1. food and drink
2. food
3. grains and pasta

The Impact of Dietary Green Leafy Materials and
Vegetable Residues on Performance and Egg
Quality of Commercial layers.
By
Afaf Abdel Hamid Taha Elsiufi
B.Sc. Faculty of Agriculture
Cairo University
1980
A thesis submitted in fulfillment for the
degree of Master of Science in Poultry
Production
Supervisor: Dr. Abbker Ali Idris
Department of Poultry Production
Faculty of Animal Production
University of Khartoum
April. 2004
DEDICATION
To my:
usband & Children to
my mother
And
in the memory of
my father.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of tables
List of figure
List of appendices
Acknowledgment
Abstract
Arabic Abstract
Chapter one: Introduction
Chapter two: Literature Review
i
ii
iv
v
vi
Vii
viii
x
1
3
2.1 Egg description, formation composition
2.2 Egg quality and human nutrition
2.3 Factors affecting egg quality characteristics
2.4 Nutritional value of egg in human diet
2.5 Pigment content of egg
2.6 Grading
3
5
8
10
11
12
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
12
13
15
Energy requirement of laying hens
Protein requirement of laying hens
Protein source
The effect of protein source and level on egg
quality
2.11 Energy to protein ratio
Chapter three Materials and Methods
16
17
18
3.1 Experimental diets
3.2 Experimental birds
3.3 Flock management and recorded parameters
Chapter four: Results
19
19
21
26
4.1
4.2
The effect of leafy material and vegetable
residue on the performance of commercial
layers
Feed intake
26
26
4.3 Feed conversion ratio
4.4 Change in body weight
4.5 Mortality rate
4.6 Egg characteristics
4.7 Yolk color
Chapter five: Discussion
Conclusion
References
Appendices
26
28
28
28
30
38
41
42
52
LIST OF TABLES
Table (1) The chemical composition of leafy materials and
vegetable residues %.
Table (2) composition of experimental diets.
20
22
Table (3) The calculated chemical composition of the dietary
Treatments as fed.
23
Table (4): The effect of die tary treatments on performance of commercial
Layers through 12 weeks experimental period.
27
Table (5): The effect of dietary treatments on egg characteristics of
commercial layers through 12 weeks experimental period.
29
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig (1) Yolk color of birds fed alfalfa meal.
31
Fig (2) Yolk color of birds fed jew’s mallow meal.
32
Fig (3) Yolk color of birds fed carrot leaves meal.
33
Fig (4) Yolk color of birds fed fresh carrot meal.
34
Fig (5) Yolk color of birds fed dried carrot meal.
35
Fig (6) Yolk color of birds fed onion leaves meal.
36
Fig (7) Yolk color of birds fed control meal.
37
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
App. (1) The effect of dietary treatments on final body weight of
layers.
App. (2) The effect of dietary treatments on body weight gain of
52
layers.
App. (3) The effect of dietary treatments on feed intake of layers
53
54
App. (4) The effect of dietary treatments on hen day egg production
of layers.
App. (5) The effect of dietary treatments on feed conversion ratio
55
of layers.
App. (6) The effect of dietary treatments on mortality ratio of layers.
56
57
App. (7) The effect of dietary treatments on egg weight of layers
App. (8) The effect of dietary treatments on shell weight of layers.
App. (9) The effect of dietary treatments on shell thickness of layers.
58
59
60
App. (10) The effect of dietary treatments on Haugh units of layers.
App. (11) The effect of dietary treatments on yolk index of layers.
61
62
App. (12) The effect of dietary treatments on shell index of layers
63
Acknowledgement
I am grateful to (God) for providing health and strength to conduct
the present study.
Faithfully appreciate the remarkable help given by my supervisor
Dr. Abbker Ali Idris, faculty of animal production, Khartoum University
for his sound advice, keen interest and patient guidance throughout the
entire period of this study.
Thanks are due to the staff members of Kuku Poultry Research
Farm of the Animal Production Research Center for their continuous
help.
I am also indebted for the members of my family and my son Dr.
khalid who encouraged me during carrying out the work.
ABSTRACT
The present work was aimed to investigate the effect of leafy
materials and vegetable residues on performance and egg quality of
commercial layers.
Six dietary additives were prepared from leafy materials and
vegetable residues namely:- carrot (fresh, dried and leaves), onion, alfalfa
and jew’s mallow. Each of the prepared six dietary additives were added
at 5% level to a basil diet to come up with six dietary treatments plus a
control diet. The nutrient content of the formulated dietary treatments and
the control diet were based on the NRC (1984) recommendations.
With respect of the experimental birds, 84 of 32 weeks old laying
pullets of white Hi-sex breed were purchased and evenly distributed (3
pullets/cage) into 28 layer cages. A replicate group of 4 cages that
accommodated the birds were randomly assigned to each of the 7
experimental diets and hence the experiment commence.
The experiment lasted for 12 weeks during which water and feed
were provided adlib and the following measured parameters were
determined: body weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, egg
production, egg weight, shell thickness, Haugh units and mortality rate.
Regarding the obtained results, no significant differences were
encountered among the seven dietary treatments for egg production, feed
intake, feed conversion ratio, average egg weight and the final live body
weight changes throughout the experimental period. Nevertheless, the
overall obtained data revealed that leafy materials improved the quality
of the produced egg. Fresh carrot and jew’s mallow meal were
outweighing in coloring the yolk and significant in shell thickness
(P<0.001) as compared with the other experimental diets. On the basis of
the demonstrated results, one may conclude that incorporation of the
leafy materials and vegetable residues as dietary supplements can
improve the performance and egg quality of the commercial layers.
