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J'ouvert in Brooklyn Carnival: Revitalizing Steel Pan and Ole Mas Traditions
Author(s): Ray Allen
Source: Western Folklore, Vol. 58, No. 3/4, Studies of Carnival in Memory of Daniel J. Crowley
(Summer - Autumn, 1999), pp. 255-277
Published by: Western States Folklore Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1500461
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J'ouvertin Brooklyn
Carnival:Revitalizing
SteelPan and Ole Mas
Traditions'
RAY ALLEN
The rumbleof distantdrumsrollsacrossProspectPark,breakingthe
thatenvelopescentralBrooklynon Labor Day mornpre-dawntranquility
4
watch
a.m.-the
QuiJ'Ouvertcelebrationmustbe underway.
says
ing.My
out
of
myapartmentinto the cool of the night,I note the
etlyslipping
ironyof being late forCarnival,an eventthatbynaturedefiestime.Still,
I quicken mypace, cuttingacrossthe park,drawntowardsthe percussive
din and faintstrainsof steelpan. Emergingnear thezoo entranceon Flatbush Avenue,I come face to face witha group of devils.Cheap plastic
hornsadornheads smearedin red paintand facespowderedwithwhitetalcum.The ghoulishrevelershavesurroundedthePantonicssteelorchestra,
a band of fifty
steelpan playersand percussionists
mountedon two-story
moveable racks.The devils,along withhundredsof less elaboratelyclad
are 'jumping up" and "winingdown" to the Pantonic's renpartygoers,
dition of the popular calypso "In My House." The band and dancers
pulse as one, inching down the road towardEmpire Boulevard,then
bumpingup againsttheAdlibSteelbandand mergingintoa mile-longsea
of humanity.
The scene turnssurrealas I pass a huge bank of temporary
cut
that
lights
throughthe thickpredawnmist,illuminatingthe fervent
crowd and the scores of police who line the streetand look on with
greatdisinterest.
For the nexttwohoursI ease mywaytowardthe frontof the "parade,"
some dressed
passinga dozen steelbands and thousandsof merrymakers,
as devils,ghosts,witches,Africanwarriorsand unrulyslaves,othersin old
dressed
ragssmearedwithgrease,mud,and paint.Manyof the partygoers,
Western
Folklore
58 (Summer/Fall,1999):255-77
255
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256
WESTERN FOLKLORE
in plain streetclothes,simplyline along the sides, sipping beers and
sodas, enjoyingthe steelbandmusicand ole mas costumes,and dodging
overzealousdevilswho occasionallyslingmud or paintintothe crowd.As
the nighttimeslipsinto dawn,theJ'OuvertprocessionlurchesdownNostrandAvenue,past Gloria'sRoti Shop and Alan's CaribbeanBakery,and
finally
beginsto winddown.I catchmybreath,and likethousandsofother
wonderifI willhavetheenergyto makeitup to EasternParkparticipants,
waylaterthatafternoonforthe main Carnivalevent.
For more than a centuryJ'Ouvert2"breakof day" processionshave
markedthe opening of Carnivalin Trinidad.Held in the predawnhours
of CarnivalMonday,J'Ouvertevolvedfrom19thcenturyCanboulayfescelebrations
whereex-slaves
gatheredto masquerade,sing,
tivals-nighttime
of theiremancipation.3
When the tradition
and dance in commemoration
was incorporatedintoTrinidad'spre-LentenCarnival,
J'Ouvertbecame an
arena forAfrican-derived
percussion,wittysatiresinging,sardonic cosmore
tuming,and,
recently,livelysteelband music (Hill 1972: 84-99;
Stuempfle1995: 203-204). In contrastto the bright,fancypageantryof
Mondayand TuesdayafternoonCarnival,Jouvert'sgruesomedevilsand
mud-coveredrevelerspersonifywhat folkloristStephen Stuempflehas
called the "underworlddimensionof Carnival...grimand sinistercharacters,dirtyand coarse costumes,and aggressiveverbal and physical
action" (Stuempfle1995: 204). Historically,
J'Ouvert'sdemonic and satirical masquerading,coupled withdense percussionand steel pan music,
manifestCarnival'sdeepest challenge to order and authority,
and for
Trinidadian novelistEarl Lovelace, the essence of the "Emancipation
spirit"(Lovelace 1998: 54).
In Brooklyn,home to the largestWestIndian communityoutsidethe
Caribbeanand hostto a Labor Day Carnivalthatdrawsclose to twomillion
each year,J'Ouvertis a relatively
new phenomenon.Over the
participants
decade
has
from
smallgroupsofDimanche
past
Brooklyn's
J'Ouvert grown
Gras (Fat Sunday) revelersto a massivepredawncelebrationattracting
nearly100,000steelbandand old mas enthusiasts.This inquirywilltrace
the emergenceof Brooklyn'sJ'Ouvert
festival
in thelargercontextof New
YorkCarnival,and considerthe event'srole in the revitalization
of older
in
Carnivaltraditions Brooklyn'sTrinidad-American
community.4
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
257
TRINIDAD CARNIVALIN HARLEM AND BROOKLYN
Throughoutthe late 1920s and early1930s indoor Carnivalballs and
butitwas
danceswerecommonin Harlem'ssmallWestIndian community,
not until the mid-1930sthat two homesickTrinidadians,Rufus Gorin
andJesseWattle,began organizingoutdoorCarnivalparties.In 1947,Wattle managed to get an officialpermit to close Lenox Avenue for a
Carnivalparade featuring
fancycostumedmas (masquerade)
Trinidad-style
York
bands. In deferenceto the New
climate,the celebrationwas held in
earlySeptember,on the Monday of Labor Day weekend, ratherthan
duringthe traditionalmid-winter,
pre-LentenCarnivalseason (Hill 1994:
Kasinitz
1992:
48-9;
140-141).
The earlyHarlem parade,was,byTrinidadianCarnivalstandards,relNews
Amsterdam
ativelyconventional.Throughoutthe 1950s,the NewYork
describedthe HarlemCarnivalas an orderlyprocessionofpoliticians,dignitaries,beautyqueens, floats,and costumeddancers.5Police barricades
separatedparade spectatorsfrommarchers,withthe formeroftennumberingover 100,000.6Panman Caldera Caraballo (1996) recallsthatthe
event was "a restrictedparade, not reallya Carnival,"as only invited
guests,masqueradebands,and community
organizationswereallowedto
march. Music was provided by conventionalAmerican-style
marching
bands and by Trinidadianbrass (calypso) bands perched on floatsand
small trucks.Calypso singerslike MacBeth the Great frontedthe brass
bands, projectingtheirvoiceswiththe aid of a microphoneand a small
public addresssystem.
Band leaderRudyKingclaimsto havebroughtthefirststeelbandto the
Harlem Carnival,sometimein the mid-1950s(King 1995). The crowdon
Lenox Avenuewas,accordingto King,quite delighted,and began spontaneouslydancing around the orchestraas the panmen moved up the
avenue. By the late 1950s,King's band wasjoined on Lenox Avenue by
Lawrence "Pops" MaCarthy'sHarlem All Starsand Caldera Caraballo's
Moderneres.These steelorchestras
werenot officially
affiliated
witha masnor
were
invited
the
band,
querade
by
theyformally
parade organizers.
King (1995) recallsjust "showingup, in the spiritof Carnival."Caraballo
wereconcernedthatsteelbandsmight
(1996) claimsthe Carnivalofficials
disrupttheotherwiseorderlyevent:'You see thiswasa real parade thatwas
tryingto startat pointA and end at point B," he recalls,"and the steelbands could sloweverything
down,withall thepeople comingout on the
streetand dancingaround us. So theykeptus in the rear."But the steel
bands were toleratedbythe organizersbecause theywantedto showcase
authenticTrinidadianculture,and pan had become, bythe late 1950s,a
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258
WESTERN FOLKLORE
centralcomponent of the Carnival celebrationback home in Port of
Spain.
