DECISION MAKING
AND
PROBLEM SOLVING
Consensus conference on the management
of tumor lysis syndrome
Patrizia Tosi,1 Giovanni Barosi,2 Carlo Lazzaro,3 Vincenzo Liso,4 Monia Marchetti,2 Enrica Morra,5
Andrea Pession,6 Giovanni Rosti,7 Antonio Santoro,8 Pier Luigi Zinzani,1 and Sante Tura1
1
ABSTRACT
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Hematology Unit, Istituto Seragnoli, Ospedale Sant’Orsola Malpighi, Bologna; 2Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology,
IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo Foundation, Pavia; 3Health Economist, Milan; 4Hematology Unit, Policlinico di Bari,
Bari; 5Hematology Unit, Ospedale Niguarda, Milan; 6Pediatric Oncology Hematology Unit “Lalla Seràgnoli”, Ospedale
Sant’Orsola Malpighi, Bologna; 7Oncology Unit, Ospedale Regionale, Treviso, and 8Nephrology Unit, Ospedale
Malpighi, Bologna, Italy
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Tumor lysis syndrome is a potentially life threatening complication of massive cellular lysis in cancers. Identification of high-risk patients
and early recognition of the syndrome is crucial in the institution of appropriate treatments. Drugs that act on the metabolic pathway of
uric acid to allantoin, like allopurinol or rasburicase, are effective for prophylaxis and treatment of tumor lysis syndrome. Sound recommendations should regulate diagnosis and drug application in the clinical setting. The current article reports the recommendations on
the management of tumor lysis syndrome that were issued during a Consensus Conference project, and which were endorsed by the
Italian Society of Hematology (SIE), the Italian Association of Pediatric Oncologists (AIEOP) and the Italian Society of Medical Oncology
(AIOM). Current concepts on the pathophysiology, clinical features, and therapy of tumor lysis syndrome were evaluated by a Panel of 8
experts. A consensus was then developed for statements regarding key questions on tumor lysis syndrome management selected according to the criterion of relevance by group discussion. Hydration and rasburicase should be administered to adult cancer patients who are
candidates for tumor-specific therapy and who carry a high risk of tumor lysis syndrome. Cancer patients with a low-risk of tumor lysis
syndrome should instead receive hydration along with oral allopurinol. Hydration and rasburicase should also be administered to patients
with clinical tumor lysis syndrome and to adults and high-risk children who develop laboratory tumor lysis syndrome. In conclusion, the
Panel recommended rasburicase for tumor lysis syndrome prophylaxis in selected patients based on the drug efficacy profile.
Methodologically rigorous studies are needed to clarify its cost-effectiveness profile.
rra
Key words: tumor lysis syndrome, rasburicase, lymphoma.
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Citation: Tosi P, Barosi G, Lazzaro C, Liso V, Marchetti M, Morra E, Pession A, Rosti G, Santoro A, Zinzani PL, and Tura S. Consensus conference on the management of tumor lysis syndrome. Haematologica 2008; 93:1877-1885. doi: 10.3324/haematol.13290
Introduction
©
©2008 Ferrata Storti Foundation. This is an open-access paper.
Tumor lysis syndrome (TLS) is a potentially life threatening
complication of massive cellular lysis in rapidly proliferating,
bulky, or highly chemo-radiosensitive cancers.1-4 TLS usually
occurs during cytotoxic therapy and causes hyperuricemia,
electrolyte disturbances (hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia,
hypocalcemia), renal failure and overt organ damage (cardiac
arrhythmia, seizures). Identification of high-risk patients and
early recognition of the syndrome is crucial in the institution
of appropriate treatments. Drugs that prevent the formation
of uric acid or act on the metabolic pathway of uric acid to
allantoin are effective for prophylaxis and treatment of TLS.
In particular, allopurinol blocks the activity of the liver
enzyme xanthine-oxidase, preventing the conversion of
hypoxanthine and xanthine to uric acid and thereby decreasing the risk of uric acid crystallization in the kidneys.5,6
Rasburicase, a recombinant urate-oxidase enzyme, converts
existing uric acid to allantoin, which is 5 to 10 times more soluble in urine than uric acid.7,8
Rasburicase is considerably more expensive than allopurinol, therefore sound recommendations should regulate the
diagnostic approach and the correct application of the available drugs in the clinical setting.
In order to improve awareness, diagnosis, and management
of TLS, a Consensus Development Conference Project on TLS
Manuscript received April 29, 2008. Revised version arrived July 29, 2008. Manuscript accepted August 22, 2008.
Correspondence: Sante Tura, Istituto di Ematologia e Oncologia Medica “Seràgnoli”, Policlinico S. Orsola, via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
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P. Tosi et al.