‫ﻤﻠﺨﺹ ﺍﻻﻁﺭﻭﺤﻪ‬
‫ﺘﻬﺩﻑ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻟﻤﻌﺭﻓﻪ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻭﺭﻗﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻀﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺩﺍﺀ ﻭﻨﻭﻋﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻡ ﺘﺠﻬﻴﺯ ‪ 6‬ﺍﻀﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻭﺭﻗﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻀﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪ -:‬ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺎﺯﺝ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺠﻔﻑ ﺒﺎﻻﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﻜل ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺭ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﺒﺼل‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﺒﺭﺴﻴﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻠﻭﺨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻔﻔﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻤﺕ ﺍﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﻜل ﻭﺍﺤﺩﺓ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻻﻀﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻀﺭﺓ ﺒﻨﺴﺒﺔ ‪ %5‬ﺍﻟﻰ ﻋﻠﻴﻘﺔ ﻗﺎﻋﺩﻴﺔ ﻤﻥ‬
‫ﺍﺠل ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻭل ﻋﻠﻰ ‪ 6‬ﻋﻼﺌﻕ ﺘﺠﺭﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺯﺍﺌﺩﹰﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺎﺒﻁﺔ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻭﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺫﺍﺌﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﻼﺌﻕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻌﺔ ﺒﻨﻴﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻀﻭﺀ ﺘﻭﺼﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺱ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻤﻲ ﺍﻻﻤﺭﻴﻜﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﺤﻭﺙ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﻡ ‪.1984‬‬
‫ﺒﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻘﻁﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﻓﻘﺩ ﺘﻡ ﺸﺭﺍﺀ ‪ 84‬ﻓﺭﻭﺝ ﺒﻴﺎﺽ ﻋﻤﺭ ‪ 32‬ﺍﺴﺒﻭﻉ ﻤﻥ ﺴﻼﻟﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻬﺎﻴﺴﻜﺱ ﺍﻻﺒﻴﺽ ﻭﻤﻥ ﺜﻡ ﺠﺭﻯ ﺘﻭﺯﻴﻌﻪ ﺒﺎﻟﺘﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ‪ 28‬ﻗﻔﺹ ﺒﻴﺎﺽ ﺍﻯ ﺒﻤﻌﺩل ‪3‬‬
‫ﻓﺭﺍﺭﻴﺞ ﻟﻜل ﻗﻔﺹ ﺒﻴﺎﺽ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻴﻕ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻉ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺭﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺭﺒﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻼﻗﻔﺎﺹ ﺘﻡ ﺘﻭﺯﻴﻊ ﺍﻻﻗﻔﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻤﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺒﺎﻟﻔﺭﺍﺭﻴﺞ ﺒﺼﻭﺭﺓ ﻋﺸﻭﺍﺌﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻼﺌﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻌﺔ ﻭﻤﻥ ﺜﻡ ﺒﺩﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺴﺘﻤﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﻟﻤﺩﺓ ﺍﺜﻨﻲ ﻋﺸﺭ ﺃﺴﺒﻭﻋﺎ ﺘﻡ ﺨﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﺘﻘﺩﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻠﻑ ﺒﺎﻟﺼﻭﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺓ ﺒﺎﻻﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺨﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪ -:‬ﺍﻟﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺴﺏ ﻭﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺫﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻬﻠﻙ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻔﺎﺀﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻭﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺫﺍﺀ ﻭﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ ﻭﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﻜل ﻤﻥ ﺴﻤﻙ ﺍﻟﻘﺸﺭﺓ ﻭﻭﺯﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﻭﺤﺩﺍﺕ ‪Haugh‬‬
‫ﺒﺎﻻﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻰ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻭﻕ‪.‬‬
‫ﺨﻠﺼﺕ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺩﻡ ﻭﺠﻭﺩ ﺃﻱ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻱ ﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻤﻼﺕ ﻜﻠﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ ﻭﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺫﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻬﻠﻙ ﻭﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻭﻴل ﺍﻟﻐﺫﺍﺌﻲ ﻭﻤﺘﻭﺴﻁ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻀﺔ ﻭﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻟﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺨﻼل ﻤﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ‪ ,‬ﻜﻤﺎ ﺃﻭﻀﺤﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻥ ﻜل ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻤﻼﺕ ﺃﺩﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺘﺤﺴﻥ ﻨﺴﺒﻴﹰﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻨﻭﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻭﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺭ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﺯﺝ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻠﻭﺨﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺘﺤﺴﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠﻭﻴﻥ ﺼﻔﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ ﻭﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ )‪ (P<0.001‬ﻓﻲ ﺴﻤﻙ ﺍﻟﻘﺸﺭﺓ‬
‫ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺒﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻤﻼﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻀﺅ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﻪ ﻴﻤﻜﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻭل ﺒﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﺠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻀﺭﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻀﺭﺓ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻭﺭﻗﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻀﺭ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﻤﺕ ﻜﺎﻀﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺔ ﻴﻤﻜﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺘﺤﺴﻥ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﺽ‬
‫ﻭﻨﻭﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪.‬‬
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Eggs constitute an important part of human diet, and have become
quite important in the international trade in modern times. Less than one
century ago, most of the market’s supply of eggs came from small flocks
in mixed farm or back yard flocks kept at homes. Conversely, nowadays
there are specialized intensive farming systems which are based on
scientific management methods, new veterinary health care programmes
and high performance of poultry breeds, hybrids, strains or lines.
The large fully automated poultry units containing thousands of birds
with specialized breeding and feed companies as stated by Majdoleen
(2002) made eggs and poultry meat more widely available throughout the
world than at any time before.
Eggs constitute a unique well-balanced source of nutrients for
people of different ages, especially babies and growing children.
Likewise, the low caloric value, the high digestibility and palatability of
eggs make them a desirable supporting diet during convalescence.
The visual appearance of foods to which color makes an important
contribution is an extremely important factor in the consumer’s
evaluation of products. Product colorations appear to be one among
major marketing concerns of present poultry industry because worldwide
there is evidence that consumer acceptance and satisfaction are
associated with well-pigmented egg yolks and broiler skin. Schaeffer et
al., (1987), noted the pigments that are responsible for color in birds are a
group
of
compounds
collectively
known
as
oxycarotenoids
(xanthophylls), which originate in plants.
Egg quality is compounded of six important factors as claimed by
Wells (1967) and they include: shell color, shell porosity, shell strength,
albumen condition, yolk shape and yolk color. He added that an egg is of
good quality when its characteristics take the form that is preferred by a
consumer, whether the preferences be rational or irrational.
Yolk color as an egg quality measure varies widely. There is evidence
that these variations are possibly due to the feed consumed by the hen;
carotenoid pigments such as xanthophylls and zeaxanthin; green feeds
such as alfalfa or grasses; yellow corn, carrots, and other similar
materials that serve as sources of such pigment in egg yolk.
In the Sudan, there are many different vegetable and horticultural
wastes by products in every season.
The objective of this study is to determine the effect of dietary leafy
materials and vegetable’s residues on performance of commercial layers
and egg quality.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Egg description, formation and composition:
Egg description, formation and composition were discussed by
Romanoff (1949). He defined the shape of an egg as an irregular ovoid with
one broader and flatter than the other and that the maximum diameter lies
slightly nearer to the broader end.
His findings also revealed the difference in shape between the two
ends to be of considerable significance in the development and hatching out
of the embryo. With respect to the egg gross weight, he claimed that more
than half of the eggs weight (56%) is composed of the albumen (white) and
chalaza whereas the rest constitutes the yolk (32%) and the shell and its
membranes (12%).