Worriesabout disruptivebehaviorbecame a realityduringthe 1961
Harlem parade when a fightbroke out betweena panman and a parade
spectator.Accordingto an eyewitnessreportin the NewYorkAmsterdam
News,a steelbandmarchercrashedhispan againstthehead of an over-zealous parade-goerwho was attemptingto grab his instrument.
Band membersand spectatorsbegan to shoveone anotheras bottlesand bricksflew.
tenpeople werearrestedfordisorderly
conduct.
Duringtheensuingscuffle
The 9 September 1961 headline of the New YorkAmsterdam
Newsproclaimed "WestIndian Day Parade Ends in Riot."
theburgeoningcivilrightsmovement
Meanwhile,tensionssurrounding
weremakinglocal authorities
ofblack
increasingly
waryoflargegatherings
people. Memoriesof the 1961 disturbance,coupled witha rock-throwing
incidentat the 1964 Harlem Carnival,led to the revocationof the Lenox
Avenue parade permit. Rufus Gorin moved to Brooklyn,where he
attemptedto reestablisha Labor Day Carnival.Followingthe 1965 immigrationreforms,centralBrooklynwas rapidlybecomingthe hub ofWest
Indian culturein New YorkCity.For severalyearsGorin's Carnivalcelebrationstookthe formof huge blockpartiesand spontaneousparadesin
CrownHeightsand BedfordStuyvesant
Atsome
Brooklyn's
neighborhoods.
in
the
late
1960s
an
of
man
Trinidadian
point
energeticyoung
parentage,
CarlosLezama, tookthe reinsfromGorinand formedWestIndianAmerican Day Association(laterrenamed theWestIndian AmericanDay CarnivalAssociation,or WIADCA) (Hall 1999). In 1971 Lezama obtained a
permit to hold Carnival on Eastern Parkway,Olmstead's magnificent
boulevardthatextendseastwardfromBrooklyn'sGrandArmyPlaza, past
the growingWest Indian neighborhoods in Crown Heights and Flatbush.7
Throughoutthe late 1960s,priorto the establishmentof the Eastern
at Carnivalblock partiesin
Parkwayroute,steelbandsplayedinformally
Crown Heights. In 1971, approximatelysix steelbands turned out for
theEasternParkway
Carnival"parade."Several,likeRudyKing'sTropicans,
wererelatively
smallensembles(twenty
to thirty
players)whose members
stillwore singlepans strappedaround theirnecks (King 1995). But WinstonMonroe (1996) recallsthathis Panmastersfeaturedseventy-five
players, manyof whom played multiplepans stackedon racksand wagons
whichwerein turn"pulled"up theparkway
byfansand costumeddancers.
The bands playedlivelycalypsotuneswithheavypercussionaccompaniment,and providedmusicforthevariousmasqueradebandswhosemem-
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
259
bers 'jumped up" (danced) as theyprocessed up the parkway.While
steelbandswere the main source of music,Monroe recallsseverallightly
amplifiedcalypsobrassbands on flatbedtrucks.Herman Hall, WIADCA's
publicrelationscoordinatorin the early1970sand todaythe publisherof
remembersa truck-mounted
Haitianpop band,as well
Magazine,
Everybody'
as Panamanian and Costa Rican streetbands at thefirstEasternParkway
Carnival(Hall 2000).
Like its Harlem predecessor,the originalEastern ParkwayCarnival
attemptedto followa prescribedparade route.But thehuge Brooklyncelebrationprovedharderto control,and eventuallyexhibitedmore of the
chaotic revelrythat characterizedCarnival in Trinidad. The New York
Amsterdam
eventin
Neas,7 September1974, reportedan "unstructured"
which"thespectatoris at timescelebrant;the celebrantspectator."Based
on the Trinidadianmodel,earlyEasternParkwayCarnivalhad become a
wild spectacle of fancymasquerade bands and steel orchestrasjammed
togetherwiththousandsof dancingspectators(see also Hill 1994: 62-64,
Kasinitz1992: 140-159and Nunley1988: 166-170).
In additionto the MondayafternoonEasternParkwayparade,WIADA
establisheda seriesof Carnivalrelatedstage-shows
behind the Brooklyn
Museum (located near the head of EasternParkway)overthe Labor Day
weekend. The 1971 programincluded performancesby the Sunlander
Steelband,a calypsoorchestraled by Dapane Weekes,and a Caribbean
dance theaterensemble,as wellas a parade of Carnivalqueens (NewYork
Amsterdam
News,11 September1971). By the mid-1970swell publicized
and
calypso
reggaeconcerts,a Carnivalkingand queen costumecontest,
a steelpan competition("Panorama"),and a SundaynightDimancheGras
extravaganzawere drawinghuge crowdsto the BrooklynMuseum (Hill
fam1994). A "KiddieCarnival"wasadded on Saturdayafternoonto attract
ilies.
intocentralBrooklyn,
the
BuoyedbysurgingWestIndian immigration
entireCarnivalcelebrationgrewrapidly.
Estimates
vary,butbythe parade's
thirdyearthe NewYork
Amsterdam
Newsreportedthata crowdof 800,000
watched
while
"several
thousand Caribbean nationals gaily
spectators
dressedin a varietyof colorfulcostumesstruttedproudlydown the Parkofsteelbands"(8 September1973). In 1975 theNewYork
wayto therhythm
Timesreportedthe Carnivalattracteda crowdof 300,000 (2 September
1975); a 1977 articleproclaimedthat750,000 to a millionrevelerswere
WestIndian Fete" (NewYorkTimes,
"dancingin the streets"at "Brooklyn's
6 September1977).
Carnival continued to expand in the 1980s, with Lezama and the
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260
WESTERN FOLKLORE
of rivalfactionsto move the parade to ManWIADCA fendingoffefforts
hattan(Kasinitz1992: 142-3). The parade did, however,become increasinglypoliticized,as Cityofficialssoughtto appeal to the growingWest
Indian votingblock.Ethnictensionsoccasionallyboiled overbetweenthe
West Indian communityand the Hasidic Jewsof the Lubavitchersect
whoseworldheadquartersis located along the EasternParkwayCarnival
route. In 1991, followingthe Crown Heights riots,and again in 1994
when Labor Day and Rosh Hashanah fellon the same date, the Hasidic
leaders unsuccessfully
triedto cancel Carnival(Kasinitz1998: 105-110).
For threedecades Lezama and WIADCA have adroitlynavigatedCarnivalthroughthe treacherouswatersofNewYorkCity'sethnicpolitics.By
the mid-1990sBrooklynCarnivalwas being hailed as the largestethnic
parade in America (CaribNews,3 September1996), drawinga crowdof
overtwomillionspectators,
and generatingmillionsof dollarsin business
forNewYorkCity(Noel 1994). Bannersproclaiming
corporatesponsorship
of masquerade bands and floats-bothfromlocal businessesand larger
companies such as WesternUnion, Mobil, and AT&T-have become
more prominentalong the Parkwayroute,and live televisioncoverage
(beginningin 1995) has promptedorganizersto stickto a tighterschedule and to keep participantsfromdrifting
offthe parade route (PierrePierreand Sengupta 1998).
