked!by!cautious!internal!
policies,!expansion!in!foreign!relations!and!economical!development!using!Afghan!funds!
alone.!Afghanistan!preserved!its!neutrality!during!WW2.!Problem!of!“Pashtunistan”!caused!
by!the!Durand!line!became!prominent!after!Pakistan’s!independence!from!the!British.!In!
1953!Lieutenant!General!Mohammad!Daud!Khan,!brotherSinSlaw!and!first!cousin!of!the!king,!
seized!power!in!the!parliament!with!the!help!from!the!conservatives!and!became!the!lead!
actor!in!Afghan!politics!as!the!Prime!Minister.!He!took!a!strong!stance!on!Pashtunistan!and!
unexpectedly!turned!to!the!Soviet!Union!for!military!and!economic!relations.!This!was!a!
major!change!in!political!dynamics!in!Afghanistan!even!though!the!Afghans!refused!to!take!
sides!in!the!Cold!War.!Pashtunistan!issue!initiated!the!downfall!of!Daud!Khan!when!Pakistan!
closed!its!Afghanistan!border!in!retaliation.!Afghanistan!became!highly!dependent!on!Soviet!
Union.!To!reverse!the!trend,!Daud!Khan!resigned!in!March!1963,!and!the!border!was!
reopened.!In!the!following!years!the!political!climate!in!Afghanistan!increasingly!polarized.!
Several!unofficial!parties!ran!candidates!with!platforms!ranging!from!fundamentalist!Islam!to!
the!extreme!left.!The!king!refused!to!promulgate!several!key!acts,!thereby!effectively!
blocking!the!institutionalization!of!the!political!processes!guaranteed!in!the!constitution.!
Mohammad!Daud!Khan!seized!this!opportunity!and!led!a!bloodless!coup!against!the!
monarchy!with!the!assistance!of!leftist!military!officers.!Some!of!the!Islamists!were!force!to!
flee!the!country.!Daud!abolished!the!constitution!and!established!the!Republic!of!
Afghanistan!as!the!chairman!of!the!Central!Committee!of!the!Republic!and!prime!minister.!!
Republic!of!Afghanistan!and!Civil!Wars!
Daud!focused!his!efforts!on!introducing!socioeconomic!reforms,!writing!a!new!constitution!
and!gradually!moving!away!from!the!socialist!ideal!his!regime!initially!embraced.!He!
continued!his!resolute!stance!on!Pashtunistan!problem!and!went!as!far!as!training!
insurgents!for!sabotage!and!militancy!in!Pakistan.!So!much!so!that!one!of!Bhutto's!senior!
members!got!killed.!As!a!response!Pakistan!started!doing!the!same!and!promoted!a!proxy!
war!in!Afghanistan!through!its!InterSServices!Intelligence!(ISI).!!Islamic!fundamentalists!in!
Afghanistan!were!against!Daud’s!aggressive!foreign!policy!against!Pakistan!and!the!
somewhat!close!relationship!with!the!Soviets.!Due!to!the!pressure!from!Daud’s!army!and!
police!they!fled!to!Pakistan!and!received!support!from!Zulfiqar!Ali!Bhutto,!Prime!Minister!of!
Pakistan,!in!their!operations!against!Daud’s!regime.!In!1977!Daud!Khan!presented!a!new!
constitution!to!Loya%Jirga%(National!Assembly)!and!received!approval.!In!order!to!moderate!
socialist!ideas!in!his!regime,!Daud!Khan!rid!the!cabinet!of!socialists!and!appointed!a!new!
cabinet!composed!of!sycophants,!friends,!sons!of!fiends,!even!members!of!the!royal!family.!
As!a!result!of!his!attempt!to!distance!himself!from!the!communist!elements!within!the!coup!
that!raised!him!to!power,!there!was!a!rift!with!the!PDPA!(People’s!Democratic!Party!of!
Afghanistan).!While!Daud!was!concerned!about!Afghanistan’s!dependency!on!the!Soviet!
Union,!the!Soviets!were!concerned!about!the!possibility!that!Afghanistan!would!soon!
become!closer!to!the!West,!especially!the!United!States!and!Moscow!highly!criticized!Daud’s!
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moves!against!the!communists.!In!1978,!a!prominent!member!of!PDPA!was!killed!and!his!
funeral!served!as!a!rallying!point!for!the!socialists.!Daud!ordered!the!arrest!of!PDPA!leaders!
though!he!was!late.!Before!his!arrest,!Hafizullah!Amin,!a!U.S.Seducated!
People’s!Party!leader,!contacted!party!members!in!the!armed!forces!and!
devised!a!makeshift!but!successful!coup.!Daud!Khan!and!most!of!his!family!
were!killed,!and!the!Democratic!Republic!of!Afghanistan!(DRA)!was!born!on!
April!27,!1978.!This!date!also!marked!the!beginning!of!the!long!series!of!
conflicts!that!continue!today.!There!have!been!many!uprisings!against!the!
PDPA!rule!mostly!from!the!people!in!the!country!side!who!were!familiar!
with!Marxist!broadcasts!from!Soviet!Central!Asia!and!assumed!that!the!
People’s!Party!was!communist!and!proSSoviet.!The!reform!programs!Swhich!
threatened!to!undermine!basic!Afghan!cultural!patternsS!and!political!
repression!antagonized!large!segments!of!the!population.!Afghan!
leadership!under!Prime!Minister!Nur!Muhammad!Taraki!called!the!Soviets!
for!assistance!in!order!to!suppress!the!uprisings.!Alexei!Kosygin,!chairman!of! Local%newspaper%headline%after%
the%Saur%Revolution%which%
the!USSR!council!of!Ministers!replied!to!Taraki’s!requests!by!saying!“We%
toppled%Daud%Khan’s%regime%
believe%it%would%be%a%fatal%mistake%to%commit%ground%troops.%[...]%If%our%
troops%went%in,%the%situation%in%your%country%would%not%improve.%On%the%contrary,%it%would%get%
worse.%Our%troops%would%have%to%struggle%not%only%with%an%external%aggressor,%but%with%a%
significant%part%of%your%own%people.%And%the%people%would%never%forgive%such%things."!!Leonid!
Brezhnev,!head!of!state!of!the!Soviet!Union,!also!refused!Taraki’s!requests.!He!advised!Taraki!
to!ease!up!on!radical!socialist!reforms!and!focus!on!gaining!support!for!his!regime.!Instead,!
the!government!of!DRA!announced!and!implemented!a!hostile!doctrine!against!any!political!
dissent,!whether!inside!or!outside!the!party.!Close!relationship!between!Taraki!and!his!
defense!minister!Hafızullah!Amin!deteriorated!quickly!after!a!few!months!when!Soviet!
officials!in!Kabul!suspected!Amin!of!being!an!agent!of!the!CIA.!Taraki!increased!his!efforts!to!
neutralize!Amin!but!he!failed!his!attempt!to!kill!him!and!got!arrested!by!Amin!instead.!Amin!
contacted!Brezhnev!and!asked!what!he!should!do!with!Taraki.!Brezhnev!said!it!was!his!
choice.!Amin!falsely!believed!he!had!the!backing!of!the!Soviets!and!killed!Taraki.!Rebellions!
became!worse!when!Amin!became!the!President.!His!efforts!to!persuade!the!Afghan!people!
that!their!regime!was!not!unSIslamic!were!not!successful.!Between!the!Saur!Revolution!and!
the!Soviet!intervention!on!1979,!as!many!as!27,000!political!prisoners!were!executed!in!the!
infamous!PulSeSCharkhi!prison.!Many!religious,!intellectual!and!traditional!elite!escaped!the!
country.!The!Soviets!were!afraid!Amin!would!follow!a!proSUS!policy!and!intervened!in!
Afghanistan!in!order!to!replace!Amin!on!behalf!of!the!TwentySYear!Treaty!of!Friendship!
between!Afghanistan!and!the!Soviet!Union!which!allowed!Soviet!troops!to!intervene!when!
Afghan!government!requested!its!assistance.!Before!being!retracted!back!to!US!after!their!
ambassador!was!assassinated,!US!Embassy!in!Kabul!contacted!Washington!D.C!and!stated:!
“What%the%British%first,%and%later%the%Americans,%tried%to%prevent%for%a%hundred%years%has%
happened:%the%Russian%Bear%has%moved%south%of%the%Hindu%Kush.”!Soviet!troops!entered!
Afghanistan!on!December!1979!and!their!first!major!operation!was!“StormS333”!in!which!
!
10!
Soviet!Forces!stormed!the!Tajbeg!
Palace!and!captured!Afghan!
President!Amin.!An!unknown!number!
of!Afghan!palace!guards!were!killed!
while!150!were!captured.!His!11SyearS
old!son!died!due!to!shrapnel!
wounds.!The!Soviets!installed!Babrak!
Karmal!as!Amin's!successor.!By!early!
1980!several!regional!groups,!
collectively!known!
as!mujahedeen!(meaning:!“those!who!
engage!in!jihad”),!had!united!inside!
Afghanistan,!or!across!the!border!in!Peshawar,!Pakistan,!to!resist!the!Soviet!invaders!and!the!
SovietSbacked!Afghan!army.!Pakistan,!along!with!the!United!States,!China,!and!several!