Albumen and yolk which form the main source of nutrients for the
embryo differ widely in their chemical composition For instance, taking in
percentages of fresh egg weight without shell, John (1977) recorded that the
whole egg to be composed of 73.7% water, 13.4% protein, 10.5% fat and
1.0% ash; the albumen consists of 87.77% water, 10% protein, 0.05% fat
and 0.87% ash, whereas the yolk consists of 49.0% water, 16.7%protein,
31.6% fat and1.5% ash.
The shell consists of thousands of minute tubular tunnels, such gases
as oxygen and carbon dioxide between the egg contents and the outside
atmosphere.
There are many more pores per sq. cm at the broader end than
anywhere else on the surface of the egg; there are two principal layers of
shell. The outer layer which is thin, relatively dense and compact, and it is
believed to incorporate a partial defensive mechanism to prevent the entry of
bacteria and microorganisms. With respect to the inner layer, it is found to
be granular in structure and besides assistance to maintain the strength of the
shell it serves as a source of calcium from which the growing embryo can
draw it’s demand for the calcification of it’s own bones (John, 1977).
The albumen or egg white is not uniform throughout as expected to
be. It is actually made up of four distinct layers. For instance:- Immediately
inside the inner shell membrane there is the outer layer of thin white which
forms about 20 percent of the total white. The outer thin white layer is in
contact with the shell membranes except at the two ends of the egg where
the thick white makes contact with the membrane.
The thick white layer enclosed the third layer, the inner layer of
thin whereas the 4th really coils of thick white, twisted in opposite
directions and arised from thick – white layer at each end to terminate in the
chalazai ferous. The latter layer is a thin film of dense white that surrounds
the vitelline membrane that encloses the yolk. The egg white has two major
functions:First, it acts as a shock- absorbing system, protecting the embryo
and yolk from damage through handling; second, it serves as a source of
feed to the growing embryo.
The chalazae on the other hand serves as an additional shock
absorbers and also play a large part in maintaining the correct position of the
yolk within the inner layer of thin white, there is no correlation between the
size of the chalazae and egg quality, but some consumers dislike large
chalazae, although the size of chalazae does not appear, to affect hatching
and public taste. In addition to the two major functions, Albumen was found
to contain certain defenses such as the lysozyme enzyme, which helps to
protect the egg against bacterial invasion (Romanoff and et al, 1949).
The yolk is apart of the egg rather than the female germ cell that
originates from the ovary. The albumen, shell membranes and shell are
added in that order during the passage of the egg through the oviduct.
The yolk contains the female germ cell, or blastodisc, and resembles a rich
store of feed material all of which are enclosed within the vitelline
membranes. The blastodisc is present in all eggs, but it only becomes active
and capable of development after it has been fertilized by the male germ cell
(sperm) to form what is known as the blastoderm (Bell and Free man 1971).
2.2 Egg quality and human nutrition:
Egg quality seems to be simple and self-explanatory designation to
carry out the idea that it is possible for eggs to be ranged in food value,
appearance, or other properties in such a way that some eggs are better than
others.
Total egg quality is made up of a wide range of physical and
chemical properties such as:- shell quality, albumin quality, nutritional value
to ultimate consumer, freedom from defects such as blood spots, meat spots
and mottling …etc, yolk quality especially pigmentation, and egg size (Scott
et al, 1982).
Egg quality factors may be divided into two general groups:Exterior quality factors which appear from external observation and
interior quality factors, which involve the internal egg content.
The interior quality factors may be determined by candling or by
breaking out a small numbers of eggs from each flock. The internal egg
quality factors include air cell in addition to physical and chemical
characteristics of yolk and albumin. The external egg quality factors can
be summarized into:- egg color, shape, soundness, and cleanliness of the
shell, and shape and texture. One of the most widely used routine
methods of assessing shell thickness is that of finding the specific gravity
of the whole egg.
The technique was first suggested by Olsson (1934) that is based
on the fact that the specific gravity of the shell is about 2.3 while that of
the whole egg is only approximately 1.085. Thus variation in specific
gravity of the whole egg are due largely to differences in the amount of
shell percent. The advantage of this method over all others is of course
that the egg remains intact and may be used subsequently for sale in the
shell or for other purposes, such as hatching.
With respect to egg abnormalities, there is double yolk egg which
results when two yolk released about the same time or when yolk is lost into
the body cavity for a day and is picked up by the funnel, when the next day’s
yolk is released, conversely, the yolkless eggs are usually formed about a pit
of tissue that sloughed off the secreting glands of the oviduct . This tissue
stimulates the secreting glands of the oviduct and a yolkless egg results. The
abnormality of an egg which is due to the direction of the egg by the wall of
the oviduct, one day’s egg and shell is formed around both. Likewise an off
colored yolk is due to substances in feed that causing off color yolk whereas
off flavored eggs are due to disease or to certain feed flavors. The bloody
spots and these are caused by a rupture of one or more small blood vessels in
the yolk at the time of ovulation, whereas meat spots have been
demonstrated to be either blood spots which have changed in color due to
chemical action or sloughed tissues form the reproductive organs of the hen,
soft shelled eggs on the other hand generally occur when an egg is
prematurely laid.
Insufficient time in the uterus prevents the deposit of the shell and
thus leading to deposition of soft-shelled eggs, the thin-shelled eggs are
attributed to dietary deficiencies, heredity or diseases.
In addition to glassy and chalky-shelled eggs, which are caused by
malfunction of uterus of the laying bird. Glassy eggs are less porous and
will not hatch but may retain their quality.
There is appositive correlation between Haugh units and ovomucin
content of fresh eggs. Those eggs with a firm albumin that have high
units values have greater quantities of ovomucin Hough unit is the
logarithm of height of thick albumen multiplied by 100 and adjusted by
egg weight to the equivalent of standard 2-0z egg whereas the ovomucin
is the thick egg albumen that is most associated with the gel structure
(Health, 1978).
Few studies have directly examined the influence of nutrition of
the hen on the ovomucin content of eggs but generally it has been
difficult to demonstrate the effect of feeding on albumin quality (Scott et
al; 1982).
Later workers also added that feeding poultry with ammonium
chloride can increase albumin quality, but causes a reduction in blood ph
and reduced eggshell thickness.
2.3 Factors affecting egg quality characteristics:
Quality in egg is expected to be influenced by a number of factors
as shown by Earles (1945). Some of the most important ones are:breeding,
feeding,
diseases,
seasonal
variations,
management,
physiological disturbances, physico-chemical changes, sanitation, time,
temperature and humidity. With respect to the effect of breeding or
genetic on egg quality and appearance there is evidence that at least five
inherited
egg characteristics that influence egg quality and appearance
namely are:- egg size, egg shape, shell color, shell thickness, texture and
interior quality. Similarly, feeding as elucidated by Earles (1945) affected
eggs in several ways- It could affect the egg’s nutritive value, the quality
of shell, the color of the yolk and white, the keeping quality in storage
and flavour. The amount of egg’s vitamins such as A, B Riboflavin and
D were proved to be dietary dependent. With the exception of vitamin C
the content of other vitamins is probably also similarly affected. In case
of the egg’s mineral contents, the later workers pointed out that the
addition of cod liver oil to a ration increased the amount of both iron and
copper in the egg yolk whereas the amount of iodine, Selenium, fluorine
and other minerals found in eggs were also increased by feeding.