Whilethebasic Trinidadianmodel oflargemasqueradebands dancing
to popularcalypsomusichas prevailedforthirty
years,therehavebeen sigin
nificant
the
and
transmission
of
the
latter.In thelate 1960s
changes
style
and early 1970s, nearlyall of the music on Eastern Parkwaywas provided by live steelbands which were hired by individual masquerade
But thisbegan to
bands,or whojust "showed"up withtheirownfollowers.
the
mid-1970s
with
the
of
a
change by
emergence soca, new Trinidadian
that
fused
traditional
pop style
calypsosingingwithelementsofblackAmerican soul and disco music. Like Jamaicanreggae,whichwas becoming
popular among Brooklyn'syoungerWestIndiansin the early
increasingly
soca's
reflecteda
1970s,
heavybass lines and mechanicaldrum rhythms
new, high-volumemusical sensibility.Record-spinningdeejays, broadcastingover powerfulsound systems,
produced loud, bass heavydance
music that no conventionalsteelband could come close to matching.
When mounted on flatbedtrucks,the new sound systemswere easily
intoCarnivalstreetprocessions.The resultsweredevastating
for
integrated
acousticsteelbandsthatcould not takeadvantageof thenew technology,
and followingtrendsin Trinidad,Brooklyn'smasqueradebands turnedto
truck-mounted
sound systems
fortheirCarnivalmusic.
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
261
The transition
fromacousticsteelpan to deejay and heavilyamplified
liveband musicwasgradualbutunrelenting.
Don Hill,writAnthropologist
his
about
on
in
Eastern
the
mid-1970s,
ing
experiences
Parkway
reported
a mix of steelbands and amplified combo/brass bands mounted on
trucks,with the latterplayingJamaican reggae, Trinidadian soca and
calypso,Bajan spooge, and Haitian "pop meranges"(Hill 1981: 35). In
1982 Herman Hall, in a lengthyCarnivalreviewforhis Brooklyn-based
discos,the
Everybody'
Magazine,observedsteelbands,and truck-mounted
latter"blasting"the latestsoca hits(Hall 1982: 21). When thisauthorfirst
began attendingCarnivalin 1984, themusicwas evenlydividedbetween
steelbandsand truckswithdeejaysor amplifiedlivebands.Bythelate 1980s
sociologistPhilip Kasinitznoted that mas bands were more likelyto
employ deejays with loud sound systemsthan traditionalsteelbands
(Kasinitz 1992: 145). EthnomusicologistGage Averillcomplained that
the steelband he was followingat the 1990 Carnival could hardlybe
heard over the din of amplifiedsoca (Averill1998: 117). The NewYork
in a 3 September1991 accountof Carnival,reported"A succession
Times,
offlatbedtruckscarriedbandsand enormousloudspeakers"downEastern
Parkway.
Writingforthe CaribNewsin 1994, Michael Robertsconcluded
thatthe steelbandson the Parkwayhad been "upstaged"bydeejayswith
high-techsounds systems(1994: 61). Newspaperaccountsof the Parkway
celebrationin themid and later1990sincreasingly
focusedon deejaysand
sound systemsratherthansteelbands:
And EasternParkwaywillbe the scene of the deejay clash as huge
speakers,state-of-the-art
amplifiedsounds and high-techsystems
willblastthe soca musicto the delightof millionswho willbe chipping down Eastern Parkwayfor Labor Day. Withoutthe deejays
thereis no party(CaribNews,7 September1999:27).
Bythe late 1990s pan had nearlydisappearedfromthe Parkway.8
The declineofsteelbandson EasternParkway,
as in Trinidad,is due prito
from
the
sound
and
marily competition
systems amplifiedbrassbands.9
As MartinDouglas of the Invaders Steel Orchestraput it: "The steelbands just can't get fitin between the deejays and theirheavyelectric
equipmentanymore;afteryourearsacclimateto theloudness,thereis no
wayyou can hear steelpan" (Douglas 1998). But Herman Hall pointsout
thatpoliticaltensionsbetweenBrooklyn'ssteel orchestrasand WIADCA
date back to the early1970swhen some of the bands were caughtin the
crossfirebetweenLezama and rivalswho soughtto set up an alternative
Carnival.The panmen,Hall recalls,neverfeltincluded in WIADCA,and
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262
WESTERN FOLKLORE
where some critics
at timeswere not totallywelcomed on the Parkway,
claimed they"sloweddown" the parade-whichof course,in the spiritof
Carnival,theydid (Hall 2000). Such attitudes,coupled withlack of adequate financialcompensationfromWIADCAor the mas bands,have,over
theyears,fostereda sense of ambivalenceon thepartofmanypan players
towardthe Parkwaycelebration.
As Brooklyn's
steelbandsweregraduallypushedout of theEasternParkwayparade, theyturnedtheirfocusto theWIADCA'sbig Panorama contestthatwas held behind the BrooklynMuseum on the Saturdayevening
and WIADCA
priorto Labor Day.Tensionsbetweenthe pan community
Panorama,withitslureof competitionand prizemoney,
notwithstanding,
The
flourished
duringthe 1990s,attracting
nearlya dozen bandsannually.'0
successofPanoramadid not,however,
satiatethedesiresofmanypan players and theirfollowersto bringsteelbandmusicback to the streets.The
driveto reunitepan and "playingmas"eventually
led to the emergenceof
a newcomponentforBrooklynCarnival,thepredawnJ'Ouvertcelebration.
J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYNCARNIVAL
There are reportsdatingback to the late 1970s of informalgroupsof
Dimanche Gras revelers,playingcuatros and percussion instruments,
SunprocessingthroughthestreetsofFlatbush,movingfromone late-night
to
it
fete
the
next
Booklet
But
until
the
was
not
mid-1980s,
1997).
day
(JCI
claims panman Earl King, thatsteelbandsbecame involvedin J'Ouvert
activities.
Accordingto King,it was duringthe earlyhours of Labor Day
morning(perhapsin 1985) whena fewmembersof the Pan Rebels Steel
Orchestraventuredout fromtheirpan yardon Woodruff
Streetnear FlatbushAvenueand began playingon the sidewalk,attracting
a crowdof alla
member
of
Pan
Rebelsband
Tribuse,
1996).
nightpartygoers
(King
Tony
thatparticipatedin the firstJ'Ouvert,
recallsthata group of fifteenpan
playersand masqueradersdressed in pajama costumesbegan moving
downFlatbushAvenue.Tribuseclaimsthegrouppickedup otherlate-night
revelersfromneighborhoodpartiesand dance halls,and returnedto their
pan yard witha crowd of nearly100 (Tribuse 1998). The Pan Rebels
werejoined by
repeatedtheperformanceforseveralyears,and eventually
theGolden StarsSteelBand, theMetroSteelOrchestra,and theJuJuJammersmas band. By the late 1980s,a smallgroup of steel and mas bands
were processingaround Flatbushand BedfordAvenuesearlyLabor Day
morning,stakingout an informalroute throughthe heartof Brooklyn's
WestIndian community.
As theimpromptuJ'Ouvert
celebrationgrewin size,organizersrealized
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
263
theywould need to createa more formalstructureto avoid conflictwith
the authorities.In 1994 Earl King establishedJ'OuvertCityInternational
(JCI), a not-for-profit
organizationmeant to coordinate the J'Ouvert
event.Withthe assistanceof local politiciansand the police of Brooklyn's
67th Precinct,the organizationwas grantedpermissionto parade from
WoodruffStreet up Flatbush Avenue, across LeffertsAvenue (later
changed to Empire Boulevard), and down NostrandAvenue to Linden
Boulevard, beginning at three o'clock on Labor Day morning (King
1996) .11
In order to attractmore pan and mas bands, King and his associates
establishedJ'Ouvertcompetitions.In 1994 viewingsightswere set up
along the routein frontof sponsoringbusinesses(Alan's CaribbeanBakery,Scoops Ice Cream Parlor,and Mike's InternationalRestaurant),and
trophyawardsweregivenforthebeststeelbandcalypso,"bomb"tune (noncalypsopop tunearrangedwitha calypsobeat), and mas costume.The followingyear small cash prizes were offered.In 1997 first,second, and
thirdplace cash awardsweregivenforbestcalypsotune,bomb tune,mas
band costume,and individualmale and femalecostumes.In 1998 a special
"old" calypsocategorywas establishedforsteelbands.