European!and!Arab!states—most!notably!Saudi!Arabia—were!soon!providing!small!amounts!
of!financial!and!military!aid!to!the!mujahedeen.!As!this!assistance!grew,!the!Pakistani!
military’s!InterSService!Intelligence!Directorate!(ISI)!assumed!primary!responsibility!for!
funneling!the!money!and!weapons!to!Afghan!resistance!groups.!Pakistani!authorities!were!
determined!to!exercise!tight!control!over!all!such!groups,!and!upwards!of!40!separate!
resistance!and!refugee!organizations!coalesced,!under!Pakistani!influence,!around!seven!
resistance!parties.!In!the!meantime!UN!General!Assembly!passed!a!resolution!“strongly!
deploring”!the!intervention!with!104!votes!in!favor!and!18!votes!against.!It!was!one!of!the!
most!lopsided!votes!in!UNGA!history.!With!the!military!intervention!the!Soviets!intended!to!
stabilize!their!client!regime!which!they!spent!lavish!amounts!of!aid!and!attention.!Military!
objectives!were!to!secure!Kabul,!the!capital,!and!the!main!lines!of!communication.!After!the!
objectives!have!been!completed!the!small!intervention!force!would!assume!a!low!profile!
while!the!forces!of!the!Democratic!Republic!of!Afghanistan!restored!government!authority!in!
the!outlying!provinces.!However,!this!was!not!the!case.!DRA!was!burdened!by!factionalism!
which!contributed!to!their!incompetence!in!ruling!the!country.!Factionalism!was!only!one!of!
the!factors!of!demoralization!within!its!army.!Soviet!forces!were!seen!by!the!Afghan!public!
as!the!godless!people!who!occupied!their!land!and!DRA!were!seen!as!the!godless!Afghans!
who!coSoperated!with!the!Soviets.!!Failures!of!the!Soviet!military!operations!in!the!
countryside!added!to!the!demoralization!that!plagued!the!Afghan!army!which!in!turn!
suffered!from!a!high!rate!of!desertion.!Nine!operations!were!made!into!the!Panjshir!valley!
alone;!none!of!them!secured!a!long!term!victory!in!the!region!for!the!communists.!Leader!of!
the!Mujahedeen!in!the!region,!Ahmad!Shah!Massoud!an!ethnic!Tajik!became!the!hero!of!the!
resistance!against!Soviets!and!later!against!the!Taliban.!!A!pattern!emerged!that!would!in!
large!measure!define!the!war!in!Afghanistan.!The!Soviet!force!swept!aside!the!Mujahedeen,!
superior!firepower!devastating!villages!controlled!by!them.!The!result,!however,!was!
deceptive.!The!Mujahedeen!withdrew!to!avoid!the!heaviest!blows!and!suffered!only!modest!
losses.!Furthermore,!thousands!of!villagers!were!abruptly!transformed!into!refugees,!now!
!
11!
more!steadfastly!hostile!than!ever!to!the!new!regime.!After!a!brief!stay,!Soviet!forces,!who!
were!in!no!position!logistically!to!occupy!the!valleys,!withdrew.!This!foreshadowed!what!
became!a!pervasive!pattern:!tactical!successes!that!did!not!add!up!to!tangible,!strategic!
gains.!Soviets!realized!this!pattern!soon!enough!but!having!staked!their!prestige!on!their!
Afghan!adventure,!they!could!not!comfortably!withdraw.!Still,!they!didn’t!change!their!
heavyShanded!methods!which!placed!Soviet!Army!in!a!position!where!it!had!to!fight!not!only!
scattered!bands!of!guerrillas!but!virtually!the!entire!Afghan!population.!Babrak!Karmal!said!
of!this!condition:!“If%sending%in%the%troops%was%a%mistake,%it%was%caused%by%a%failure%to%
understand%AfghanistanJby%a%poor%knowledge%of%the%country%and%the%Afghan%character."!The!
Mujahedeen!were!remarkably!wellSschooled!in!the!Soviet!style!of!warfare.!Many!Afghan!
resistance!fighters!were!former!officers!in!the!Afghan!
Army!who!had!even!received!military!schooling!in!the!
USSR.!Every!passing!year!the!aid!from!Western!states!
to!mujahedeen!intensified.!!They!were!receiving!more!
advanced!weapons!from!the!West!with!the!ISI!of!
Pakistan.!When!CIA!provided!Stinger!missiles!to!Afghan!
mujahedeen!in!1986,!Soviets!began!to!lose!a!helicopter!
a!month.!Soviet!leadership!blamed!the!Afghan!
government!for!the!unsuccessful!outcome!of!the!war!
“To%watch%the%courageous%Afghan%freedom%fighters%battle%
modern%arsenals%with%simple%handJheld%weapons%is%an%
and!Babrak!Kamal!was!ousted!from!the!presidency.!
inspiration%to%those%who%love%freedom."%Ronald%Reagan,%
Ahmedzai!Nadjibullah!was!installed!as!the!President!of!
President%of%the%United%States%
Afghanistan!but!he!could!do!little!to!change!the!situation.!
An!unsuccessful!“National!Reconciliation”!began!under!his!
tenure!which!aimed!to!establish!national!unity.!A!new!
constitution!was!ratified!by!the!Loya%Jirga.!OneSparty!
system!was!abolished!and!twoSparliament!system!was!
introduced.!Even!the!country’s!name!was!changed!back!to!
its!old!version!–Republic!of!Afghanistan.!Islam!became!the!
official!state!religion.!However!these!steps!did!not!
persuaded!the!mujahedeen!who!ignored!the!requests!for!
Introduction%of%the%Stinger%missile%caused%a%lot%of%
causilties%for%the%Soviet%side.%Soviet%airforce%had%to%be%
a!sixSmonth!ceasefire.!Soviets!finally!left!Afghanistan!in!
more%careful%and%couldn’t%assist%the%ground%forces%as%it%
1989!leaving!behind!only!a!handful!of!advisors!to!guide!
did%before.%
the!Afghan!government.!Without!the!Soviet!military!
assistance!Afghan!government!could!only!resist!the!mujahedeen!a!few!years.!
!
Taliban`s!Rise!to!Power!
Nadjibullah!was!finally!ousted!from!power!in!April!1992,!soon!after!the!breakup!of!the!Soviet!
Union!(which!had!continued!to!provide!military!and!economic!assistance!to!the!Kabul!
government).!A!coalition!built!mainly!of!the!mujahedeen!parties!that!had!fought!the!
!
12!
communists!set!up!a!fragile!interim!government,!but!general!peace!and!stability!remained!a!
distant!hope.!As!rival!militias!competed!for!influence,!interethnic!tensions!flared,!and!the!
economy!lay!in!ruins.!
Under!an!arrangement!to!provide!for!the!rotation!of!the!executive!office!between!different!
factions,!the!presidency!passed!after!two!months!from!interim!president!Sebghatullah!
Mujaddedi!to!Burhanuddin!Rabbani.!Rabbani,!however,!refused!to!relinquish!power!to!his!
successor!after!the!expiration!of!his!twoSyear!term!in!office.!Over!the!next!three!years,!
rocket!attacks!by!opposition!forces—primarily!those!of!Gulbuddin!Hekmatyar,!the!leader!of!
the!Islamic!Party—caused!severe!damage!to!large!sections!of!the!capital.!Delivery!of!food!
from!international!aid!organizations!and!the!UN!became!indispensable.!
Outside!of!Kabul,!law!and!order!broke!down!across!much!of!the!country,!and!Afghanistan!
became,!in!effect,!a!country!ruled!by!militia!leaders!and!warlords!who!exacted!road!taxes!
and!transit!fees!from!trucks!engaged!in!crossSborder!trading!and!promoted!extortion!in!most!
other!areas!of!normal!life.!Kidnappings,!whether!for!sadism!or!profit,!were!not!uncommon,!
and!the!people!generally!fell!into!a!state!of!despair.!
Partly!in!response!to!this!situation,!the!Taliban!Smeaning!“students”!in!PersianS!emerged!in!
the!fall!of!1994.!The!movement’s!spiritual!and!political!leader!was!a!former!mujahedeen!
fighter,!Mullah!Mohammad!Omar,!who!was!best!known!for!his!displays!of!piety!and!
participation!in!the!fight!against!the!Soviet!occupation.!Drawing!its!recruits!
from!madrasah!(religious!school)!students!in!Pakistan!and!the!southern!province!of!
Kandahar,!the!Taliban!gained!international!attention!when!it!was!able!to!defeat!those!
groups!preying!on!the!transit!trade!and!when!it!succeeded!in!ridding!Kandahar!of!its!
predatory!and!corrupt!governors.!The!Taliban’s!eventual!success!in!extending!its!territorial!
control!is!largely!attributable!to!the!warSweariness!of!the!Afghan!people.!In!a!short!time!
others!joined!the!students;!including!fighters!formerly!associated!with!the!communists!and!a!
number!of!mujahedeen!defectors!Smany!of!whom!were!induced!to!switch!sides!by!generous!
payments!funded!by!the!government!of!Saudi!Arabia,!then!a!major!Taliban!supporter.!
The! Taliban! also! won! the! early! backing! of! senior! Pakistani! officials! Sincluding! members! of!
Pakistan’s!ISIS!who,!along!with!companies!involved!in!crossSborder!trading,!were!anxious!to!
secure!a!road!route!through!Afghanistan!to!the!markets!in!Central!Asia.!These!same!officials!
felt! that! the! development! of! lucrative! gas! and! oil! pipelines! from! Central! Asian! fields! to!
Pakistan!would!also!be!achieved!sooner!were!the!Taliban!to!wrest!full!control!of!the!country!
from!other!factions.!Importantly,!Taliban!rule!promised!for!Pakistan!a!pliant,!friendly!regime!
in!Kabul,!which!contrasted!with!previous!Afghan!governments!that!often!deflected!Pakistani!
influence! in! Afghanistan’s! domestic! affairs! through! political! proposals! to! India,! Pakistan’s!
archrival.!Despite!the!Taliban’s!mostly!Pashtun!membership,!the!absence!from!their!agenda!
of! the! familiar! irredentist! Pashtun! claims! against! Pashtun! regions! of! Pakistan! Sthe!
Pashtunistan!issueS!made!the!Taliban!a!seemingly!safe!choice.!
!
13!
However,!the!Taliban’s!initial!appeal!counted!heavily!on!uniting!those!Pashtuns!deeply!
resentful!of!the!Rabbani!government,!which!was!dominated!by!ethnic!Tajiks.!Not!until!the!
Taliban!ventured!into!areas!of!the!country!populated!largely!by!nonSPashtuns!could!its!wider!
popular!acceptance!be!tested.!MinoritySdominated!Herat,!Afghanistan’s!third!largest!city,!
fell!to!Taliban!fighters!in!September!1995,!and!a!year!later!the!Taliban!captured!
multiethnic!Kabul,!setting!to!flight!both!antigovernment!troops!and!those!of!Rabbani.!The!
northern!city!of!MazārSe!Sharīf,!populated!by!many!
ethnic!Uzbeks,!fell!in!August!1998.!By!2001!the!Taliban’s!
power!extended!over!more!than!nineStenths!of!the!
country,!and!in!most!areas!under!its!control!the!militia!
succeeded!in!disarming!the!local!inhabitants.!A!loose!
coalition!of!mujahideen!militias!known!as!the!Northern!
Alliance!maintained!control!of!a!small!section!of!northern!
Afghanistan.!Fighters!for!the!Northern!Alliance,!
particularly!those!under!the!command!of!Ahmad!Shah!
Massoud,!remained!the!only!major!obstacle!to!a!final!Taliban!victory.!