Likewise, he claimed that the color of the shell is usually white or brown
and it is largely dependent upon the breeds of the hens. Thus, the shell
color is decided by personal appeal and it is completely unrelated to the
nutritional value of the egg and it is ordinarily not altered by the nutrition
of the hen.
Since handling of eggs practically requires resistance to breakage
and penetration by microorganisms, Austic (1984) claimed that the major
concern with eggshell quality should concentrate on shell thickness and
structure. It has been known for a long time that egg yolk color is
influenced by the nutrition of the hen, particularly the types of
xanthophylls present in the diet and the amount of each.
Early review on this subject was presented by Mattikow (1932),
Titus, Fritz and Kauffman (1938) and Wilhelm (1939). Apart from the
use of natural sources of xanthophylls pigments, such as yellow maize
grass meal and lucerne meal. Synthetic carotenoids may be fed to birds in
order to improve the color of the yolk they produce (Marusich Ritter, et
al., 1963). In fact and because of its close relationship to feeding
practice, yolk color is one of the most easily controlled of the egg quality
factors that were used for evaluation of the yolk pigmenting properties of
different dietary ingredients and formulations. Staatham (1981) reported
that dehydrated waste hop leaf material was compared with sundried
lucerne as yolk coloring additives in the diet of laying hens in cages and
on deep litter and found that hop waste caused no change in feed intake,
or egg production but resulted in darker color yolk than lucerne both
production systems.
Kirkpinar and Erker (1999) found no effects on egg production
with hens fed marigold meal, alfalfa meal paprika meal or 3 synthetic
carotenoids though the carotenoids resulted in yolk coloring. These
Included tomato meal (Yannakopoulos et al, 1992); beta- carotene
(Damron et al, 1984 and Jiang et al, 1994) dried carrot meal (Sikder et
al,1998) dried tomato pulp (Dotas et al,1999) and the leaf from Alchornia
cardifolia (Udedibie and Opara, 1998) were found to induce yolk
coloring although the latter leaf meal was found to depress feed intake
and gross rate of hens. On the other hand. Tequina (2000) used leaf
meals of Desmordium and leucerne plants and obtained yolk
pigmentation and increased egg production.
2.4 Nutritional value of egg in human diet:
The true quality of the egg lies in its nutritional value to ultimate
consumer.
According to North (1984), eggs consumed by an adult person per
day supplied between 20and 30% of the requirements of proteins,
phosphorous, iron, vitamin A and vitamin D; and between 8 to 14% of
the requirements of calcium, iodine, vit B, riboflavin and nicotinic acid.
Recent research (Schalach, 2001) has shown that eggs are beneficial in
preventing muscular degeneration, a major cause of blindness in the
elderly people. The finding of Handelman et al (1999) indicated that
higher intake of carotenoids such as lutein and exanthin which
accumulate in the muscular region of the retina of the human eye reduced
the risk of age-related macular degeneration which has been documented
by various workers (Schalch,2001; Blumberg and Myer, 1997, and
Sommerburg et al,1998).
Eggs have long been recognized for their most excellent essential
amino acids pattern. (Scott et al, 1982). Block and Mitchell (1946)
claimed about the essential amino acids content of eggs to be equal to or
sometimes higher than that of the chicken tissues. Eggs as shown by
Scott et al (1982) also contain significant amounts of linoleic acid, which
accounts about 18% of the total fatty acid content.
Bohm et al (2001) reported that diets rich in the carotenoid
lycopene protected human lymphocytes against reactive oxygen radicals
produced from cigarette smoke and offered a protection from several
chronic diseases.
Similar anti oxidation effects of lycopene had been reported by
Klebanov et al (1998).
Carotemoids of different sources have been reported to have
anticancer or antitumor properties (Park et al; 1999; Oliveria and Waston,
2001; Abdulaer,2002; and Mejia et al;1997).
2.5 Pigment content of egg:
The importance of egg yolk color has been stressed by Schaeffer et
al (1987), who reported that the color of the yolk is a reflection of its
pigment content and that pigments responsible for color in birds and a
group of compounds collectively known as carotenoids which are
oxygenated derivations whereas the most effective carotenoids were
lutein and zeaxanthin. Moreover they added that the type of pigment in
the egg and its concentration are directly influenced by the dietary
concentration of any particular pigment. The natural sources of
pigmenters are plants such as corn and carrot. There is evidence that
carotenoids provide yellow-to-red coloring of the yolk.
Nys (2000) reviewed the subject of the dietary carotenoid and egg
yolk coloration and concluded that pigments obtained from the diet are
largely of plant origin. Whereas in animal nutrition most of carotenoids
act as vitamin A precursors. Likewise carotenoids have been used to
pigment broiler chicken (Perez-Vendrell et al; 2001) as well as fish
(Pokniak et al, 2001).
2.6 Grading:
Grading generally involves the sorting of products according to
quality, size, weight and other factors that determine the relative value of
a product. The United State Department of Agriculture Marketing
Service (1975) stated that eggs grading aids in orderly marketing by
reducing waste, confusion, and uncertainty with respect to quality values.
Although the egg quality standards are developed to satisfy the need and
desire of producers, dealers and consumers, there is great variation
among consumer preferences
2.7 Energy requirement of a laying hens:
In a series of studies conducted by Hoffman and Schliemann (1973),
the metabolism of white leghorn layer hens fed on a commercial diet of
2920 kcal / kg metabolizable energy was determined, The results showed
that 27% of the feed energy was recovered in faeces, 4% in the urine,
17% in the egg, 54% was accounted for as heat production with a
negative balance of 2% of gross energy.
Energy for maintenance
requirement was estimated to be 99kcal / kg.
Mc Daniel et al, (1957) reported that as the energy content of the
diet increased at a given protein level, the feed required to produce a dozen
eggs decreased. The difference in energy and protein intake between laying
and non laying hens was measured by Gleaves et al, (1977). A hen needs to
consume 117.5 gm of feed containing 2.99kcal of M E. and 0.153 gm
protein per gm feed to lay one egg per day. Egg production tended to
increase for hen given 3010 kcal / kg feed but feed intake for a unit weight
of egg produced tended to be less (Gondos et al, 1975). Ivy and Gleaves
(1976) studied the minimum energy and protein requirements for different
levels of egg production. Their results showed that 299 kcal M E and 15gm
protein per hen per day would be adequate for producing more than 80%.