The allureof late night/early
withsteelbandsand mas
morningrevelry
competitionshas led to an explosiveincrease in the size of Brooklyn
J'Ouvertoverthepastfewyears.The 1994 eventwaslargeenoughto attract
pressattention.A CaribNews5 September1995 review,boldlyheadlined
'J'OuvertIs Alive!",reportedthatelevenole masbandsand nine steelbands
participatedin J'Ouvert1994. In 1996 I observeda dozen hand-pushed
steelbands,each surroundedbymas bands or groupsof individualmassteeland fifteen
mas bands in its1997 program
queraders.JCI listsfifteen
book, and I saw roughlythatnumberat the 1998 and 1999 gatherings.
Crowdsize estimates
vary,rangingfromofficialpolice figuresof 50,000for
the 1996 and 1997 events,toJCI's claim of 150,000.The NewYorkTimes,
coveringJ'Ouvertforthe firsttimeon 2 September1997, estimatedthat
in earlymorning"rogueparadesknown
50,000Carnival-goers
participated
as Ole Mas."JCI estimatedthe 1998 and 1999J'Ouvertcrowdsexceeded
thoseof 1996 and 1997,and theBoroughCommunity
Affairs
Department
of the BrooklynNYPD offeredcrowdestimatesof 80,000-100,000in 1998
and close to at 200,000in 1999.
likethe EasternParkway
celebration,
Brooklyn's
earlymorningJ'Ouvert
spectacle, reflectsthe chaotic revelryof Carnivalwhile attemptingto
maintainsome semblanceof a parade witha prescribedroute.Bands and
individualsslowlywindtheirwaythroughthe streetspacked withdancing
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264
WESTERN FOLKLORE
The atmosphereis loose and theprocessionhas no
spectator/participants.
officialbeginning or end. However,there are importantdifferences
betweenthe EasternParkwayand Flatbushevents.
JCI'sofficialpolicy,as statedin theirannual programbook,is "steelpan
are
musiconly."The DJ'sand sound trucksthatdominateEasternParkway
from
are
allowed
banned
steelbands
J'Ouvert--only
unamplified
explicitly
to registerand participate."Weallowno deejaysatJ'Ouvert,"JCI's
public
relationsofficerYvetteRennie told the CaribNewsin a 7 September1999
interview.
"Wewantto preservethetraditionofJ'Ouvertand ole mas.This
eventhas alwaysbeen accompaniedbysteelbandmusic."JCIfounderEarl
Kingelaborates:'"J'Ouvert
putspan in the spotlight.You see, pan got lost
on the Parkwaywhen the big sound systems
and deejaystookover.So we
were determinedto do somethingto preservepan, to let our children
knowwhereCarnivalreallycomes from.So in J'Ouvertit'sjust pan and
mas bands,no deejaysinvited.Now people are rememberingthejoy you
can getbytakingyourtimeand playingmaswitha steelband,just inching
up the road, pushingpan. We're tryingto revivethatwhole thing"(King
1996). A similarmessage was articulatedby VinettePryce of the New
YorkAmsterdam
News(9 September 1998, p. 16): "For manyfolks,the
daytimeparade has become too overburdenedby sound systems.They
favorlivepan music.For a fewyearsnow the panmen have boycottedthe
Eastern Parkwayeventfor the same reason.J'Ouverthas become the
alternative."
The steelbandsplaya variety
of tunesduringthefour-hourJ'Ouvert
procession.Each band willlikelyplay,in additionto itsPanoramaselection(a
carefully
arrangedcontemporary
calypsoor soca number),a bomb tune,
and one or more old calypsos.The J'Ouvertbomb and old calypsoselectionsare structuredaround relatively
simpleverse/chorusarrangements
thatare oftenpulled togetherin a singlepracticesession.12
WhileJ'Ouvert
steelbandsare usuallysmallerthantheirPanoramacounterparts,
theygenerallyfeature an expanded percussion section-often augmented by
friendsand J'Ouvertmerrymakers
beatingcowbells,bottles,iron breakThe resultis a loose, densely
drums,and varioushomemadeinstruments.
sound
meant
to
street
dancers.
The J'Ouvertstyleis more
percussive
propel
"free spirited" and "less regimented" than what one would hear at
Panorama,observedpanman MartinDouglas (1998).
The Brooklyn's
J'OuvertcostumesI observedin 1998 and 1999wereless
elaborate, cheaper, and more traditionalthan those of the big "fancy
bands" on EasternParkway.13
In keepingwiththeJ'Ouverttraditionsof
humorand themacabre,numerousindividualsplayedmud mas (covering
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
265
theirbodieswithmud), dressedin old rags,paintedtheirfaces,bodies and
withwhitepowderand flour.Manyindicostumes,and coveredthemselves
vidualsmasqueraded as devils,witches,ghosts,and goblins,whileothers
donned satiricaloutfitsand carriedsignswithhumorouspoliticalcommentary.Tubs ofmud wereactuallywheeleddownFlatbushAvenue,with
revelersstoppingeveryso oftento smearfreshmuckon each otherand on
innocent bystanders.Buckets of paint also appeared and creativecostumeswere splatteredon the spot.
Organized mas bands portrayedspecificthemesor characterssuch as
devils(red and black),Indians,master/slaves,
and Africanwarriors.
A band
called Then and Now dressedin shredsofnewspaperand carriedplacards
withheadlines fora "Read All about It" mas. Two bands played unruly
dogs,a referenceto AnselmDouglas'spopularcalypso,"WhoLet theDogs
Out?" The JuJuJammers,
accompaniedbya dense percussionensemble,
Africa
themes.
alwaysplay
Informaldramaswere occasionallyenacted. An "EmergencyRoom"
band dressed in doctor and nurse scrubs carried a maniacal, paintsmeared patient throughthe crowd,stopping occasionallyfor "treatment."Suddenlythepatientwouldjump up and grabone of thenursesin
a vulgarembracewhiletherestofthe medicalteamshooktheirheads and
waggedfingersin disapproval.In anotherinstancea witchand a she-wolfbothplayedbymen--chasedeach otheraroundthe streetand engagedin
lengthybouts of ritualcombat.
The most wittypolitical commentarycame froma band called the
WingateOriginals,led bydesignerVictorMungo. In 1998 theyplayeda
masterfulsatire mas, "Clinton Tun de White House Red!" A wagonmounted model house bearing the inscription"Scandal in the White
House" waswheeledalong byband memberssmearedin red paint.Men,
cross-dressed
as Monica Lewinsky,
carriedlewdplacardsproclaiming"Bill
and I had an oral arrangement"
and "I neverinhaled,I onlysmelledit."In
1999 theWingatespresented"We'reNot TakinDat," whichfeaturedbiting commentaryon currenteventsincludingtheAbner Louima torture
case; theAmadou Diallo "41 bullet"shooting;thebrutaldraggingdeathin
Jasper,Texas; the Columbine,Colorado school shooting;and racial profilingon the NewJerseyTurnpike.Severalmembersdemonstratedtheir
discontentwiththehealthindustry
bywheelinga fakecorpsethroughthe
crowd on a portable bed, surrounded by paint-smeareddoctors and
nurseswho continuedto prescribebeer and liquor to thevictim.
costumesweredesignedbyRoyPierre,who
Perhapsthemostinnovative
has won theJ'Ourvertcostumecompetitionforthe past threeyears.In
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266
WESTERN FOLKLORE
1997 he presenteda Camboulaythemebased on traditionalAfricanand
slave motifs.His 1998 costumesdeftlycombined Trinidadian folklore
characterswithAmericanHalloween themes.Entitlinghis presentation
'JumbieJamborie,"his costumesincludedrainbowjab jabs (devils),moko
jumbies, soucousyants(female vampires),diablesses (temptresseswith
clovenfeet),and Douens (spiritsofdead children),as wellas witches,
black
cats,mummies,and Medusa figures.While Pierreis highlyrespectedfor
hisvisionary
designs,some questionifhis costumeshavebecome too elaborateforJ'Ouvert,and wonderiftheyare notbettersuitedforthedaytime
Parkwayparade (Pierre 1998).