Pakistan,!Saudi!Arabia,!and!the!United!Arab!Emirates!gave!formal!recognition!to!the!Taliban!
government!after!the!fall!of!Kabul,!but!the!movement!was!denied!Afghanistan’s!seat!at!the!
UN!and!came!under!vigorous!international!criticism!for!its!extreme!views!Swith!regard!to!
women!in!particularS!and!its!human!rights!record.!Refusal!by!the!Taliban!to!extradite!Osama!
bin!Laden,!an!Islamic!extremist!accused!by!the!United!States!of!planning!violent!acts!and!
organizing!a!global!terrorist!network,!led!to!UN!sanctions!against!the!regime!in!November!
1999!and!again!in!January!2001.!The!Taliban!was!also!accused!of!harboring!and!training!
militants—many!of!whom!were!holdovers!from!the!war!against!the!Soviets—planning!
insurgencies!in!the!Central!Asian!republics!and!China.!Iran!objected!to!the!treatment!of!the!
Shiite!Muslim!population!and!to!the!Taliban’s!alleged!association!with!groups!that!smuggled!
narcotics!across!the!Iranian!frontier.!Pakistani!authorities,!although!concerned!about!the!
possible!ramifications!of!Islamic!radicalism!on!their!own!society,!continued!to!assist!the!
Taliban!economically!and!were!given!varying!degrees!of!credit!for!aiding!the!Taliban!in!its!
military!successes.!
Fighting!between!the!Taliban!and!the!Northern!Alliance!continued,!and!the!international!
community!made!little!headway!toward!inducing!the!combatants!to!observe!a!ceaseSfire!or!
in!convincing!the!Taliban!to!share!power!in!a!broadly!representative!national!government.!
Although!foreign!humanitarian!assistance!to!the!Afghans!continued,!largeSscale!
reconstruction!was!not!addressed.!Just!as!the!commitment!of!international!agencies!and!
donors!was!uncertain,!the!capacity!of!Taliban!leaders!to!manage!a!rebuilding!effort!
remained!questionable.!The!transition!from!a!heavily!criminalized!domestic!and!regional!
economy!Sbased!on!smuggling!weapons!and!narcotics!and!the!uncontrolled!exploitation!of!
Afghanistan’s!natural!resourcesS!remained!indispensable!for!the!country’s!rehabilitation!and!
for!a!sustainable!peace.!
!
14!
Struggle!for!Democracy!
Conditions!continued!to!deteriorate!in!late!2001.!Blame!for!the!terrorist!attacks!on!
the!World!Trade!Center!in!New!York!City!and!a!simultaneous!attack!on!the!Pentagon!near!
Washington,!D.C.,!on!September!11!quickly!centered!on!members!of!a!Muslim!extremist!
group,!alSQaeda,!based!in!Afghanistan!and!headed!by!bin!Laden.!The!Taliban!refused!
repeated!U.S.!demands!to!extradite!bin!Laden!and!his!associates!and!to!dismantle!terrorist!
training!facilities!in!Afghanistan.!Within!weeks!of!the!attacks,!the!United!States!and!Britain!
launched!an!intensive!bombing!campaign!against!the!Taliban!and!provided!significant!
logistical!support!to!Northern!Alliance!forces!in!an!attempt!to!force!the!regime!to!yield!to!its!
demands.!Devastated!by!the!U.S.!bombardment,!Taliban!forces!collapsed!within!days!of!a!
wellScoordinated!ground!offensive!launched!in!midSNovember!by!Northern!Alliance!troops!
and!U.S.!Special!Forces.!On!December!7!the!Taliban!surrendered!Kandahar,!the!militia’s!base!
of!power!and!the!last!city!under!its!control.!At!nearly!the!same!time,!representatives!of!
several!antiSTaliban!groups!met!in!Bonn,!Germany,!an!agreement!was!signed!which!named!
an!interim!administration,!which!was!installed!two!weeks!later.!This!administration!held!
power!until!June!2002!when!a!Loya%Jirga!was!convened!that!selected!a!transitional!
government!to!rule!the!country!until!national!elections!could!be!held!and!a!new!constitution!
drafted.!
In!December!2003!another!Loya%Jirga!was!convened!to!consider!a!draft!constitution!that!had!
been!released!in!November.!In!January!2004,!after!three!weeks!of!debate,!the!Loya%Jirga!
approved!the!constitution,!which!called!for!a!directly!elected!president!and!a!twoSchamber!
legislature.!It!was!then!signed!into!law!by!Hamid!Karzai,!leader!of!the!transitional!
government.!Democratic!elections,!in!which!women!were!granted!the!right!to!vote,!were!
held!in!October!2004,!and!Karzai!was!elected!president,!winning!55!percent!of!the!vote.!
In!March!2005!Karzai!announced!that!legislative!elections!would!be!held!later!that!year.!
Although!alSQaeda!and!Taliban!elements!had!threatened!to!disrupt!the!elections,!they!took!
place!on!Sept.!18,!2005!Sthe!first!time!in!more!than!30!years!that!such!elections!were!heldS
and!in!December!the!newly!elected!National!Assembly!convened!its!first!session.!Ongoing!
violence!throughout!2005!increased!steeply!at!year’s!end!and!worsened!considerably!the!
following!year!as!instability!and!warfare!spread.!Attacks!and!violent!exchanges!between!the!
U.S.Sled!coalition!and!the!Taliban!forces!became!more!frequent,!particularly!in!the!eastern!
and!southern!provinces,!and!casualties!increased.!In!July!2006,!North!Atlantic!Treaty!
Organization!(NATO)!troops!replaced!the!U.S.Sled!coalition!at!the!head!of!military!operations!
in!the!south,!and!in!October!they!also!took!command!of!the!eastern!provinces,!thus!
assuming!control!of!international!military!operations!across!the!entire!country.!Fighting!
between!NATO!and!Taliban!forces!continued,!and!civilian!casualties!remained!numerous;!in!
2008!they!reached!their!highest!levels!since!the!start!of!the!war.!In!keeping!with!campaign!
statements!that!the!war!in!Afghanistan!would!require!greater!attention!and!commitment!on!
the!part!of!the!United!States,!newly!elected!U.S.!Pres.!Barack!Obama!announced!in!February!
!
15!
2009!that!some!17,000!additional!U.S.!troops!would!be!sent!to!Afghanistan!in!the!spring!and!
early!summer!of!that!year.!
Karzai’s!term!as!president!was!due!to!expire!in!May!2009,!and!at!that!time!he!was!
constitutionally!obligated!to!step!down.!Because!of!logistical!and!security!reasons,!however,!
the!approaching!presidential!election!Sin!which!Karzai!would!be!a!candidateS!was!postponed!
from!May!to!August!of!that!year.!Karzai!asserted!that!for!reasons!of!security!he!should!
remain!in!office!until!the!election!took!place.!Critics!were!concerned!that!maintaining!his!
position!would!give!Karzai!an!undue!electoral!advantage,!and!they!urged!him!to!step!down!
as!mandated!by!the!constitution!and!turn!power!over!to!an!interim!government.!In!March!
2009!the!Supreme!Court!ruled!that!Karzai!could!legally!retain!his!position!until!the!election!
in!August.!Discontent!with!Karzai’s!leadership!produced!a!number!of!presidential!hopefuls,!
though!Karzai!was!deftly!able!to!neutralize!or!secure!the!backing!of!most!of!those!who!might!
have!challenged!him.!
The!presidential!election!was!held!on!Aug.!20,!2009,!and!was!followed!by!weeks!of!political!
turmoil.!In!September!a!preliminary!count!awarded!Karzai!almost!55!percent!of!the!vote,!
thus!indicating!that!he!had!won!an!outright!victory!over!his!closest!challenger,!former!
foreign!minister!Abdullah!Abdullah.!With!more!than!2,000!complaints!of!fraud!and!
intimidation,!however,!the!United!NationsSbacked!Electoral!Complaints!Commission!(ECC)!
ordered!an!audit!of!suspect!polling!stations,!including!those!that!registered!a!turnout!
exceeding!100!percent,!and!began!an!investigation!into!fraud!allegations.!In!midSOctober!the!
ECC!ruled!that!the!fraudulent!activity!was!pervasive!enough!to!invalidate!votes!from!more!
than!200!polling!stations.!As!a!result!of!the!ruling,!almost!oneSthird!of!Karzai’s!votes!were!
invalidated,!and!his!proportion!of!the!vote!slipped!to!49.7!percent,!just!below!the!majority!
he!had!claimed!and!low!enough!to!warrant!a!second!round!of!elections.!Although!Karzai!
initially!resisted!the!call!for!a!runoff,!on!October!20!he!conceded!to!a!second!round!of!polling!
between!himself!and!Abdullah,!which!was!scheduled!for!November!7.!Shortly!thereafter,!
however,!Abdullah!withdrew!from!the!race,!a!decision!he!cited!as!being!in!the!country’s!best!
interest.!The!runoff!election!was!canceled,!and!shortly!thereafter!Karzai!was!inaugurated!as!
president!for!a!second!term.!
Opium!production!reached!record!levels!within!a!few!years!of!the!ouster!of!the!Taliban!
government:!it!was!estimated!that!Afghanistan!produced!more!than!nineStenths!of!the!
world’s!opiates.!Complicating!government!efforts!to!curtail!production!was!the!fact!that!
many!segments!of!the!population,!including!the!Taliban!and!supporters!of!the!central!
government,!profited!from!opium!production.!Indeed,!the!Taliban!derived!a!substantial!
income!from!the!industry,!using!the!proceeds!to!fund!their!insurgency.!
Insurgent!attacks!increased!in!2009.!By!the!middle!of!the!year,!U.S.!commanders!had!
become!convinced!that!troop!levels!in!Afghanistan!were!too!low!to!implement!their!
counterinsurgency!strategy,!which!called!for!international!forces!to!focus!on!protecting!the!
population!and!securing!areas!for!reconstruction!projects,!rather!than!simply!killing!large!
!
16!
numbers!of!insurgents.!After!some!debate!within!the!Obama!administration,!Obama!
announced!in!December!2009!that!the!U.S.!would!temporarily!increase!the!number!of!
troops!in!Afghanistan!by!30,000.!This!increase!in!troop!strength!would!be!tied!to!an!
accelerated!timetable!for!the!training!of!Afghan!security!forces!and!the!transfer!of!security!
responsibilities!from!NATO!to!the!Afghan!government.!