However, metabolizable energy of 269 kcal and 13.5 gm protein per hen per
day was found to be adequate when production dropped to 70% and when
the production decreased to 50%, only 250 kcal of M E and 17.05 gm
protein per hen per day found to be adequated.
Egg weight and shell weight were increased when M E content of
the diet was increased form 14.48 to 19.93 mg/kg (Kovac and Angelo,
1980). Their results also showed that restricted intake reduced egg
weight. Their regression equation predicted a reduction of 1.53 g in egg
weight and 2.5% in hen- day production for each 10kcal decrease in M E
intake.
Lillie and Denton (1967) recommended daily M E of 240 kcal /hen
and crude protein of 16-to 18g /hen /day when ambient temperature is
about 30˚c.
The report of Wu et al, (1993) indicated that feed intake and
metabolizable energy requirement of laying hens were negatively
correlated with ambient temperatures.
2.8 Protein requirements of laying hens:
Protein is necessary to supply the body material, with various
amino acids. In all animals protein is needed first for maintenance
whereas in poultry extra protein is demanded for formation of eggs and
meat production. Thus, an insufficient amount of protein will result in a
decrease of egg production, lower body weight and smaller egg size.
The dietary protein as shown by Neshim et al (1979) had an effect
on feed intake. The hen tends to consume more feed when the protein
level was reduced. A crude protein level of 14% was adequate for egg
production but not for body weight maintenance (Quesanbessy, 1961).
Similarly, Lillie and Denton (1967) reported that 14% protein in the diet
was adequate for egg production but not for body weight maintenance or
weight and at least 16 or 18% dietary protein was required for these two
traits.
The protein level for optimum laying hens performance was
observed by Young et al (1982) to be 15%. Ivy and Gleaves (1976)
reported that a 15 g crude protein per hen per day was optimum level for
a high rate of egg laying. However, Blaylock et al, (1967) stated that not
more than 14g crude protein per hen per day was adequate for egg
production of 80%.
The percentage of egg production was very high in laying hens fed
on a diet containing 16% crude protein than those of hens fed on 12%;
and the egg production rate of laying was reduced in hens fed on 11.5%
crude protein when compared to those fed on 14.5% dietary crude
protein. Energy and protein requirements for laying hens in hot climate
was studied by Akopyan (1974). His results showed that it is probably
useful to increase the level of protein in the laying hen’s diet. The finding
of Ohwudike (1983) confirmed that increasing protein level from 16-to
18% in the laying ration had a significant increase in egg production,
feed efficiency and egg weight.
2.9 Protein sources:
Feeds high in essential amino acids are called protein supplements
or concentrates. These generally contain more than 20% crude protein,
either from animal origin such as blood meal, fish meal, meat packing ,
by product of poultry processing or plant sources such as, Soya been
meal, palm kernel meal, oil seed meals , and all kinds of legumes and
their by- products (Neshim et al, 1979 and Kekeochal, 1984). The oil
seed meals vary in composition and feeding value, which depend on the
sources, the amount of hull and / or seed coat left in the meal and the
method of extracting the oil (Neshim et al 1979; and young et al 1982).
A considerable variation in growth, sexual development and egg
production was observed between groups of laying strains fed on
different protein qualities. Sathe and Bose (1962) reported that the
replacement of fish meal by liver dry residue, meat meal, incubator waste
and penicillium mycelium had a significant gain in life weight and
appraisable growth response. Their results also showed that the processed
or non-processed air dried cow manure could be used up to the level of
10% in growth rations without any side effect but with considerable
savings in the feeding cost. The effect of level of feed intake and source
of protein on laying performance was studied by Damian et al (1976).
Their results showed no significant deference in egg production between
the layer hens fed on diets containing 5% meat and fish meals and diets
with plant protein containing 6% soy bean and sunflower meals. In
another study, conducted by Bondari and Kazemi, (1975), the importance
of animal protein was studied using two sources of animal protein, fish
and meat meals. The authors found that these sources could be replaced
by sunflower seeds meal and cotton seeds meal without affecting egg
laying rate or egg quality.
Surivatra and Talapatra (1971) reported that no significant differences
were observed between two diets one of which contained no animal
protein versus the other which contained 10% fish meal when they were
tested for feed intake, egg weight and egg production, but mortality rate
increased in the diet that was without animal protein.
2.10 The effect of protein source and level on egg quality:
The effect of leaf protein concentrate and dehydrate alfalfa meal
on egg production and egg quality response was studied by Ready et al
(1975). Their results showed that the best color and higher vitamin A
content in egg yolk were associated with feeding a diet containing
groundnut meal. Increasing the level of dried manure was reported to
exhibit a significant effect on shell thickness, albumen quality and yolk
index (Prasad and Sadagopan (1979).
Dascalu et al (1977) reported that shell thickness and the number
of cracked eggs were reduced when 3% dried milk and 1.5% fish were
added to the layer diet. Karunajeewa (1987) showed that increasing the
level of sunflower seed meal which contained unknown factors in layer
rations reduced albumen quality.
Rous (1976) demonstrated the effect of low intake of crude protein
during rearing on yield and quality of eggs. The number and quality of
egg were not affected by the low protein diet, given to pullets through 13
and 20 weeks of age. Ameenudeen et al (1976) showed increase egg
weight and decrease in Haugh units of 18% dietary protein without
affecting egg yolk, albumen and shell thickness. El- Dakroury et al
(1987) studied the effect of dietary protein level on the reproductive
performance of pullet and egg quality. He found that shell thickness was
greatest in eggs laid by chicken given diet with 15.4% crude protein but
there were no significant differences in egg weight or Hough units scores
with different dietary protein levels.
2.11 Energy to protein ratio:
There is evidence that a large amount of feed was consumed by the
chicken when the metabolizable energy (M E) is decreased and vice
versa. It is recommended to adjust the protein level in a diet in relation to
it’s energy level (Neshim et al, 1979). Cilly et al (1973) reported that
increasing the energy level at a constant protein level reduced the
efficiency of energy utilization in summer and winter, but as the protein
level increased with increasing energy levels, the caloric efficiency will
be increased.
Vyas et al (1977) demonstrated that more energy with less protein
gave inefficient use of energy for egg production whereas less energy
with more protein gave significantly high rate of egg laying.
chicken performance is related well to the caloric to protein ratio than to
energy or protein level alone in the diet (Ramsubba et al., 1972).
Ramsubba et al (1972) reported that energy to protein ratio should be
reduced by about 10% during the hottest summer season and should
provide the hen with 17% dietary protein / day.