Though formalmasqueradingwas pervasive,the majorityofJ'Ouvert
revelersoptedforlessfanciful
displays-abitofbodypaint,flouror talcum
powder on hair and face, a splatteredtee shirt,a flag bandana, or a
funnyhat.Manyothers,dressedin ordinarysummershortsand tops,lined
the sidewalks,occasionallyminglingwith the costumed throngin the
center of the street.Althoughthere was a slow but steadyprocession
along the prescribed route, many people appeared to wander with
friends--eating,
drinking,
dancing,and simplyenjoyingthemusicand mas.
WhileJCI is quickto takecreditforthesuccessofBrooklyn
hisJ'Ouvert,
as
a
movetoryremindsus thatthefestivity
began
spontaneousgrassroots
ment,emergingfromthepanyardsand streetsof East Flatbush.It was the
leadpanmen,costumemakers,and ole mas enthusiasts-notcommunity
ers, governmentofficials,or culturalspecialists-who "organized" the
earliestJ'Ouvertcelebrations.JCI came about somewhatafterthe fact,
when growingcrowdsnecessitatedan organizationalbodyto negotiatea
parade permitwiththe police. TodayEarl Kingand his associatesremain
a loosely organized group withfew political connections and limited
access to fundingsources.JCI arrangesthe parade routeand an approximate schedule, and attempts-notalwayssuccessfully--to
registerthe
mas and steelbands,but the organizationappears to have limitedcontrol
overwho participatesand whatactuallyhappens atJ'Ouvert.14
In keeping
withthe spontaneousspiritofJ'Ouvert,
musicians
and
many
masqueraders
to playmas.
simply"showup," unannounced and unregistered,
INTERPRETINGBROOKLYNJ'OUVERT
Assessingthe significanceof any recentlyemerged culturalexpression is a riskyand speculativeproject.But here speculationis warranted,
givenJ'Ouvert'sphenomenalgrowthoverthepastdecade and theincreasinglyprominentrole it now plays in BrooklynCarnival.Many factors
appear to accountforthe successof theevent,and lend insightintoitssig-
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
267
nificancefortheborough'sTrinidadian-American
On thepraccommunity.
ticalside,J'Ouvert,withitsnonamplification,
pan-onlypolicy,furnishesa
sonicenvironment
in whichpan musiccan be heard,literally,
freefromthe
sound
and
brass
bands that
blaring
systems
employedbydeejays
amplified
now dominateEasternParkway.
J'Ouvertprovidespan playersand theirfollowerstheopportunity
to returnto thestreetsand performin a traditional
Carnival atmospherewhere the interactionof players,masqueraders,
dancers,and spectatorscreatesa sense of communalecstasy,something
akin to VictorTurner's "spontaneouscommunitas"in whichindividuals
withone another"become totallyabsorbedintoa single,syninteracting
chronized,fluidevent"(Turner 1982: 48). Myown personal experience
"pulling"pan inJ'Ouvert(and in earlierEasternParkway
processions)confirmsthe model: amidstthe denselypacked throngof pan players,perand dancersone can feelthesuspensionof time
cussionists,
masqueraders,
and a flash of total union withone's fellowrevelers.J'Ouvertaffords
momentsof deep mas, the essence of streetCarnival.This feelingof
communaltranscendenceis difficult,
ifnot impossible,to achieveduring
themoreformalPanoramacompetition,
a performance
whereplaysetting
ers remainstationaryand spatiallyseparatedfromtheiraudience.
Carnivalparticipantscan and certainlydo experience such intense
momentsof communalmas in thefancybands thatfollowthe sound systemtruckson EasternParkway.
Indeed thephysicalintensity
of the amplifiedmusic'svolumeand throbbingbass can surroundand seduce,literally
individuallistenersinto a singing,dancing throng.But evitransforming
a
numberofmasqueradersand Carnivalenthusiasts,
dently significant
particularly
middle-agedand older,prefer'Jumpingup" to pure pan rather
than canned deejay music.As costumedesignerBurtrumAlleyreflects:
"Steelpan musicin the earlymorningis the bestthingto myears; everythingelse is stilland you'rehearingpure pan-it's likebirdsin the forest"
(Alley1998). As a result,manyof the individualJ'Ouvertmas bands now
hiresteelbandsto providemusicfortheirmas,just as the big fancybands
did forthe Parkwaycelebrationin the pre-soundsystemdaysof Carnival.
In the newlyestablishedJ'OuvertcelebrationBrooklyn'ssteelbandshave
foundan unfettered
forumfortheirart,one thataffordstheman immediateand directconnectionwiththeiraudiencewhilereunitingthemwith
traditionalmas bands.
From thisevidence one mightbe temptedto reduceJ'Ouvertto an
occasionforpan enthusiasts
and loversof ole mas to pursuetheirpassions,
or forolder Trinidadianimmigrants
to indulgetheirnostalgicdesiresfor
some idealized Carnivalof theiryouth.Pan passion and nostalgiafor
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268
WESTERN FOLKLORE
Carnivalare undoubtedlyessentialmotivating
"old-time"
factors,but they
are only two components of the complex constellationof forces that
driveBrooklynJ'Ouvert.
therevitalization
At themoresymboliclevel,theentireeventrepresents
of whatsome see as "endangered"Trinidadiantraditions.
While Trinidadian Carnivalcontinuesto providethe basic model forthe EasternParkof otherCaribbeanand
wayparade,therehas been a steadyencroachment
influences.
This is not surprising,
African-American
giventhemulticultural
natureof centralBrooklynand the diversity
of Caribbeangroupsparticipatingin Carnival,as wellas the complexnatureof NewYorkCity'sethnic
politicsin whichCarnivalhas become embroiled.Thus, Carnivalin New
betweenitsTrinidadian
York,arguesPhilipKasinitz(1998: 102) "vacillates
rootsand itspan-Caribbeanagenda."
For some participantsthe ParkwayCarnivalhas apparentlydriftedtoo
farfromitsTrinidadianmooringsintoa pan-Caribbeansea. TodayTrinidadian calypsoand soca competewithJamaicanreggae,Haitiankonpas,MarfromGrenada,Barbados,
tiniquezouk,and the latestpop musicofferings
and Panama. But thisemphasison musicaldiversity
is not a recentdevelHall
Herman
recalls
that
the
Eastern
first
(2000)
opment.
Parkway
parade
included,in additionto Trinidadiansteelbands,Haitian,Panamanian,and
Costa Rican groups,and thathe encouraged Carlos Lezema to integrate
reggaeintoCarnival.Donald Hill (1981: 35) reportsthatbythe mid-1970s
sound systemsplayingJamaicanreggae lined the easternsectionsof the
parade route, and truckscarryingliveJamaican, Bajan, and Haitian
bandswerejockeyingwithTrinidadiancalypsogroupsforthecrowd'sattention.In 1975 theWIADCAbegan to sponsor,alongsideitsTrinidadian-style
calypsoand panoramashows,a specialLabor Day Weekend"Nightin the
Caribbean" concert that featuredJamaican,Haitian, and Costa Rican
traditions(WIADCA Booklet,1975). In the mid-1980s,separateJamaican
and Haitiannightswereadded to WIADCA'sofficialpre-Carnival
concert
festivities.