The!number!of!NATO!troops!in!Afghanistan!peaked!in!2010!at!nearly!150,000.!The!increase!
in!troops!delivered!mixed!results;!although!NATO!troops!were!able!to!sweep!the!Taliban!out!
of!areas!that!it!had!previously!controlled,!militants!continued!to!launch!devastating!surprise!
attacks!against!military,!government,!and!civilian!targets.!Two!factors!that!allowed!the!
Taliban!to!remain!resilient!in!spite!of!NATO’s!territorial!gains!were!the!widespread!
unpopularity!of!the!Afghan!central!government!and!NATO!among!Afghans!and!the!presence!
of!a!safe!haven!for!Taliban!fighters!across!the!eastern!border!in!Pakistan.!
With!a!military!resolution!to!the!conflict!seeming!increasingly!unlikely,!and!public!support!
for!the!war!declining!in!both!Europe!and!the!U.S.,!NATO!members!agreed!in!November!2010!
to!withdraw!combat!troops!by!2014.!The!apparent!stalemate!between!international!troops!
and!the!Taliban!also!made!U.S.!and!NATO!leaders!more!willing!to!explore!prospects!for!a!
negotiated!political!settlement!with!the!Taliban.!However,!diplomatic!contact!between!the!
U.S.!and!the!Taliban!in!2011!and!2012!was!intermittent!and!failed!to!make!progress!toward!
an!agreement.!
Meanwhile,!the!situation!of!the!Afghan!central!government!remained!precarious.!Afghans’!
confidence!in!governing!institutions!was!low,!in!large!part!because!of!rampant!corruption!at!
the!local,!provincial,!and!national!levels.!Parliamentary!elections!in!2010!were!marred!by!low!
turnout!in!areas!where!Taliban!threats!kept!voters!away!from!the!polls,!while!lastSminute!
changes!to!electoral!law!and!new!allegations!of!vote!rigging!further!damaged!the!credibility!
of!the!electoral!process.!
The!gradual!transfer!of!security!responsibilities!to!Afghan!forces!began!in!2011!and!was!
accompanied!by!a!significant!reduction!in!the!number!of!NATO!troops!from!peak!levels!in!
2010.!However,!many!observers!questioned!Afghan!forces’!ability!to!control!the!country!
after!the!withdrawal!of!NATO!in!2014.!
Current!Situation!
In!2014!Afghanistan!held!a!presidential!election!to!pick!a!successor!to!Karzai,!who!was!
constitutionally!barred!from!seeking!another!term!in!office.!As!was!widely!expected,!the!
start!of!the!presidential!campaign!in!February!was!met!with!an!upsurge!of!insurgent!
violence,!but!the!first!round!of!voting!was!held!on!schedule!in!April.!A!runoff!between!the!
two!leading!candidates,!Abdullah!Abdullah!and!Ashraf!Ghani,!followed!in!June.!A!preliminary!
count!placed!Ghani!ahead,!but!Abdullah!demanded!a!recount,!charging!that!as!many!as!two!
million!of!the!ballots!for!Ghani!were!fraudulent.!With!both!candidates!claiming!victory,!a!
period!of!deadlock!followed.!In!July,!under!pressure!from!the!United!States,!both!sides!
!
17!
agreed!in!principle!to!accept!the!results!of!an!internationally!supervised!audit!of!the!vote!
and!to!form!a!national!unity!government!in!which!the!winner!would!take!the!position!of!
president!and!the!losing!side!would!nominate!someone!to!occupy!a!newly!created!office!
with!powers!similar!to!those!of!a!prime!minister.!The!situation,!however,!remained!delicate;!
disagreements!between!the!two!sides!threatened!to!derail!the!process!before!a!final!
agreement!could!be!reached.!On!21st!of!September!Ghani!and!Abdullah!signed!an!
agreement!under!which!Ghani!would!become!president!and!Abdullah!or!a!nominee!from!his!
party!would!take!the!new!position!of!chief!executive!officer.!Ashraf!Ghani!is!a!prominent!
Afghan!intellectual.!He!has!received!his!higher!education!from!American!University!in!Beirut!
and!Columbia!University.!He!had!lectures!in!UC!Berkeley!and!John!Hopkins!University.!He!
started!working!in!the!World!Bank!until!9/11!when!he!left!his!job!to!go!back!to!Afghanistan.!
After!becoming!President,!Ghani!announced!an!ambitious!development!plan!for!Afghanistan!
and!focused!his!efforts!on!establishing!peace!in!order!to!implement!his!plans.!He!reached!
out!to!Taliban!in!a!different!manner!than!Karzai.!"Ashraf%Ghani's%rhetoric%is%important.%It%
showed%a%different%approach%than%that%of%Karzai.!Everything%Ghani%has%said%has%been%
centered%around%peace."!said!Abdul!Salam!Rocketi,!a!former!Taliban!military!commander.!
Ghani!also!made!solid!efforts!to!increase!Afghanistan’s!relationship!with!Pakistan!which!he!
sees!as!an!essential!part!of!finishing!the!insurgency.!Afghan!troops!launched!attacks!against!
antiSPakistan!militants!who!crossed!into!Afghan!territory,!captured!a!top!Pakistani!Taliban!
commander!and!handed!him!over!Pakistan,!even!withdrawn!its!request!for!arms!from!India.!
However!there!have!been!criticisms!within!Afghanistan!to!Ghani’s!friendly!approach!to!
Pakistan.!Critics!think!that!Pakistan!is!not!doing!its!part!to!stop!the!insurgents.!
Lastly,!there!has!been!official!confirmation!by!the!Afghan!Ministry!of!Interior!that!ISIS!gained!
presence!in!Afghanistan.!A!handful!of!insurgents!have!changed!their!white!Taliban!flag!to!a!
black!one.!Taliban!strongly!opposed!ISIS’s!presence!in!Afghanistan!and!both!sides!declared!
Jihad!on!each!another.!By!late!January!ISIS!recruited!more!than!a!hundred!members!from!
Afghanistan.!However,!by!the!end!of!January!2015,!65!of!the!militants!were!either!captured!
or!killed!by!the!Taliban,!and!ISIL's!top!Afghan!recruiter,!Mullah!Abdul!Rauf,!was!killed!in!a!
U.S.!drone!strike!in!February!2015.!
!
!
Points!to!Consider!
Being!one!of!the!longest!conflicts!in!human!history,!finishing!the!conflict!in!Afghanistan!is!a!
hard!task.!Social!dynamic!is!complex!and!since!the!dawn!of!time!no!government!can!boast!
that!they!have!achieved!complete!authority!over!the!Afghan!population.!It!is!advised!to!split!
this!issue!into!key!points!in!order!to!deal!with!them!efficiently.!!
First!issue!is!ensuring!security!of!the!Afghan!population.!Responsibility!of!security!has!been!
transferred!to!Afghan!authorities!in!2013.!ISAF’s!mission!has!been!terminated!in!2014!and!
!
18!
with!it!NATO!removed!all!of!its!combat!
personnel!from!Afghanistan.!Resolute!
Support!mission!was!established!after!ISAF!
in!order!to!help!Afghan!security!forces!in!
this!transition!period.!But!critics!argued!that!
it!was!a!symbolic!change!and!RS!continued!
the!role!of!ISAF!even!though!RS!is!
designated!as!a!nonScombat!mission.!There!
has!also!have!been!many!criticism!for!the!
Afghan!army!and!police!both!of!which!have!
a!bad!history!with!corruption!and!indiscipline.!
Counter%Insurgency%(COIN)%strategy%adopted%by%NATO%
Taliban!of!course!have!tried!to!use!termination!
of!ISAF!to!their!benefit!and!increased!their!attacks!on!Afghan!officials.!After!facing!criticisms!
for!the!counterSinsurgency!strategy,!US!wanted!to!quicken!the!process!of!getting!their!
combat!troops!out!and!leave!the!bulk!of!the!fighting!to!Afghan!troops.!However!the!
indiscipline!and!corruption!in!the!Afghan!army!doesn’t!give!much!confidence!to!the!
international!community.!
Second!issue!is!cutting!funding!to!insurgent!groups.!There!are!two!major!sources!for!the!
insurgent!groups.!External!funding!originates!in!other!Islamic!states!and!gets!delivered!via!
couriers!and!hawalas.!It!is!nearly!impossible!to!track!these!transitions!since!no!there!is!no!
paper!trail.!It!relies!on!a!network!of!brokers!to!send!money!to!various!locations.!Broker!
reputations!are!built!mainly!on!trust!and!regular!people!use!this!system!as!well.!This!is!one!
of!the!reasons!why!it!is!hard!to!track!down!dirty!money.!During!an!interview,!a!former!U.S.!
counterSterrorism!official!said:!“You%can%literally%drive%a%car%with%$10,000,%$20,000%or%a%
million%dollars%from%XYZ%country%to%Syria.%Not%a%whole%lot%we%can%do.”!In!one!of!its!reports,!
Financial!Action!Task!Force!(FATF)!recommended!a!few!measures!to!diminish!hawala!based!
funding!to!the!insurgency!groups!by!regulating!the!hawala!system,!registering!hawaladars%
with!the!governments!and!taxing!the!hawala!system.!They!have!stated!that!elimination!of!
this!system!is!impossible!but!advised!on!imposing!sanctions!on!hawaladars!who!won’t!
register.!This!is!only!the!cap!of!the!iceberg!of!course.!Internal!funding!covers!most!of!the!
expenditures!of!the!insurgent!groups!and!most!of!that!comes!from!opium!production!which!
provides!approximately!%70!of!the!funds!for!the!Taliban.!!President!Karzai!stated!in!one!of!
his!speeches!that:!“Either%Afghanistan%destroys%opium%or%opium%will%destroy%Afghanistan.”!
Looking!to!the!statistics,!so!far!opium!is!leading!the!battle!against!the!Afghan!government.!
Despite!efforts!from!ISAF!and!Afghan!government,!opium!production!rose!regularly!and!it’s!
now!being!produced!on!a!whole!time!high!capacity.!Main!reason!for!this!trend!is!the!
devastating!poverty!among!Afghan!population.!After!years!of!conflict!many!poor!farmers!
turned!to!opium!cultivation!to!make!a!living!because!of!the!relatively!high!rate!of!return.!
Opium!is!grown!legally!is!some!countries!for!medical!purposes,!but!huge!demand!in!the!illicit!
market,!coupled!with!saturation!of!the!licit!market,!is!driving!Afghanistan!to!supply!illegal!
!