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This experiment was conducted during September to November
2002 in order to evaluate the impact of various leafy materials and
vegetable residues as dietary supplement on performance and egg quality
of commercial layers.
The experimental work was carried out in Kuku Poultry Research
Farm of the Animal production Research Centre.
A conventional poultry house of 5x 15x 3 meter dimensions was used to
accommodate the experimental birds.
The conventional house is consisted of concrete flour, corrugated
iron sheets roof and mesh open sides. The eastern and the western sides
were permanently covered with jute sacks to protect against the sun
radiation within the house. The birds were kept in two layer batteries,
which consisted of four tiers of five cages. The dimensions of each cage
were 40x50 cm with separate feeder space.
The watering system consisted of two tanks each for two tiers and
plastic pipes ending with a nipple over a drip cup to provide the birds
with water in each cage. Each cage constituted an experimental unit and
contained 3 birds.
The floor underneath the batteries was covered with wood
shavings as dropping absorbent materials. The litter was discarded every
3 days to keep the house clean.
The house and its equipment were thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected before the accommodation of the experimental birds
3.1 Experimental Diets:
Six species of leafy materials namely:Carrot (fresh, dried and leaves), onion leaves, alfalfa and jew’s mallow
were collected and prepared to be used as dietary additives. With the
exception of the fresh supplemental carrot, the preparations of the other
dietary supplements were based on sun drying and milling samples from
all preperared and non prepared dietary additives were taken and
subjected to proximate chemical analysis (Table 1) in accord to the
method
of
the
Association
of
official
Analytical
Chemists,
(AOAC,1980). Their metabolizable energy contents on the otherhand
were estimated according to the formula of Lodhi et al. (1976) who
equated that:
3.2 Experimental birds:
The white Hi-sex laying pullets at 32 weeks of age were used in
this study. The flock was managed during the brooding, rearing, growing,
developing and early laying phases with the staff of the Kuku Research
Farm. The birds were vaccinated against the Newcastle disease at 5 and
18 weeks of age, fowl pox at 12weeks in addition to administration of
coccidiostat (Amprolium B.Vet.C ) one weak before the transference of
the birds to experimental site.
The experimental stock of eighty-four laying pullets apparently
looked healthy and uniform. On arrival to the experimental house, they
were weighed and randomly distributed into the prepared 28
experimental cages.
Table (1) the chemical composition of leafy materials and vegetable
residues%:
Treatment D.M
Ash
C.P
E.E
C.F
NFE
A.M
97.13
24.22
26.12
1.76
13.60
31.43
O.L.M
93.10
25.9
16.22
1.30
20.25
29.43
D.C.M
96.00
9.60
7.20
0.92
10.60
67.68
F.C.M
81.70
1.40
7.00
1.20
7.70
64.40
JM.M
94.18
10.60
7.52
0.80
43.85
31.41
C.L.M
96.50
20.10
12.10
2.20
20.10
42.00
A.M : Alfalfa meal.
O.L.M: Onion leaves meal.
D.C.M: Dried carrot meal.
F.C.M: Fresh carrot meal.
JM.M: Jew’s mallow meal.
C.L.M: Carrot leaves meal.
M E = 1.549+0.00102 CP+ 0.275 EE+ 0.148 NFE– 0.0034 CF where
NFE means nitrogen free extract.
The ration formula of the Kuku poultry research farm was used as
a control and a basal diet to be fortified with the collected and prepared
vegetable residues to formulate six additional dietary treatments.
The freshly chopped carrots and the grounded dietary additives
were either added or considered as separate complement to the basal diet
at 5% level. The dietary supplements were added at
the expenses of
groundnut cake, wheat bran and sorghum grain of the basal diet.
The freshly chopped carrot which is a complement to the basal diet was
fed in separate cubs beside the rest of the basal diet.
The formula of the seven dietary treatments were shown in Table
(2) whereas Table (3) debited their calculate chemical compositions .
The seven dietary treatments were randomly allocated to the laying
pullets that have been accommodated within the experimental cages so
that each dietary treatment was replicated tetra wise of three laying
pullets each.
3.3 Flock Management and recorded parameters:
The experimental birds were fed on the dietary treatments for a
whole week adaptation period before the commence of the feeding trial
which continued for 12 weeks. Throughout the experimental period, the
laying pullets were kept under 17 hrs day length natural & artificial light
and allowed free access to feed and water.
The recorded parameters include, feed consumption, egg
production, body weight change and mortality rates as performance
Table (2): Composition of experimental diets (%).
Ingredients%
Feterita
T1
60
Groundnut cake 16.70
Wheat bran
4
Concentrate**
5
Oyster shell
9
Common salt
0.30
Dietary additives
5
T2
60
19.7
1
5
9
0.30
5
Dietary treatments*
T3
T4
T5
59
60
59
18.7
3
5
9
0.30
5
19.7
1
5
9
0.30
5
18.7
3
5
9
0.30
5
T6
59
T7
61
17.7
4
5
9
0.30
5
19.7
5
5
9
0.30
0
* Dietary treatments were:
T1 = alfalfa meal.
T2 = jew’smallow.
T3 = carrot leaves.
T4 = fresh carrot.
T5 = dried carrot.
T6 = onion leaves.
T7 = control.
** Concentrate chemical composition:ME = 2000 kcal/kg; CP = 40%; Lysine = 6%; Methionine = 2.8%;
M+cystine = 3.10%; Ca = 10%; P = 5.8%.
Table (3): The calculated chemical composition of the dietary
Treatments as fed.
C.P
T1
T2
17.76 17.62
Dietary treatments*
T3
T4
T5
17.79 17.31 17.58
T6
17.45
T7
18.02
ME (kcal/kg)
2695
2744
2811
2738
2696
2720
2830
4.46 5.98
12.63 12.01
3.44 3.35
52.14 51.43
4.82
12.51
3.57
51.94
3.75
11.55
3.5
55.74
4.34
11.98
3.51
53.22
5.22
12.86
3.48
51.55
4.22
11.74
3.65
52.53
Ingredients %
C.F
Ash
E.E
NFE
* Dietary treatments were:
T1 = alfalfa meal.
T2 = jew’smallow.
T3 = carrot leaves.
T4 = fresh carrot.
T5 = dried carrot.
T6 = onion leaves.
T7 = control.
measurements in addition to egg weight and index, shell weight and
thickness, Haugh units, yolk index, and yolk color, as quality attributes.
The feed consumption rate was determined on weekly basis as a
difference between the total allowed and residual amounts. The weekly
feed consumption data were
summed average throughout the
experimental period for estimation of daily feed intake per hen. The
percent hen–day-egg production was calculated for each day of the
experimental laying period the % hen –day production and the laying
days where used for determination of total egg production per hen and
hence the total egg weights. The feed conversion ratios were expressed as
dependant variables for total feed consumption and total egg weights.