Meanwhile the thousandsof vendorswho line the two-mile
route hawk foods, crafts,clothing,and recordingsfrom around the
Africandiaspora.
Carnivalon EasternParkway
was nevera carbon-copy
of itsTrinidadian
predecessor,because it quicklyevolved into an arena for multi-ethnic
culturaldisplayand identity
the exhibition
negotiation.Whilepermitting
of individualisland affiliationthroughmusic styles,banners,flags,etc.,
BrooklynCarnivalalso presentswhatPhilipKasinitzcalls "theimageryof
a meltingpot" that strivesto turn individualsfromdifferentEnglishspeaking islands into "WestIndians" (Kasinitz 1992: 150). When the
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
269
growingnumber of Haitians and other French-speakingislandersare
added to Brooklyn'sCarnivalpot, a broadercategoryof "Caribbeanpeople" is constructed.To thismix, add membersof Brooklyn'ssouthern
African-American
communityand the resultmaybe, at leastforan aftera
sense
of
noon,
unity.
pan-African
CarlosLezama and hisWIADCA associateshave attemptedto castthis
issuein a positivelight,carefully
complexculturaldiversity
proclaiming"we
is one." In realitytheywalka fineline,trying
to maintainTrinidadiancontroloverCarnivalwhilefindingroom forotherislanders-particularly
the
numbers
and
Haitians
in
central
Brookwho
now
live
large
ofJamaicans
The officialrhetoricofWIADCA stresses
lyn-tocomfortably
participate.'5
and rarelymenamongall WestIndianand CaribbeanNewYorkers,
"unity"
tionsindividualislands.16
Similarsentiments
are echoed bythe CaribNews,
NewYork'slargestWest
Indian newspaperthatdevotesconsiderablecoverageto BrooklynCarnival. A 1996 editorialargues thatCarnival"servesas an integrative
force,
the
different
national
from
the
Caribbean,"
bringingtogether
groups
and goes on to lista dozen islands thathave become, in theory,"integrated"throughBrooklynCarnival(3 September1996). The broadercultural and political implications are made explicit: "The Carnival
Celebrationsare a source of prideforBlacksin thiscountry.The creativity,imagination, and splendor reflect the cultural strengthof the
Caribbean" (CaribNews8 September1998).
NewYorkCity'spoliticians,
to
alwayslookingforvotes,havecontributed
theofficialdiscourseofunitybyproclaimingCarnivala distinctive
creation
of New York's rapidlygrowingCaribbean community.In 1992 Mayor
David Dinkinsplaced BrooklynCarnivalin the contextof the 178 ethnic
groups that make up New York City's"gloriousculturalmosaic," proclaimingthatnone "shinemore gloriouslythan the segmentrepresented
by the Caribbean community"(Newsday8 September 1992). Mayor
naturebycalling
Rudolph Giulianialluded to the parade's multicultural
it "an ethnicfestthatdemonstratesthe diversity
of New York"(Newsday
8
In
his
zeal
to
the
broaden
net
to
include
September 1998).
diversity
African-American
and even whiteNew Yorkers,BrooklynBoroughPresident HowardGolden declared "Youdon't have to be fromthe Caribbean
to enjoythis[Carnival].AllAmericanscan takepridein what'shappening
today.This is a symbolof livingtogether,
respectingeach other"(Newsday
8 September1992).
Thispersistent
natureofBrooklyn's
Caremphasison thepan-Caribbean
nival,both in public displayand discourse,has apparentlymade some
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270
WESTERN FOLKLORE
Trinidadians,especiallythosedeeplyinvolvedin the steeland traditional
mas bands, feel squeezed out of what theyonce perceived as "their"
event.Their responsewas to create a new Carnivalperformancesetting
thatup to thatpointhad been absent
(actuallyto revivea traditional
setting
fromthe BrooklynCarnival) thatwould showcase exclusivelyTrinidadian forms.The centrality
of Trinidadianexpressionto Brooklyn'sJ'Ouvertis explicit.In additionto itssteelband-only
policy,JCI pronouncedin
its1997J'OuvertProgramBookletthat"theorganization'sideologyis the
preservationof threeCaribbeanartformsoriginatingfromTrinidadand
Tobago: steelband,calypso,and mas."The largermission,"toeducateand
teachyoungpeople about theoriginand historyof our culture,"leaveslittle doubt as to whose cultureis in need of preservation,as the 1995 Pro"sweetsteelband
gramBookletrhetoricproudlyannouncesthatJ'Ouvert's
music"and old mas costumingmake "FlatbushAvenueresembleFrederick Streetin Trinidad,"a referenceto a center of Carnival action in
downtownPortof Spain.The issueofnationalloyalty
is further
clarifiedin
the 1997 ProgramBooklet which offersthe lyricsto the Trinidad and
Banner"
Tobago NationalAnthem,followedbythoseof the "Star-Spangled
(both to be sung at the organization'sannual awardsmeeting).
Consideralso thegeographicaspectsofBrooklynCarnival.EasternParkway,locallyreferredto as "Caribbean Parkway,"actuallyformsone of
the northernboundariesof the borough'sWestIndian community.
Eastern Parkwayis the borderarea wherethe English-speaking
WestIndians,
Haitians,and HasidicJewsof CrownHeightsmeet theAfricanAmericans
of BedfordStuyvesant
and theIrish,Jews,and Yuppiesof ParkSlope. The
on theotherhand,takesplace southofEasternParkJ'Ouvertcelebration,
at
the
intersection
of the CrownHeights,Flatbush,and East Flatbush
way,
in
neighborhoods,deep the heartof Brooklyn'sblack WestIndian community.The originalroute,beginningat WoodruffAvenueand running
up Flatbush Avenue, across Empire Boulevard, and down Nostrand
Avenue,is lined withWestIndian produce stores,rotishops,restaurants,
bakeries,social clubs, dance halls, record stores,and SpiritualBaptist
storefront
churches.Half a dozen mas campsare locatedalong the route,
and eightpan yardsare withina fewblocks.Bymovingtheactionfromthe
Parkway"down"to Flatbush,WestIndiansin general,and Trinidadiansin
have assertedtheirdomain overJ'Ouvert.
This said,the ethnic
particular,
mixat Brooklyn
to pinpointwithanyquantitative
cerJ'Ouvertis difficult
informal
and
observation
Interviews,
conversations,
tainty.
personal
suggest
that the ole mas groups and steelbands are comprised primarilyof
Trinidadians and a smatteringof Grenadians, Barbadians, and other
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
271
small-island
WestIndianswho havetraditionally
embracedTrinidadian-style
Carnival.But theethnicity
of theindividuals
who
and/orislandaffiliations
constitutethe huge crowdsthatattendJ'Ouvertare not easilyidentifiable,
because nationalbannersand flagdisplaysare not as prominentas on Eastern Parkway.
Jamaicans,Haitians,and AfricanAmericanssurelyparticipate,
but theirnumbersare difficult
to estimate.There are,however,noticeably
fewerwhiteAmericans,Asians,and LatinosatJ'Ouvertthanon the Parkand lessdiverse,than
way.Brooklyn
J'OuvertsimplyfeelsmoreTrinidadian,
itsEasternParkwaycounterpart.