19!
opium.!In!2004,!approximately!523!tons!of!morphine!were!produced!4!worldwide!from!
opium!for!medical!purposes.12!Opium!is!also!refined!for!use!in!legal!prescription!painkillers!
such!as!OxyContin!and!Vicodin.13!However,!Australia!and!France!currently!produce!about!
half!the!world’s!opium!used!for!medical!purposes,!with!India,!Turkey,!Spain,!and!Hungary!
producing!a!majority!of!the!rest,!leaving!little!flexibility!for!Afghanistan!to!enter!this!market.!
Instead,!almost!all!of!it!ends!up!on!the!international!market!as!heroin.!The!Karzai!
government!made!opium!poppy!cultivation!and!trafficking!illegal!in!2002!but!when!an!
Afghan!farmer!can!make!17!times!more!profit!growing!opium!poppy!compared!to!growing!
wheat!it!didn’t!have!much!effect!on!farmers.!Revenue!from!opium!harvest!brought!in!over!
$3!billion!to!Afghanistan,!more!than!35!percent!of!the!country’s!total!gross!national!product.!
However!less!than!20!percent!of!the!$3!billion!in!opium!profits!actually!goes!to!impoverished!
farmers,!while!6!more!than!80!percent!goes!into!the!pockets!of!Afghan’s!opium!traffickers!
and!kingpins!and!their!political!connections.28!Even!heftier!profits!are!generated!outside!of!
Afghanistan!by!international!drug!traffickers!and!dealers.!Corruption!associated!with!the!
opium!economy!has!spread!to!all!levels!of!the!Afghan!government!from!the!police!to!the!
parliament,!and!is!eroding!the!rule!of!law.!Farmers!routinely!bribe!police!and!
counternarcotics!eradication!personnel!to!turn!a!blind!eye.!Law!enforcement!personnel!are!
also!paid!off!by!drug!traffickers!to!ignore!or,!in!some!cases,!protect!their!movements.!Afghan!
government!officials!are!now!believed!to!be!involved!in!at!least!70!percent!of!opium!
trafficking,!and!experts!estimate!that!at!least!13!former!or!present!provincial!governors!are!
directly!involved!in!the!drug!trade.31!Furthermore,!up!to!25!percent!of!the!249!elected!
members!of!parliament!are!also!suspected!of!being!involved!in!the!drug!trade.!When!
referring!to!Afghanistan’s!Ministry!of!Interior,!Syed!Ikramuddin,!Afghan’s!Minister!of!Labor,!
said:!“Except!for!the!Minister!of!Interior!himself,!all!the!lower!people!from!the!heads!of!
department!down!are!involved!in!supporting!drug!smuggling.”33!For!example,!in!a!single!
raid,!nine!tons!of!opium!were!recovered!from!the!offices!of!the!Governor!of!Afghan’s!
Helmand!Province.!While!the!governor!was!eventually!replaced,!no!punitive!action!was!
taken!against!him,!and!he!moved!on!to!a!highSlevel!position!in!parliament.!This!case!is!not!
unusual,!with!corrupt!officials!routinely!being!simply!reassigned!rather!than!removed!from!
office.!Taliban!are!now!using!Afghan’s!opium!industry!as!a!source!of!funds!as!well!as!an!
avenue!to!gain!the!allegiance!of!
the!Afghan!people,!particularly!
poor!rural!Afghans!discontented!
with!the!U.S.!and!NATOS
supported!Karzai!government.!
Former!governor!of!the!southern!
province!of!Helmand!stated!that:!
“The!Taliban!have!forged!an!
alliance!with!drug!smugglers,!
providing!protection!for!drug!
convoys!and!mounting!attacks!to!
!
20!
keep!the!government!away!and!the!poppy!flourishing.”!!
US!have!adopted!a!counternarcotics!(CON)!strategy!while!dealing!with!this!issue!however!
there!have!been!many!obstacles!against!implementing!the!strategy!efficiently.!Lack!of!
security!and!lack!of!alternatives!for!the!farmers!are!the!prominent!factors.!While!98!percent!
of!Afghan!opium!farmers!are!ready!to!stop!opium!poppy!cultivation!if!access!to!an!alternate!
livelihood!is!provided,!relatively!few!of!them!have!realistic!alternatives!available.!There!has!
been!criticism!on!how!CON!was!implemented.!Many!critics!believe!eradication!part!of!CON!
should!be!deemphasized!because!it!makes!farmers!more!frustrated!and!close!to!the!
insurgent!cause.!A!few!measures!that!can!be!taken!are!focusing!on!longSterm!alternative!
livelihoods!for!opium!farmers,!aggressively!pursuing!drug!kingpins!and!corrupt!government!
officials!and!exploring!the!possibility!of!Afghanistan’s!entry!to!the!legal!opium!market.!
Third!issue!is!education.!Education!plays!a!huge!role!in!diminishing!the!influence!of!insurgent!
groups.!Since!its!formation!Taliban!have!opposed!school’s!which!gave!“western!style”!
education!and!promoted!education!from!madrassas!and!prohibited!secular!education.!Girls!
were!forbidden!from!receiving!education.!Since!the!fall!of!Taliban!there!has!been!relative!
success!on!education.!Approximately!ten!million!students!are!attending!schools!according!to!
figures!from!2013.!However!there!are!still!many!challenges.!Although!there!is!extensive!
funding!for!education!in!Afghanistan,!a!lot!of!that!money!is!not!used!in!education!and!
sometimes!trickles!down!to!the!pockets!of!corrupt!officials.!Especially!the!schools!in!the!
countryside!suffer!from!lack!of!funding.!Security!is!also!a!major!problem,!most!parents!living!
in!conflict!areas!don’t!want!to!send!their!children!to!schools!especially!their!daughters.!Also!
lack!of!female!teachers!keeps!girls!from!going!to!school!since!a!lot!of!conservative!parents!
refuse!to!send!their!daughters!to!school!if!there!are!no!female!teachers.!
Previous!UN!Resolutions!
Between!1996!and!2001!when!Taliban!was!in!power,!9!resolutions!passed!in!UNSC!
concerning!the!situation!in!Afghanistan.!First!of!those!resolutions!addressed!the!concerns!
about!the!Taliban!regime!on!human!rights!issues!–especially!against!womenS!and!for!the!
establishment!of!a!ceasefire!between!the!parties!in!Afghanistan.!After!the!1998!US!Embassy!
bombings!in!Eastern!Africa!by!AlSQaeda,!Taliban!was!accused!of!harboring!Osama!Bin!Laden.!
In!Resolution!1267,!the!UNSC!demanded!Taliban!to!extradite!Osama!Bin!Laden.!In!Resolution!
1333!the!UNSC!demanded!Taliban!to!“cease%the%provision%of%sanctuary%and%training%for%
international%terrorists%and%their%organizations,%take%appropriate%effective%measures%to%
ensure%that%the%3%territory%under%its%control%is%not%used%for%terrorist%installations%and%camps,%
or%for%the%preparation%or%organization%of%terrorist%acts%against%other%States%or%their%citizens,%
and%cooperate%with%international%efforts%to%bring%indicted%terrorists%to%justice”!and!to!comply!
with!previous!resolutions!passed!in!UNSC.!However!these!resolutions!were!not!taken!
seriously!by!the!Taliban!government!in!Kabul.!Resolution!1267!UN!initiated!the!first!set!of!
sanctions!against!the!Taliban!regime!including!freezing!funds!controlled!by!Taliban.!Arms!
and!diplomatic!embargoes!came!in!2000!with!the!Resolution!1333.!After!the!US!Invasion,!the!
!
21!
UN!authorized!the!establishment!of!an!International!Security!Assistance!Force!(ISAF)!for!the!
purpose!of!assisting!the!Afghan!Interim!Authority!which!was!established!at!the!International!
Conference!on!Afghanistan!in!Bonn,!Germany.!In!2002!with!the!UNSC!Resolution!1401!
United!Nations!Assistance!Mission!in!Afghanistan!was!established!in!order!to!assist!people!of!
Afghanistan!and!lay!the!foundations!of!sustainable!development.!While!Resolution!1419!
addressed!UNSC’s!support!to!the!transitional!government!headed!by!Hamid!Karzai.!Since!the!
fall!of!the!Taliban!government!there!has!been!32!resolutions!on!Afghanistan!on!UNSC.!In!
those!resolutions!the!UNSC;!addressed!the!human!rights!violations!in!Afghanistan!and!called!
upon!the!international!community,!extended!the!authorities!of!ISAF!and!UNAMA!on!a!12!
month!basis,!stressed!the!importance!of!reducing!opium!production!in!order!to!cut!supplies!
of!terrorist!organizations.!They!have!achieved,!at!best,!partial!success!in!their!aims.!After!
ISAF’s!mission!has!been!terminated!and!the!process!of!giving!the!responsibility!of!security!to!
the!Afghan!authorities!began,!UNSC!focused!its!efforts!on!promoting!UNAMA!throughout!
Afghanistan.!
USEFUL!LINKS!
COMPREHENSIVE!UNSC!RESOLUTIONS!
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http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1267(1999)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1333(2000)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1401(2002)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1419(2002)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1746(2007)!!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1806(2008)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1817(2008)!!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1868(2009)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1917(2010)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1974(2011)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2041(2012)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2069(2012)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2096(2013)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2145(2014)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2145(2014)!
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2210%20(2015)!
“State!of!the!Insurgency”!Presentation!by!NATO!(Unclassified):!
•
http://www.defensestudies.org/wpScontent/uploads/2010/01/isafSstateSofStheS
insurgencyS231000Sdec.pdf!
“Opium!and!Afghanistan:!Reassessing!the!U.S.!Counternarcotics!strategy”:!
!
22!
•
http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub804.pdf!
“The!Afghanistan!Compact”!agreed!by!the!Republic!of!Afghanistan!and!the!International!
community!during!the!International!Conference!on!Afghanistan!(2006):!
•
http://www.nato.int/isaf/docu/epub/pdf/afghanistan_compact.pdf!
“From!Soldier!to!Civilian:!Disarmament!Demobilization!Reintegration!in!Afghanistan”!by!
Danish!Institute!for!International!Studies:!
•
http://www.diis.dk/files/media/documents/publications/rp2006S7web.pdf!
“Ethnoscapes,!National!Territorialisation,!and!the!Afghan!War”!by!Conrad!Schetter:!
•
http://www.zef.de/module/register/media/3083_Afghanistan_English_geopolitics_d
raft.pdf!
The!“Hawala”!system:!
•
http://globalsecuritystudies.com/Faith%20Hawala%20FINAL.pdf!
UNAMA!FAQ:!
•
http://unama.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=12269&language=enSUS!