The change or gain in body weight was considered as the difference
between the initial and final body weight of the experimental birds.
Mortality was recorded whenever it occurred. For egg quality
assessment, 28 eggs were picked every two weeks on random basis so
that 4 eggs per treatment or one egg per each replicate was gathered. The
randomly collected eggs were used for determination or estimation of the
following egg quality characteristics:Egg and shell weights:The collected eggs and their shells were individually weighed to
the nearest 0.001g using a sensitive balance.
Shell thickness:Post removal of the collected egg shell membranes, vernier caliper
as described by Shultz (1953) was used for determination of the shell
thickness.
The Egg shape index:Egg shape index was calculated as percentage by using a digital
caliper vernia to measure the breadth and the length of the egg, then the
ratio of the two measures
(breadth / length ) was multiplied by 100 as
stated by Shultz (1953) to come up with the egg index i.e. :Egg index =
(An egg breadth / length ) 100.
Egg production:Hen day egg production was counted. Eighty four hen day egg
production was daily counted to average the daily hen day egg
production.
Haugh Unit:Eggs were broken every 2 weeks and contents were laid on a flat
clean dish then measuring the albumen height using a vernier calipers to
the nearest 0.01mm. Haugh units were calculated as described by
Haugh (1937) formula and modified by Eiesen et al (1962) to be as
follows:Haugh Unit = 100 log (H-1.7 w0..37 + 7.75)
H = Albumen height.
W = Egg weight.
Yolk Index:
It was calculated by measuring yolk height of the centre and yolk
diameter using a caliper vernier.
The value of yolk height / yolk diameter was taken as the yolk
index (Sharp and Powell, 1930 and Funk, 1948).
The experiment was conducted under a completely randomized
design. Treatment variations were tested for significance using ANOVA
and Duncan multiple range test. Unless otherwise was stated, a
confidence of 0.05 was used.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
4.1 The effect of leafy materials and vegetable residues on the
performance of commercial layers.
The overall performance data of laying hens fed on leafy materials
and vegetable residues are presented in table (4).
The effect of the experimental dietary treatments on the laying
performance of the commercial layers indicated that:- Treatments with
all leafy materials and vegetable residues showed no significant effect
(p< 0.05) on the rate of hen day production during the whole
experimental period although the onion leaves group showed the lowest
(58%) and the control group showed the highest percentage (72%) of
hen-day egg production in comparison with the other groups.
4.2 Feed intake:
Although the treatments additives showed no significant effect
(p<0.05) on feed intake, the group that was fed fresh carrot showed the
highest rate of feed intake and feed conversion ratio comparing with the
other groups.
Dried carrot also showed slight increment of feed intake compared
to the other groups. Appendix (3)
4.3 Feed conversion ratio:
Feeding with leafy materials and vegetable residues to layers had
no significant effect. (p<0.05) on feed conversion ratio although the best
feed utilization efficiency was shown by the birds imposed to the fresh
Table (4): The effect of dietary treatments on performance of commercial Layers through 12 weeks
experimental period.
Parameters
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
SEM
Level
of sig.
Initial body weight g/hen
825.00
1141.66
1099.99
1141.70
1133.30
1149.99
1158.00
139.70
N.S
Final body weight g/hen
1291.70
1350
1350.00
1433.30
1391.70
11366.67
1358.00
60.48
N.S
Body weight change g/hen
216.64
208.34
250.00
291.67
258.34
216.67
200.00
67.70
N.S
Feed intake g/hen/day
83.39
86.96
85.84
90.74
89.13
85.37
84.50
2.46
N.S
Hen day production (%)
66.74
65.45
62.73
63.40
58.84
58.00
72.30
5.42
N.S
Feed conversion ratio kg feed/kg eggs
2.60
2.69
2.67
2.96
2.88
2.63
2.36
0.22
N.S
Mortality (%)
16.65
8.32
0
16.65
24.97
8.32
0
.11
N.S
N.S. = non significant.
T1 = alfalfa meal.
T2 = jew’s mallow meal.
T3 = carrot leaves meal.
T4 = fresh carrot meal.
T5 = dried carrot meal.
T6 = onion leaves meal.
T7 = control.
SEM = standard error of the mean.
carrot compared to the control group which reflected the best among all
the tested groups.
4.4 Change in body weight:
Treatments had no significant effect on body weight gain
of
commercial layers during the experimental period showed no significant
effect to all additives (p<0.5). The change or gain in body weight was
positive in all groups compared to the control group. However, fresh
carrot group showed the highest rate of the body weight gain compared
to the other groups. Appendix (2).
4.5 Mortality rate:
No significant effect was shown on the experimental diets,
however the group of dried carrot registered the highest rate of mortality
compared to the other groups Appendix (6).
4.6 Egg characteristics:
The effect of the tested leafy materials and vegetable residues on
egg quality are presented in table (5) for the overall period.
The effect of the experimental diets on the total egg weight showed
no significant response; however, there was a slight improvement in egg
weight of groups fed with alfalfa, fresh and dry carrot meals in
comparison with that of the other experimental groups.
Jew’s mallow on the other hand, excellent over the other dietary
additives in improving the shell weight and simulate the impact of the
fresh carrot meal in enhancing the egg shell thickness. The impact of
Jew’s mallow and fresh carrot meal on egg shell thickness is significant.
Table (5): The effect of dietary treatments on egg characteristics of commercial layers through 12
weeks experimental period.
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
SEM
Level of
sig.
Egg weight (g)
53.41
52.45
51.91
53.07
53.42
51.54
51.08
0.01
N.S
Shell weight (g)
5.51
6.11
5.75
5.69
5.70
7. 74
5.89
0.24
N.S
Shell thickness (mm)
0.33b
0.36c
0.34b
0.36c
0.31a
0.33b
0.33b
0.0069
Sig.
Haugh Unit (units)
90.53
90.46
93.59
90.66
88.88
89.52
90.69
1.37
N.S
Yolk index %
0.48
0.46
0.48
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.46
0.01
N.S
Shape index %
0.72
0.73
0.73
0.72
0.73
0.73
0.74
0.01
N.S
Parameters
N.S. = non significant.
abc
values with different letters in the same raw are significantly different (P<0.001).
T1 = alfalfa meal.
T2 = jew’s mallow meal.
T3 = carrot leaves meal.
T4 = fresh carrot meal.
T5 = dried carrot meal.
T6 = onion leaves meal.
T7 = control.
SEM = standard error of the mean.
4.7 Yolk color:
The effects of the experimental dietary additives on egg yolk color
are shown in Fig. (1-7). The figures illustrate the apparent improvement
in the yellowish yolk color of groups fed on fresh carrot and
jew’smallow.