Reviewingthisevidencemightlead to the conclusionthattheJ'Ouvert
and EasternParkway
celebrations
havetakenon distinct
and perhapsoppositionalconnotations.
and communityJ'Ouvertis Trinidadian,traditional,
based, evoking deep carnival symbolsto reinforcea sense of shared
culturalheritage.EasternParkway,
by contrast,reflectsa multi-cultural,
modern,and commercialsensibility
byshowcasingthemostcontemporary
a unityamongdiverseCaribbeanand African-Amerpop styles,
proclaiming
ican peoples, and providingNew York'spoliticiansand privatebusinesses
witha forumto advertisetheirgoods and services.However,likemanyculturaldialectics,
J'Ouvertand theParkway
mayultimately
complementeach
other-in thisinstancebyservingtwodistinctcommunity
needs:J'Ouvert
internalcohesion and reinforcesin-groupidentity,
whilethe
strengthens
and
cultural
validation
in
a
Parkwayprovidespublic display
largerarena.
see
no
contradictionin the two events,and some
Many participants
choose to participatein both.The NewYorkTimes(5 September1998) profileda middle-agedWestIndian motherwho attendsJ'Ouvert
to cheeron
her teen-agedchildrenwho playin theInvadersSteel Orchestra,and later
showsup on the Parkwayto playmas witha fancyband. ArddinHerbert,
thedirectoroftheCASYMSteelOrchestra,
toldme thatmanyof theyoung
in
his
band
the
raucous
excitement
of beatingpan onJ'Ouplayers
enjoy
vertmorning,and aftercatchinga fewhourssleep head to the Parkwayto
jump up to soca and reggae spinningdeejays.For these individualsand
manylike them,J'Ouvertmerelybecomes anotherchoice in the kaleidoscope of Carnivalevents(Herbert1997).
The degreeto whichJ'Ouvert
a consciousrevitalization
of trarepresents
dition,or ratherthefinalstepin the naturaldiasporaofTrinidadianCarnivalto Brooklyn,
is difficult
tojudge fromour presenthistoricalposition.
forparticipation
Moreover,individualmotivations
varywidely.The event's
and theirsupporters
seeJ'Ouvertas a wayofpreserving
organizers
and proTrinidadian
a
moting
heritage; numberofmiddle-agedand olderTrinidadians undoubtedlycome out of nostalgiafor "old time" Carnival;pan
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272
WESTERN FOLKLORE
WestIndianswho havenever
especiallytheyoungerAmerican-born
players,
experiencedJ'Ouvertin Trinidad,enjoythe noveltyof beatingpan in a
Carnivalstreetsetting;and manyyoungerWest Indians, Haitians,and
are simplydrawnto theexcitementof a rowdy,
African-Americans
all-night
streetfete.
therecentemergenceofJ'Ouvert
Froma macro-structural
perspective,
in Brooklynunderscoresthe incredibledynamismof the modern,urban
Carnival,and itsnaturaltendencyto strikea relativebalance betweentraditionand change. BrooklynCarnival,likeitsTrinidadianparent,is constantlyevolving,adaptingnew elementsof popular culture,whilestriving
roots.Social historian
LawrenceLevinehas noted
to maintainitstraditional
thatAfrican-American
musicalexpressionssuch as blues and gospel song
of trademonstrate
innovationof styleand revitalization
simultaneously
dition(Levine 1977: 189); musicologistSamuel Floyd,Jr.has arguedconthatthe performancepracticesand compositionalworksof the
vincingly
mostinnovative20th centuryblackjazz and concerthall composersare
deeplyinformedbyan "Africanculturalmemory"(Floyd1995: 226-266).
In the case of Carnivalthisparadigmcan be extended fromindividual
stylesto encompassa largercomplexof interconnectedexpressivegenres
and events.The forcesof modernityand globalizationhave pushed Carnival to embrace new technologies,the latestpopular music styles,mas
themes based on contemporarymedia images, corporate sponsorship
and tourism,and the politicsof multi-culturalism;
but these forcesare
counteredbythe urge to reviveand maintaincore traditions.In the case
of Brooklyn,the innovationsof the Parkwayare balanced to a degree by
the revitalization
of pan and ole mas traditionsin J'Ouvert.Apparently
theremustbe roomin theCarnivalcomplexfordeejaysblastinghigh-decibel soca and pan playersbeating acoustic calypso,forfancyband masqueradersin space-agedcostumesand J'Ouvertrevelersin muddyrags.
This is notto suggestthatin Carnivalinnovative
and traditional
practices
mustbe separatedby timeand space-the latteroccurringexclusivelyat
J'Ouvert,theformeronlyon theParkway-for
theydo existsimultaneously,
side byside. Steelbandsoftenplayoriginalarrangements
of the latestsoca
hits duringJ'Ouvert,while the contemporary,amplifiedsoca on the
is deeplyrootedin Afro-Caribbean
ofimprovisation,
traditions
call
Parkway
and response,and rhythmic
drive.J'Ouvert'sole mas costumesare often
highlyindividualisticcreationsthat comment on contemporarysocial
ole mas characters
suchas devilsand midnight
events,and moretraditional
robbersoccasionallyshowup on theParkway.
But at thisstagein Brooklyn
Carnival'sevolutionthemoretraditional
expressionsseem to be gravitating
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
273
towardtheJ'Ouvertcelebration,whilethe Parkwayremainsthe primary
arena forthe emergenceof newforms.
The futureof J'Ouvertin BrooklynCarnival is difficultto predict.
J'Ouvertand the EasternParkwayeventsare run by independentorganizations-JCI and WIADCA respectively.One might expect Carlos
Lezama's WIADCA, with its powerfulpolitical connections and hefty
fundingresources,to eventuallytake overJ'Ouvertand bring all the
majorcomponentsof BrooklynCarnivalunderone umbrellaorganization.
in theJ'Ouat leastofficially,
But to date,WIADCA has showlittleinterest,
has
his
hands
full
with
vertcelebration.17
running
PerhapsCarlosLezama
do
theParkway,
or perhapshe is simplyhappyto have thepan community
It is not clear whetherEarl King
theirown thingawayfromthe Parkway.
and his grassrootsJCI can continue to musterthe resources to keep
J'Ouvertrunning,especiallyifit continuesto growin size. On the other
hand,JCI's marginalpositionmaymakesitwellsuitedto sponsorJ'Ouvert,
a celebrationthatbynatureopposes structureand lampoons the statusquo.
The contentofJ'Ouvert
mayalso be in flux.WhileEarl Kingand hisJCI
in bringingsteelbandsback into
associateshavebeen immensely
successful
streetCarnival,whethertheycan maintain their "pan only" policy in
J'Ouvertis uncertain.As the eventcontinuesto grow,itwillundoubtedly
attractdeejaysand theiryoungfollowers.
Long-timeCarnivalobserverHerman Hall, an earlyarchitectof WIADCA's unityin diversity
philosophy,
doubtsthatthehegemonyofTrinidadiansteelpan willsurviveinJ'Ouvert.
'The other Islands will come," he muses, "and theywill find a way to
expressthemselves"(Hall 2000). Whethersuch expressionwill take the
formof reggaesound systems
and amplifiedHaitianpop bands is hard to
There
is
no
predict.
certainly shortage of traditionalAfro-Caribbean
musicin Brooklyn,rangingfromHaitian rara bands and Jamaicanburu
ritualdrumensemblesand
drummingbatteriesto variousAfro-Christian
folklorictroupesspecializingin specificislandtraditions.
These groupsall
thatare easilyadaptableto outplayacousticmusicon portableinstruments
door streetperformance,
and all sharestylistic
rootsin African-derived
percussion traditions.By reaching out to such groupsJCI could diversify
J'Ouvertwithoutthe risk of amplified music overpoweringthe steel
orchestras.On the other hand, these bands have littleconnection to
Carnivalor Trinidad,and do not fitneatlyintoJCI's agenda of preserving
Trinidad-basedCarnivaltraditions.