Bibliography!
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!
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/57411/miltonSbearden/afghanistanS
graveyardSofSempires!
http://www.nam.ac.uk/exhibitions/onlineSexhibitions/roadSkabul/thirdSafghanSwar!
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpS
dyn/content/article/2009/05/10/AR2009051001959.html!
Conflict!in!Afghanistan:!A!Historical!Encyclopedia:!
http://books.google.com.tr/books?id=bv4hzxpo424C&pg=PA148&redir_esc=y#v=one
page&q&f=false!!
First!AngloSAfghan!war!S>!http://memory.loc.gov/cgiS
bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0012)!
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/144382.stm!
https://news.google.co.nz/newspapers?id=MQwVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jQIEAAAAIBAJ&pg
=6049,7393411&dq=soviet+invasion+of+afghanistan&hl=en!
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/2001/sovietS
afghan_compoundSwarfare.htm!
Who!are!Taliban:!http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/144382.stm!!
Chronology!of!the!War!in!Afghanistan!(since!2001):!
http://www.cfr.org/afghanistan/usSwarSafghanistan/p20018!
23!
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http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpS
dyn/content/article/2010/09/22/AR2010092206141.html!
http://www.latimes.com/opinion/opSed/laSoeSchayesSafghanistanSelectionsS
20140923Sstory.html!
http://archive.armytimes.com/article/20091008/NEWS/910080310/CorruptionS
indisciplineSslowSAfghanStraining!
http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/08/22/usSafghanistanS
idUSTRE57E0D620090822!
http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124986154654218153#articleTabs%3Darticle!
http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/7/30/pentagonSsaysS
anyfullwithdrawalofustroopsunlikelyin2014.html!
http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/9/10/stringSofS
bombingskill11inafghanistan.html!
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/09/world/asia/frustratedSobamaSconsidersSfullS
troopSwithdrawalSfromSafghanistan.html?hp&_r=1&pagewanted=all!
http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130618/karzaiSannouncesSafghanS
securityShandover!
http://www.ibtimes.com/afghanistanSopiumSproductionSrecordShighSamidS
instabilitySslowingSeconomyShighSdemandS1715675!
http://www.ibtimes.com/islamicSstateShowSterroristSgroupsSmoveSmillionsSwithoutS
paperStrailS1698544!
https://news.vice.com/article/afghanistansSopiumSeconomySisSdoingSbetterSthanS
ever!
https://news.vice.com/article/theSusSjustScantSstopSblowingSbillionsSinSafghanistan!
http://nationalinterest.org/blog/theSskeptics/opiumSeconomyS4206!
http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/10/afghanistanSopiumSpoppySheroinS
recordSlevels!
http://www.bbc.com/news/worldSasiaS22150482!
http://thediplomat.com/2014/12/aSsolutionSforSafghanistansSopiumScrisis/!
https://raziasrayofhope.org/educationSinSafghanistan.html!
http://www.latimes.com/world/afghanistanSpakistan/laSfgSafghanistanSghaniSusS
20150322Sstory.html!
http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/ghanisStalibanSpredicament/!
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2015/01/afghanSofficialsSconfirmSisilS
presenceS201511815245847478.html!
http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/isisSinSafghanistanSisSaSdisasterSwaitingStoS
happenS10099198.html!
http://www.ibtimes.com/isisSafghanistanSsaysSseniorSarmySofficialSmilitantsShaveS
raisedSblackSflagsSsouthernS1787158!
24!
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http://www.breitbart.com/nationalSsecurity/2015/04/22/reportSisisStalibanSdeclareS
jihadSonSeachSother/!
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Topic!B:!Eradicating!War!Crimes!of!Any!Kind!on!the!Focus!of!the!
Utilization!of!Private!Military!Contractors!and!Mercenaries!
Key!Terminology!
International!and!nonSinternational!armed!conflicts!
The! Statute! of! the! International! Criminal! Court! defines! war! crimes! as,! inter! alia,! “serious!
violations!of!the!laws!and!customs!applicable!in!international!armed!conflict”!and!“serious!
violations! of! the! laws! and! customs! applicable! in! an! armed! conflict! not! of! an! international!
character”.!
Basically,! International! armed! conflicts! are! when! there! are! two! or! more! States! and! nonS
international!armed!conflicts!are!between!government!forces!and!nonSgovernmental!armed!
groups,!or!between!such!groups!only.!!
This!definition!encloses!in!Article!3!of!the!Geneva!Convention!of!1959!and!nonSinternational!
armed!conflicts!in!Art!1.!of!Additional!Protocol!II.!
According!to!these!laws,!there!is!no!other!type!of!armed!conflict.!
!
Customary!and!conventional!law!
Customary!laws!are!common!rules!that!do!not!lie!in!the!Convention!but!rather!in!practices!
adopted!by!the!States!
Conventional!Laws!are!laws!that!are!signed!by!several!states!to!come!to!a!common!ground.!
!
Definition!of!the!War!Crime!
ICC%defines%war%crimes%as;!
“War%crimes”%include%grave%breaches%of%the%Geneva%Conventions%and%other%serious%violations%
of%the%laws%and%customs%applicable%in%international%armed%conflict%and%in%conflicts%"not%of%an%
international% character"% listed% in% the% Rome% Statute,% when% they% are% committed% as% part% of% a%
plan%or%policy%or%on%a%large%scale.%These%prohibited%acts%include:!
•%%%%murder;!
•%%%%mutilation,%cruel%treatment%and%torture;!
•%%%%taking%of%hostages;!
•%%%%intentionally%directing%attacks%against%the%civilian%population;!
!
26!
•% % % % intentionally% directing% attacks% against% buildings% dedicated% to% religion,% education,% art,%
science%or%charitable%purposes,%historical%monuments%or%hospitals;!
•%%%%pillaging;!
•%%%%rape,%sexual%slavery,%forced%pregnancy%or%any%other%form%of%sexual%violence;!
•%%%%conscripting%or%enlisting%children%under%the%age%of%15%years%into%armed%forces%or%groups%or%
using%them%to%participate%actively%in%hostilities.!
Rules!of!War!!
As! people! did! try! to! limit! the! brutality! of! the! war,! states! came! together! to! write! the! First!
Geneva!Convention!in!1865!until!the!birth!of!modern!international!humanitarian!law.!They!
are!some!basic!limits!to!protect!the!ones!who!do!not!fight!as!well!as!those!who!are!no!longer!
able!to!fight.!
!!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
27!
Civilians!
States!should!take!all!precautions!to!avoid!it,!however;!as!the!charts!above!show!states!are!
getting!more!and!more!brutal!to!civilians!even!according!to!humanitarian!law.!
Detainees!Laws!of!War!!
Detainees! laws! of! war! prohibit! torture! and! other! brutal! actions! to! detainees! that! do! not!
differ! from! their! past! actions,! they! should! receive! food! and! water! and! they! should! be!
allowed! to! communicate.! Further! you! will! see! a! case! study! on! Abu! Ghraib! Prison! which! is!
stated! in! Iraq! where! United! States! Army! and! Central! Intelligence! Agency! has! committed! a!
series! of! human! rights! violations! such! as! physical! and! sexual! abuse,! torture,! rape,! sodomy!
and! murder! which! did! come! to! light! with! reports! of! Amnesty! International! and! the!
Associated!Press!in!2003.!
Medical!Aid!Services!
When! medical! workers! are! harmed! it! is! deadly! for! both! sides! as! medical! workers! do! not,!
most!of!the!time,!work!for!one!side,!so!states!also!should!take!precautions!further.!
As!indicated,!during!wartime!medical!workers!put!a!sign!on!their!arms.!
Soldiers!should!not!interfere!to!medics!and!cannot!indicate!who!they!should!treat!or!not.!
Red!Cross!must!not!be!attacked.!
Limits!to!Warfare!
As! technology! advanced! rules! of! war! also! should! adapt! as! some! weapons! and! methods! of!
warfare! do! not! distinguish! between! fighters! and! civilians! limits! on! the! use! has! agreed.!
However,!these!rules!are!not!yet!able!to!cover!all!the!blanks!as!maybe!in!the!future!there!
will! be! no! human! fighter! but! robots! or! unmanned! aerial! vehicle! that! may! not! be! able! to!
!
28!
differ!fighters!and!civilians.!
Private!Military!Firms!and!Mercenaries!
Private!military!firms!
Private!military!firms!(PMFs)!are!companies!specialized!to!sell!military!skills.!They!started!in!
20th!century,!they!have!done!many!task!such!as!but!limited!to:!conducting!tactical!combat!
operations,!strategic!planning,!intelligence,!operational!and!logistics!support,!troop!training,!
technical! assistance.! PMFs! are! differing! from! small! consulting! corporations,! comprised! of!
retired!generals!to!enormous!transnational!firms!that!are!capable!of!doing!everything!from!
providing! hundreds! of! armed! commandos! to! supply! the! logistics! for! entire! military!
operations.! These! firms! are! operating! more! than! 50! states,! from! Saudi! Arabia! to! Sierra!
Leone.!!
Today’s!one!of!the!most!powerful!armed!force,!USA,!has!become!one!of!the!main!client!of!
this!industry.!The!US!Defense!Department!has!contracted!more!than!3!thousand!USSbased!
firms!between!1994S2002,!valued!approximately!300!billion!dollars.!
!
Private!Military!Firms!recurrently!settled!the!contracted!private!guards!in!positions!of!danger!
and! vulnerability,! (i.e! the! private! contractors! of! Blackwater,! killed! in! Fallujah! in! 2004)!
purportedly! due! to! the! absence! of! the! necessary! safety! means! that! Blackwater! was!
supposed!to!provide!in!order!to!accomplish!the!mission.!
This!milestone!transposed!the!progress!of!the!war!and!the!possession!by!the!United!States!
in! Iraq.! It! is! considered! as! the! climax! in! the! possession! of! Iraq.! This! induced! to! a! failed! US!
operation!to!reclaim!control!of!the!city.!In!2004!a!successful!reclaiming!operation!in!the!city,!
called!Operation!Phantom!Fury,!which!resulted!in!the!death!of!over!1,350!fighters.!
The!U.S.!military!first!controverted!the!usage!of!the!white!phosphorus!as!an!antiSpersonnel!
weapon!in!Fallujah,!but!later!backed!off,!and!admitted!usage!of!the!inflammatory!in!the!city!
as! an! abusive! weapon.! Reports! following! the! events! of! November! 2004! have! claimed! war!
crimes,!and!a!massacre!by!U.S.!personnel.!!