Fig.1 Yolk color of egg from hen fed alfalfa meal.
Fig.2 Yolk color of egg from hen fed jew’s mallow meal.
Fig.3 Yolk color of egg from hen fed carrot leaves meal.
Fig.4 Yolk color of egg from hen fed fresh carrot meal.
Fig.5 Yolk color of egg from hen fed dried carrot meal .
Fig.6 Yolk color of egg from hen fed onion leaves meal.
Fig.7 Yolk color of egg from hen fed control meal.
DISCUSSION
Supplementation of leafy materials to the experimental diets in this
study showed appositive effects on coloration of the egg’s yolk.
This study showed that green leafy materials and vegetable
residues resulted in yellow yolk color. This agreed with Staatham 1981.
That addition of dried hop leaves resulted in darker colored yolk than
Lucerne in both production systems.
While yellow yolk color does not seem to be of much concern to
consumer in Sudan. So some producers provide hens with fresh leaf
material, specially leaves of Lucerne (barseem). Teguina (2000) reported
the use of African (Cameron) plant leaves. Leaves of the 4 plants,
belonging to the Arachis, leucaena, Callindra and Desmedium, were
recommended as adequate source of xanthophylls to commercial layers
devoid of detrimental effects on egg production or quality.
This study showed positive effects on the pigmenting ability of
leafy materials of fresh and dried carrot Fig (4-5), a clear yellow yolk
resulted when adding the green meals to the diets, compared to the
control group this agreed with Sikder et al (1998) findings, when they
compared the yolk pigmenting ability of dried carrot meal at levels of 4%
and 8%. These authors reported that (4%) level improved yolk color and
higher (8%) level achieved yolk pigmentation comparable to that
obtained with the standard yellow corn based diet.
Also this agreed with Strand et al (1998) findings. Their results
were based on one level of seaweed meal as high as 15% of feed weight,
however with paprika, a low dose of 4mg / kg was reported to provide
egg yolk color equivalent to the color of eggs on American supermarkets.
In this study the final body weight gain increased when adding the
leafy materials to the diet compared to the control Appendix (2) whereas
the fresh carrot group showed the highest rate of the body weight gain
compared to the other additives, that means the leafy materials has a
positives response on increasing the body weight.
It is evident from performance data table (4) that feed intake
showed no statistical increment when adding leafy materials this
founding agreed with Staatham (1981) observations that hop waste meal
caused no change in feed intake or egg production.
Egg production showed no significant. effects with hens fed leafy
materials, this agreed with Kirkpinar and Erker (1999) findings. They
found no effects on egg production with hens fed marigold meal, lutein
alfalfa meal, paprika meal, synthetic carotenoids. Most of the carotenoids
or carotenoid sources tested, though resultes in yolk coloring, had no
significant effect on egg production. Dotas et al (1999) found the same
result when they used tomato pulp Udedibie and Opara (1998) noted no
significant effect on egg production when they used leaf meal from
Alchornia cardifolia.
Feed conversion of supplementation increased, whereas fresh
carrot meal signed the best result.
The characteristics of egg quality showed a slight increment in all
leafy material supplementation fresh, dried carrot and Alfalfa meal
showed a slight increment in egg weight compared with the control, these
results agreed with the finding of Yannakopoulos et al (1992) who used
tomato meal as a carotenoid source, however other reports on feed added
beta-carotene and dried tomato pulp (Damron et al, 1984 Jiang et al.,
1994) showed no significant effect on egg weight.
The study showed no effect on the other egg quality attributes such
as shape index, albumin hight, Haugh units, yolk index.
Indicating that, the egg quality characteristics are known to be
affected by breeding and age of layers (North, 1984).
Shell thickness is presented in Appendix (9) and showed a
significant effect in group jew’s mallow (P<0.001) which it may be due
to the high rate of Ca in jew’s mallow compared to the other additives.
Parameters measured during the study showed slight good results
on egg quality and layers performance. This may be due to the better
content of minerals and vitamins and carotenoids in the green leafy
materials.
CONCLUSION
The present study was carried out to determine the effect of leafy
materials and vegetable residues on performance and egg quality of
commercial layers.
From the results of the study the following conclusion could be
drawn:1. All the leafy materials treatments seem to improve the yolk
color.
2. Leafy materials does not improve the hen day egg
production.
3. Carrot groups showed the best result of feed intake, feed
conversion, body weight, egg weight, and in coloring the
egg yolk.
4. jew’s mallow and fresh carrot are excellent over the other
treatments in coloring the yolk and in egg shell thickness.
On the basis of the results obtained one could recommend the
following:
1. although carrot gave good results in improving the
egg quality but it is not economically viable at present
in large scale, it can be used in small scale. In addition
the high content of the fiber and the low content of the
protein will cause difficulties in mixing and
formulating the diet and it may reduce the rate of egg
production.
2. The work should be extended to determine the effect
of leafy materials on minerals and vitamins contents
of the egg.
Appndex (1)The effect of dietary treatments on final body weight of layers
(g/hen)
The final body weight gm\hen
1450
1400
1350
1300
1250
1200
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (2)The effect of the dietary treatments on Body weight gain of layers (g/hen)
350
Body weight gain g\ hen
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (3)The effect of dietary treatment on feedintake of lyares (g/hen/day)
Feedintake g\ hen\ day
92
90
88
86
84
82
80
78
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (4)The effect of dietary treatments on hen day egg production of
layers
80
Hen day egg production
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (5)The effect of dietary treatments on feed
conversion of layers
Feed conversion
feed
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (6)The effect of dietary treatments on mortality ratio
30
25
Mortality
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (7) The effect of dietary treatments on egg
weight of layers
54
53.5
53
egg weight
52.5
52
51.5
51
50.5
50
49.5
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
T6
T7
Appendix (8) THe effect of dietary treatments on shell weight of
layers
6.2
6.1
6
shell weight
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (9)The effect of dietary treatments on shell thickness of
layers
0.37
0.36
0.35
shell thickness
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.3
0.29
0.28
1
2
3
4
Dieatry treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (10)The effect ofdietary treatments on Haugh unit of layers
94
93
92
Haugh Unit
91
90
89
88
87
86
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (11) The effect of dietary treatments on yolk index of layers
0.485
0.48
Yolk index
0.475
0.47
0.465
0.46
0.455
0.45
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
Appendix (12) The effect of dietary treatments on shape inedx of
layers
0.745
0.74
shape index
0.735
0.73
0.725
0.72
0.715
0.71
1
2
3
4
Dietary treatments
1= Alfalfa meal
2= jew’s mallow meal
3= carrot leaves meal
4= fresh carrot meal
5= dried carrot meal
6= onion leaves meal
7= control meal.
5
6
7
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