For the momentJ'Ouvertremainsa grassrootscelebrationof Trinidadian pan, calypso,and ole mas--deep culturalsymbolsthatoffertrans-
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WESTERN FOLKLORE
274
childrenthe possibility
of
plantedTrinidadiansand theirAmerican-born
connectingacrossspace to theirnativehomeland,and backin timeto their
Africanancestorswho processed throughthe streetsof Port of Spain
with drums and Camboulay torches to celebrate their independence
fromslavery.Butifnovelistand socialcriticEarlLovelace (1998: 54) is correctin contendingthatthe "Emancipation-Jouvay
spirit"has the powerto
transform
officialCarnivalinto"a stagefortheaffirmation
of freedomand
the expressionof the triumphinghuman spirit,"then BrooklynJ'Ouvertmayserveas a source of inspirationnot onlyforTrinidadianimmigrants,but for all Afro-CaribbeanNew Yorkerswho struggleto assert
theirhumanityand selfworthin theirnew NorthAmericanhome.
College
Brooklyn
NewYork
Brooklyn,
Notes
1A shorterversionof thisarticlewas presentedat the 1998 WorldConferenceon
Carnivalat TrinityCollege,Hartford,CT, and willappear in the publishedproceedingsof thatconference.The authorwishesto thankLeslie Slater,Herman
Hall, and Stephen Stuempflefortheirusefulcriticismat variousstagesof this
project.
2 In
is the preferredspellingforthe predawncelebrationthat
Trinidad,"Jouvay"
But
in
Carnival.
opens
Brooklynthe spelling'J'Ouvert"is used on all publicityflyersand in coverage by the Caribbean press. I will followthe Brooklyn
precedentin thisarticle.
3 The exact connectionbetweenTrinidad'sCanboulayandJ'Ouvertcelebrations
warrantsfurtherhistoricalclarification.
ErrolHill claimsthatCanboulay/emancipation processionswere transferredfromAugust 1 to the (Sunday night)
opening of Carnivalsometimein the late 1840s (1972:30); J'Ouvert,he contends, probablybegan shortlyafterCanboulay stopped in 1884 (1972:86).
Stephen StuempfledescribesJ'Ouvert as a "a reinterpretationof the old
Canboulay tradition"(1995: 25). Earl Lovelace argues thatJ'Ouvert grew
directlyout of midnightCarnivalemancipationcelebrations(1998: 54).
4 The descriptions and analysis presented in this article are based on the
author'spersonalobservationsof the 1996, 1998,and 1999 BrooklynJ'Ouvert
celebrations,and interviewswithJ'Ouvertorganizersand participants.
See
the followingreviewsof the Lenox Avenue Carnivalin the NewYorkAms5
terdam
News:8 September1951, 12 September1953, 10 September1955, 7 September1957, 13 September 1958, and 12 September1959.
6 TheNewYorkAmsterdam
Newsreportedcrowdsof 150,000 (8 September,1951),
165,000 (13 September,1958), and 115,000 (12 September,1959).
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J'OUVERT IN BROOKLYN CARNIVAL
275
7 The exact chronologyof Brooklyn'searlyCarnivalyearsis murky.WIADCA
claimsto have run Carnivalin Brooklynsince 1967,but the earlyyearswereevidentlya continuation of Gorin's block party-style
gatherings(Hall 2000).
The firstreportof a full-blown"parade"on EasternParkwayappears in the 28
News,under the headline
August 1971 edition of the New YorkAmsterdam
Indians
Set
Labor
Parade."
A
of the parade is found
West
review
"Brooklyn
Day
in the 11 September1971 edition.The NewYork
Amsterdam
News,whichcovered
the Lenox Avenue Carnivalannuallyin the 1950s and early1960s,makes no
mentionof anyBrooklynCarnivalactivitiesuntilthe 1971 article.
8 In the 1999 Carnivalthe
Despers USA Steel Orchestrawas the onlyone of the
twelvePanorama bands to appear on EasternParkway.
9 It is worthnoting that for a number of years steelbands have been on the
decline in Trinidad's Monday and Tuesday Carnival celebrations-thisdue
primarilyto the risingstatusof the Panorama contestand increased competitionfromdeejaysand sounds systems(Stuempfle1995: 161-63). In response
to concernsabout the disappearanceof pan fromCarnival,Trinidad'sNational
CarnivalCommission,withthe blessingof newlyelectedPrimeMinisterBasdeo
Panday,introduceda steelband road competitionin 1996 thatsucceeded in
bringinga numberof bands back to the streets(Scher 1997: 192-198;Riggio
1998: 18). To date WIADCA has made no such effortto attractBrooklyn'ssteelbands back to the Parkway.
10The
historyof Brooklyn'spanoramais discussedin Allen and Slater(1998:125127). For an insightfulaccount of the 1998 Panorama see Jon Pareles's
"Sound of Steel in a Warm-UpforCarnival"(1998).
11Following an alleged 1998 shooting incident at the crowded Woodruff
Street/FlatbushAvenue intersection,the opening ofJ'Ouvertwas moved to
GrandArmyPlaza. The 1999J'Ouvertroute began at the plaza, moved south
on FlatbushAvenue, east across Empire Boulevard,and south on Nostrand
Avenue.Accordingto King the police asked forthe change in order to facilitate organizingand controllingthe event.
12In contrastto the
simple bomb and old calypsoarrangementsheard during
the
Panorama
are workedout overmonthsofrehearsal.
J'Ouvert,
arrangements
They featurecomplex melodic and harmonicvariations,lead melodic lines
rotated among the differentpan sections, and multiple key modulations
(Herbert 1997).
13The EasternParkwayCarnivalis dominatedbylarge fancybands. The biggest
of thesebands,such as Borokeetes,Hawks,and Sesame Flyers,have overa thousand memberswho don brightly
colored, sequined, elaboratelydesigned costumes. The larger costumes actuallyresemble small floats.Occasional old
mas characters--jab
jab devils,midnightrobbers,"bad behavior"sailors,etc.showup on the Parkway,
but theyare usuallydwarfedby the large numbersof
fancycostumes(see Hill, 1994: 64). For more on the traditionof ole mas costumingin Trinidad Carnival,see Crowley(1956).
14In termsof
controllingparticipation,
JCI has been successful,to date, in keepingJ'Ouvertfreeof deejaysand amplifiedbands.
15The tensioninherentin tryingto createpan-Caribbeanunityamong different
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WESTERN FOLKLORE
276
islandimmigrant
groupshas been noted byFrankManningin his comparative
Indian
Carnivalsin Brooklyn,London, and Toronto (1990: 48of
West
study
49). For furtherdescriptionsof the London and TorontoCarnivalssee Nunley
1988: 171-181.
16For example, WIADCA's 1975 programbook toutssteel pan and calypsoas
in spiteof theirobviousoriginsin Trinidad.
"Carribeanculturalcontributions,"
17Newsday
(31 August1996) reportedthatCarlosLezama would attendthe opening of the 1996J'Ouvert,suggestinghis tacitapproval of the event.
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INTERVIEWS
Alley,Burtrum.4 September 1998
Caraballo, Reynolds.29 July1996
Douglas, Martin.29 July1998
Hall, Herman. 18January2000
Herbert,Arddin.23 July1997
King,Earl. 9 September 1996
King,Rudy.25 October 1995
Mauge, Conrad. 25 July1996
Monroe, Winston.8 August1996
Morancie, Horace. 7 July1996
Pierre,Roy.12July,1998
Tribuse,Tony.4July1998
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