!
!
!
29!
Mercenaries!
Rule% 108.% Mercenaries,% as% defined% in% Additional% Protocol% I,% do% not% have% the% right% to%
combatant% or% prisonerJofJwar% status.% They% may% not% be% convicted% or% sentenced% without%
previous%trial.!
Definition!of!mercenaries!
Additional%Protocol%I%defines%a%mercenary%as%a%person%who:!
a)%is%specially%recruited%locally%or%abroad%in%order%to%fight%in%an%armed%conflict;!
b)%does,%in%fact,%take%a%direct%part%in%the%hostilities;!
c)%is%motivated%to%take%part%in%the%hostilities%essentially%by%the%desire%for%private%gain%
and,% in% fact,% is% promised,% by% or% on% behalf% of% a% Party% to% the% conflict,% material% compensation%
substantially%in%excess%of%that%promised%or%paid%to%combatants%of%similar%ranks%and%functions%
in%the%armed%forces%of%that%Party;!
d)%is%neither%a%national%of%a%Party%to%the%conflict%nor%a%resident%of%territory%controlled%
by%a%Party%to%the%conflict;!
e)%is%not%a%member%of%the%armed%forces%of%a%Party%to%the%conflict;%and!
f)%has%not%been%sent%by%a%State%which%is%not%a%Party%to%the%conflict%on%official%duty%as%a%
member%of%its%armed%forces.!
International! Committee! of! Red! Cross! further! explains! as;This% definition% is% very% restrictive%
because%it%requires%that%all%six%conditions%be%cumulatively%fulfilled.%In%addition,%the%definition%
requires%evidence%that%a%person%accused%of%being%a%mercenary%is%“motivated%to%take%part%in%
the% hostilities% essentially% by% the% desire% for% private% gain”% and% is% promised% “material%
compensation%substantially%in%excess%of%that%promised%or%paid%to%combatants%of%similar%ranks%
and%functions%in%the%armed%forces”.!
!
International!and!NonSInternational!Armed!Conflicts!
Protocol!1!sets!forth!that!mercenaries!do!not!have!the!right!to!combatant!or!prisonerSofSwar!
status.A! mercenary! in! an! armed! conflict! is! punished! ! under! the! legislation! of! a! number! of!
States.However!as!years!past!definition!of!mercenaries!lost!much!of!its!meaning!as!it!is!very!
restrictive.! Further,! because! of! the! opposition! of! African! states! against! mercenary! activity!
!
30!
was!primarily!related!to!the!conflicts!of!national!liberation!where!mercenaries!were!fighting!
against!people’s!right!to!exercise!their!right!to!selfSdetermination.!
!
The!Geneva!Conventions!and!Related!Articles!
!
Introduction!to!Geneva!Conventions!
Geneva!Conventions!are!4!treaties!and!2!protocols.!All!the!member!states!of!United!Nations!
has!ratified!the!conventions,!however!Additional!Protocols!to!Geneva!Conventions!adopted!
in! 1988! containing! the! most! pertinent,! detailed! and! virulent! protections! of! international!
humanitarian!law!for!people!and!objects!in!modern!warfare!are!still!not!ratified!by!a!number!
of! States! continuously! engaged! in! armed! conflicts,! namely! the! United! States,! Israel,! India,!
Pakistan,!Iraq,!Iran,!and!others.!!
!
Geneva!Convention!and!War!Crimes!
The!Geneva!Conventions!are!a!group!of!treaties!upon!the!treatment!of!civilians,!prisoners!of!
war! and! soldiers! who! are! otherwise! accomplished! outside! the! fight! or! inadequate! of!
fighting.!The!first!convention!was!proposed!by!the!International!Committee!for!Relief!to!the!
Wounded!(which!became!the!International!Committee!for!the!Red!Cross!and!Red!Crescent).!
This!convention!assembled!a!pact!to!assure!wounded!and!sick!soldiers!during!wartime.!The!
Swiss! Government! gave! carte! blanche! to! have! the! Conventions! in! Geneva,! several! years!
later,! a! similar! pact! to! assure! shipwreck! soldiers! was! assembled.! The! version,! written! in!
1949,!!including!three!more!protocols,!are!still!in!use.!
!
Convention( (I)( for( the( Amelioration( of( the( Condition( of( the( Wounded( and( Sick( in( Armed(
Forces(in(the(Field.((Geneva,(12(August(1949)(
The! Convention! I! had! been! written! in! August,! 1949,! assures! soldiers! are! not! capable! of!
fighting! anymore! and! medical! personnel! against! attack,! execution! without! judgment,!
torture,!and!assaults!upon!personal!dignity.!!
!
Article(3!
“(1)%Persons%taking%no%active%part%in%the%hostilities,%including%members%of%armed%forces%who%
have%laid%down%their%arms%and%those%placed%hors%de%combat%by%sickness,%wounds,%detention,%
!
31!
or% any% other% cause,% shall% in% all% circumstances% be% treated% humanely,% without% any% adverse%
distinction%founded%on%race,%colour,%religion%or%faith,%sex,%birth%or%wealth,%or%any%other%similar%
criteria.!
%%%%%To% this% end,% the% following% acts% are% and% shall% remain% prohibited% at% any% time% and% in% any%
place%whatsoever%with%respect%to%the%aboveJmentioned%persons:%%%%%!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
violence%to%life%and%person,%in%particular,%the%murder%of%all%kinds,%mutilation,%cruel%treatment%
and%torture;%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%!
(b)%taking%of%hostages;!
(c)%outrages%upon%personal%dignity,%in%particular,%humiliating%and%degrading%treatment;!
(d)% the% passing% of% sentences% and% the% carrying% out% of% executions% without% previous% judgment%
pronounced%by%a%regularly%constituted%court,%affording%all%the%judicial%guarantees%which%are%
recognized%as%indispensable%by%civilized%peoples.%%%%%%%%%%%%%!
(2)%The%wounded%and%sick%shall%be%collected%and%cared%for.%%%%%%%%%%%!
An%impartial%humanitarian%body,%such%as%the%International%Committee%of%the%Red%Cross,%may%
offer%its%services%to%the%Parties%to%the%conflict.%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%!
The% Parties% to% the% conflict% should% further% endeavor% to% bring% into% force,% by% means% of% special%
agreements,%all%or%part%of%the%other%provisions%of%the%present%Convention.!
The%application%of%the%preceding%provisions%shall%not%affect%the%legal%status%of%the%Parties%to%
the%conflict.“!
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%!
These!clauses!show!rules!of!wars!as!Geneva!Conventions!are!customary!laws!the!states!that!
ratified! these! conventions! should! proceed! according! to! them! if! not! this! classifies! them! as!
war! crimes.! Apart! from! the! First! Convention! other! Conventions! also! protects! rights! of!
civilians,!detainees!and!PoWs.!To!summarize!all!conventions;!
!!!!!!!!!
Convention( (II)( for( the( Amelioration( of( the( Condition( of( Wounded,( Sick( and( Shipwrecked(
Members(of(Armed(Forces(at(Sea!(Geneva,!12!August!1949)!
Convention!II!had!been!written!in!August!1949,!prolonged!the!assurances!pointed!out!in!the!
first!Convention!to!shipwrecked!soldiers!and!other!naval!forces.!
!
(
(
!
32!
Convention((III)(relative(to(the(Treatment(of(Prisoners(of(War.((Geneva,(12(August(1949)!
Convention!III!had!been!written!in!August!1949,!elucidated!what!a!Prisoner!of!War!(POW)!
was,!and!bestowed!them!proper!and!humane!treatment!as!stated!in!the!first!Convention.!!
!
Convention((IV)(relative(to(the(Protection(of(Civilian(Persons(in(Time(of(War.((Geneva,(12(
August(1949.)(
Convention! IV! had! been! written! in! August! 1949,! civilians! are! protected! from! inhumane!
treatment!and!attacks.!Furthermore,!supplementary!requirements!regarding!the!treatment!
of! civilians! were! added.! Especially,! it! disallows! attacks! on! civilian! hospitals,! medical!
transports,!etc.!It!also!defines!the!right!of!POWs!and!those!who!commit!acts!of!sabotage.!!
Protocol( Additional( to( the( Geneva( Conventions( of( 12( August( 1949,( and( relating( to( the(
Protection(of(Victims(of(International(Armed(Conflicts,(Protocol(I.((8(June(1977)(
Protocol! I! had! been! written! in! June! 1977,! the! Nations! signed! for! additional! regulations! on!
the!treatment!of!“protected!persons”!as!stated!in!the!original!Conventions.!Moreover,!new!
requirements! regarding! the! treatment! of! the! deceased,! cultural! artifacts,! and! dangerous!
targets!were!formed.!
!Protocol( Additional( to( the( Geneva( Conventions( of( 12( August( 1949,( and( relating( to( the(
Protection(of(Victims(of(NonOInternational(Armed(Conflicts,(Protocol(II.((8(June(1977)(
Protocol!II!had!been!written!in!June!1977,!the!fundamentals!of!“humane!treatment”!were!
elucidated.! Additionally,! the! rights! of! imprisoned! persons! were! cited,! accommodating!
protections!for!POWs.!!
!Protocol( additional( to( the( Geneva( Conventions( of( 12( August( 1949,( and( relating( to( the(
Adoption(of(an(Additional(Distinctive(Emblem,(Protocol(III.((8(December(2005)(
!
!
!
33!
Signatories!
!
Green:!!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!ISIII!
Violet:!!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!I!and!III!
Orange:!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!III!
Blue:!!!!!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!ISII!
Yellow:!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!P!I!
Red:!!!!!!!!!!!Parties!to!GC!ISIV!and!no!P!
!
Consequences!of!Geneva!Conventions!and!the!Additional!Protocols!
The! Geneva! Conventions! and! the! Additional! Protocols! are! the! basis! of! International!
Humanitarian! Law! that! adjusts! the! conduct! of! armed! conflict! and! seeks! to! restrict! the!
aftermath.! They! especially! protect! civilians,! health! and! aid! workers! and! those! who! are! no!
longer!participating!in!the!war,!such!as!wounded,!sick!and!shipwrecked!soldiers!and!POWs.!
The!Conventions!and!their!Protocols!contain!severe!rules!to!conduct!“grave!breaches”!such!
as!willful!killing,!torture!or!inhuman!treatment,!willfully!depriving!a!prisoner!of!war,!unlawful!
confinement!of!a!protected!person,!seriously!endangering!by!any!willful!and!unjustified!act!
!
34!
or! omission! etc.! Those! responsible! for! “grave! breaches”! must! be! sought,! investigated! or!
surrendered,!whatever!nationality!they!may!hold.!
!
Case!Study!Abu!Ghraib!Prison!
“The% US% commander% in% charge% of% military% jails% in% Iraq,% Major% General% Geoffrey% Miller,% has%
confirmed%that%a%battery%of%50Jodd%special%"coercive%techniques"%can%be%used%against%enemy%
detainees.% The% general,% who% previously% ran% the% prison% camp% at% Guantanamo% Bay,% said% his%
main%role%was%to%extract%as%much%intelligence%as%possible.”!
—The%Guardian!
!
Introduction!
Abu! Ghraib! prison! was! firstly! used! by! the! government! of! Saddam! Hussein! then! with! the!
invasion!of!United!States,!prison!started!to!be!used!by!US!Army.!
!On!20!June!2003,!Abdel!Salam!Sidahmed,!Deputy!Director!of!AI's!Middle!East!Program:"The!
notorious!Abu!Ghraib!Prison,!centre!of!torture!and!mass!executions!under!Saddam!Hussein,!
is!yet!again!a!prison!cut!off!from!the!outside!world.!On!13!June,!there!was!a!protest!in!this!
prison! against! indefinite! detention! without! trial.! Troops! from! the! occupying! powers! killed!
one! person! and! wounded! seven."! That! was! the! first! hint! about! the! abuses! at! Abu! Ghraib!
prison!and!that!it!came!to!light!to!condition!of!detainees!as;!exposed!to!extreme!heat,!not!
provided!clothing,!and!forced!to!use!open!trenches!for!toilets.!The!tortures!included!denial!
of!sleep!for!extended!periods,!exposure!to!bright!lights!and!loud!music,!and!being!restrained!
in!uncomfortable!positions.!
On! 1! November! 2003,! Associated! Press’s! report! "In! Iraq's! American! detention! camps,!
forbidden!talk!can!earn!a!prisoner!hours!bound!and!stretched!out!in!the!sun,!and!detainees!
swinging! tent! poles! rise! up! regularly! against! their! jailers,! according! to! recently! released!
Iraqis."!The!report!continued!to!elucidate!terrifying!abuse!of!the!prisoners!at!the!hands!of!
their!American!captors:!"'They!confined!us!like!sheep,'!the!newly!freed!Saad!Naif,!38,!said!of!
the! Americans.'They! hit! people.! They! humiliated! people.'"! In! response,! U.S.! BrigadierS
General!Janis!Karpinski,!at!the!time!in!charge!of!all!U.S.!detention!facilities!in!Iraq,!claimed!
that!prisoners!were!being!treated!"humanely!and!fairly."!The!AP!report!also!stated!that!as!of!
1!November!2003,!there!were!two!legal!cases!pending!against!U.S.!military!personnel,!one!
involving!the!beating!of!an!Iraqi!prisoner,!the!other!about!the!death!of!a!prisoner!in!custody.!
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The!administrative!power!of!that!time,!George!W.!Bush,!tried!to!depict!the!abuses!as!some!
incidents,! not! how! general! U.S.! policy! is,! which! some! humanitarian! organizations! as! Red!
Cross,! Amnesty! International! and! Human! Rights! Watch! strongly! objected! and! did! their!
further!investigations!on!the!matter!and!they!announced!that!these!abuses!were!not!some!
random!incidents!but!a!segment!of!a!bigger!pie!of!torture!and!brutal!treatment!at!American!
overseas! detention! centers,! including! those! in! Iraq,! Afghanistan! and! Guantanamo! Bay.!
Human! rights! violations! in! Guantanamo! Bay! are! also! should! be! kept! in! mind.! The! main!
problem!with!these!issues!was!the!authorization!for!the!torture!had!come!from!high!orders!
with! accusations! being! made! that! Secretary! of! Defense,! Donald! Rumsfeld! had! authorized!
them.!
!
Seventeen! soldiers! and! officers! have! been! removed! from! duty! and! eleven! soldiers! were!
charged! with! dereliction! of! duty,! maltreatment,! aggravated! assault! and! battery! by! the! US!
Department!of!Defense.!The!prosecution!continued!from!2004!to!2006!that!convicted!these!
soldiers! in! courtsSmartial! and! sentenced! to! military! prison,! and! dishonorably! discharged!
from!service.!
!
Torture!Memos!came!out!several!years!later!which!are!prepared!before!Iraq!Invasion!by!US!
Department! of! Justice,! authorized! some! specified! interrogation! techniques,! mostly! involve!
the!torture!of!detainees.!This!is!a!subject!on!discuss!as!Geneva!Conventions!did!not!apply!to!
American!interrogators!overseas.!
!!!!!
!!!!Human!Right!Violations!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!Death%of%Manadel%alJJamadi%
After! interrogations! and! tortures,! Manadel! alSJamadi! killed! by! a! CIA! officer! and! a! private!
contractor!in!November!2003.!However,!US!military!called!this!death!a!homicide.!
!
!!!!!!!!!Prisoner%Rape%
Antonio! Taguba,! a! major! general! in! the! US! Army,! stated! in! Taguba! Report! that! PoWs! had!
been! sodomized! with! ‘’a! chemical! light! and! perhaps! a! broomstick’’,! several! years! after! he!
further!stated!that!there!are!some!photographic!evidence!of!rape!in!Abu!Ghraib!prison.!
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Statements!continue!as,!an!Iraqi!teenage!boy!engaging!in!sexual!intercourse!with!an!Army!
translator! while! a! female! soldier! taking! their! pictures.! Barack! Obama’s! comment! on! these!
photos!was!"These!pictures!show!torture,!abuse,!rape!and!every!indecency.’’!Barack!Obama!
had!permitted!to!release!these!pictures!however!he!then!changed!his!mind!as!these!pictures!
may!put!troops!in!danger!and!‘’inflame!antiSAmerican!public!opinion’’.!
!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!Other%Abuses%
!!!!a.!Forcing!them!to!do!things!that!against!their!religion!and!ethical!view!
!!!!b.!pounding!wounded!limbs!with!metal!batons!
!!!!c.!pouring!phosphoric!acid!on!detainees!
!!!!d.!tying!ropes!to!the!detainees!legs!or!penises!and!dragging!them!across!the!floor.!
!!!!e.!systematic!torture!
!
Conclusion!
Since!the!beginning!of!the!21st!century!method!of!warfare!has!changed,!before!it!was!men!
in!uniform,!fighting!for!their!country!predetermined!by!ideals!of!patriotism!but!today!men,!
women! even! the! children! fight! for! organizations! that! range! from! terrorist! groups! to! drug!
cartels!stimulated!from!religion!and!ethnic!grievance!to!profit!motive.!War!crime!is!a!severe!
crime,! such! as! genocide! or! the! mistreatment! of! prisoners! of! war,! committed! during! a! war!
and!considered!in!the!assault!on!the!conventions!of!warfare.!There!have!been!a!lot!of!cases!
where! these! sorts! of! criminals! have! taken! place.! Victims! of! war! have! not! gotten! a! little! or!
any!justice!at!all!we!have!to!come!up!with!a!solution!to!punish!these!harsh!crimes.!
War!Crimes!are!committed!by!breaching!two!main!principles;!!!!!
•!The!Principle!of!Necessity:!that!gives!you!the!right!to!kill!your!enemy!when!it!is!fully!
necessary.!
•The!Principle!of!Humanity!tells!you!that!you!should!not!give!any!additional!suffering!
to!your!opponent!
These!two!principles!are!fundamental!of!wars!and!when!it!breaches!it!becomes!a!war!crime.!
Important!laws!as!PoWs!having!rights!and!should!never!be!executed!or!wounded!after!they!
surrender.!!
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In!conclusion!we!are!hoping!you!to!write!your!resolution!in!accordance!to!fill!todays!treaties!
blanks! and! possible! solutions! to! any! further! war! crimes! as! Syria! where! there! are! still!
investigations!going!on.!
!
Suggested!Videos!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQ0x5ZLbeqQ!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HwpzzAefx9M!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZ_Vxoyu8zY!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SNneFCxJmA!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FGpaOp6_I7M!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQ0x5ZLbeqQ!
!
Bibliography!
1949%Geneva%Convention%(I)%for%the%Amelioration%of%the%Condition%of%the%Wounded%and%Sick%in%
Armed%Forces%in%the%Field%
https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=4825657B0C7E6BF0C12563
CD002D6B0B&action=openDocument!
!
Geneva%Convention%(II)%on%the%Wounded,%Sick%and%Shipwrecked%of%Armed%Forces%at%Sea,%1949%
and%its%commentary!
https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=2F5AA9B07AB61934C12563
CD002D6B25&action=openDocument!
Geneva!Convention!(III)!on!Prisoners!of!War,!1949!and!its!commentary!
https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=77CB9983BE01D004C12563
CD002D6B3E&action=openDocument!
Geneva!Convention!(IV)!on!Civilians,!1949!and!its!commentary!
https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=AE2D398352C5B028C12563
CD002D6B5C&action=openDocument!
Additional!Protocol!(I)!to!the!Geneva!Conventions,!1977!and!its!commentary!
https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=D9E6B6264D7723C3C12563
CD002D6CE4&action=openDocument!
Additional!Protocol!(II)!to!the!Geneva!Conventions,!1977!and!its!commentary!
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https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=AA0C5BCBAB5C4A85C12563
CD002D6D09&action=openDocument!
Additional!Protocol!(III)!to!the!Geneva!Conventions,!2005!and!its!commentary!
https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=8BC1504B556D2F80C12571
0F002F4B28&action=openDocument!
Hersh,!Seymour!M.!"Torture!at!Abu!Ghraib."!(2004).!
http://www.veronaschools.org/cms/lib02/NJ01001379/Centricity/Domain/588/Torture%20
at%20Abu%20Ghraib.pdf!
Guarding!Abu,!Military!Police!Brigade.!"Why!ordinary!people!torture!enemy!prisoners."!
(2004).!
http://psychoanalystsopposewar.org/resources_files/Why_Ordinarty_People_Torture_Ene
my_Prisoners_Fiske.pdf!
The!Privatization!of!war!mercenaries!private!military!and!security!companies;!
http://www.globalresearch.ca/theSprivatizationSofSwarSmercenariesSprivateSmilitarySandS
securityScompaniesSpmsc/21826!
Iraq!S!Human!Rights!Watch!
http://www.hrw.org/middleSeastnSafrica/iraq!
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