Organization
Two chairmen (ST and GB) appointed an Expert Panel
(EP) of 8 experts (5 hematologists, 1 pediatrician, 1
oncologist, 1 nephrologist), selected for their expertise
in research and clinical practice of pediatric and adult
malignancies. An Advisory Committee (AC) chaired by
two clinicians with expertise in clinical epidemiology
(GB and MM) supported the systematic review of literature and guaranteed the methodology of the process.
Framing the domain of recommendations
Laboratory TLS is defined by the occurrence of two or more of
the following serum values before or after anticancer treatment
(from three days before to seven days after the start of anticancer
treatment):
(i) uric acid: increase by more than 25% from baseline (if a
recent baseline value is available), or values ≥476 mmol/L (8
mg/dL); (ii) potassium: increase by more than 25% from baseline (if a recent baseline value is available), or values ≥6.0
mmol/L (6 mEq/L); (iii) phosphorus: increase by more than 25%
from baseline (if a recent baseline value is available), or values
≥1.45 mmol/l (4.5 mg/dL) in adults and ≥2.1 mmol/L (6.5
mg/dL) in children; (iv) calcium: decrease by more than 25%
from baseline (if a recent baseline value is available), or values
≤1.75 mmol/L (7 mg/dL).
Clinical TLS is defined by the presence of laboratory TLS and
at least one of the following clinical alterations: renal failure (estimated glomerular filtration rate ≤ 60 mL/min), cardiac arrhythmia, seizure.
The Panel recommends a reliable measurement of renal excretory function.13 The serum creatinine is widely used in diagnosing the presence of kidney injury. However, since it is a poor biomarker for acute kidney damage, different urinary and serum
proteins such as urinary kidney injury molecule-1, plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), cystatin C and
others, have been intensively investigated. Although there are
promising candidate biomarkers, none are currently utilized clinically. Moreover, accurate measurement of kidney function is
methodologically difficult in clinical practice so the creatinine
clearance which requires a serum creatinine measurement and
24 hour urine collection is an acceptable surrogate. Alternate estimates of the glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) can be made by the
Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group (MDRD)
formula or by the Cockroft and Gault equation.
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During an initial meeting, the EP agreed on the goal of
the project: to develop recommendations for the diagnosis, prophylaxis and therapy of TLS. The areas of
major concern in the management of TLS were selected
(defined as prevention of clinical and laboratory signs of
TLS) by generating and rank-ordering clinical key-questions using the criterion of clinical relevance, i.e. impact
on patient outcome and risk of inappropriateness,
through a Delphi process.9 The 5 candidate key-questions that ranked highest formed the set of questions of
the present recommendations.
Recommendations
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Design and Methods
more recent review articles4,12 that contain the most widely accepted classification of TLS. The EP commented on
the existence of some shortcomings in the definition of
TLS. In particular, the Panel judged serum creatinine an
inadequate means of evaluating renal dysfunction in this
clinical setting. Since serum creatinine levels may also
depend on patient age, hydration status, and muscular
mass, the EP convened that glomerular filtration rate
needed to be assessed in order to verify a clinical TLS.
The EP also commented on the redundancy of TLS grade
0, which, according to Cairo and Bishop’s definition, corresponds to no TLS.4,12 Therefore, grade 0 TLS was not
considered.
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was convened. The conclusions of the project were
endorsed by the Italian Society of Hematology (SIE), the
Italian Association of Pediatric Oncologists (AIEOP) and
the Italian Society of Medical Oncology (AIOM).
The Consensus process
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During the first of three meetings, the EP examined the
current state of knowledge regarding TLS. Each panelist
drafted statements that addressed one of the 5 preliminarily identified key-questions. Subsequently, each panelist
scored his/her agreement with the statements made by
other panelists and provided suggestions for rephrasing.
To facilitate this phase of the process, the EP was convened and three consensus conferences were held in
Bologna, Italy, on 20th December 2006, 13th March 2007
and 22nd May 2007. The overall goals of the meetings
were to reach a definite consensus over question-specific
statements over which there had been disagreement during the first-round postal phase. The nominal group technique10 was used by which participants were first asked
to comment in “round robin” fashion on their preliminary
votes and then to propose a new vote. If an 80% consensus on the statement was not achieved, the choices were
discussed and a second vote taken. If an 80% consensus
was still not attained, it was declared that no decision
could be made on that issue.
Results
How should tumor lysis syndrome be defined and
graded?
Only two reports have so far attempted to define and
classify TLS. The first was a retrospective study performed in 105 NHL patients,11 and the majority of the suggestions expressed in this paper were incorporated in
| 1878 | haematologica | 2008; 93(12)
eGFR using the MDRD formula
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2)=175 × serum creatinine (mmol/L)
× 0.0113)-1.154 154 x age (years)-0.203× (0.742 if female).
Race multiplier 1 for all except black for whom it is 1.212.
Cockroft and Gault equation
Estimated creatinine clearance:
(140-age) × weight × 1.2 × (0.85 if female)
Serum creatinine
Where age is espressed in years. Serum creatinine in
mmol/L and weight in kg.
The Panel recommends estimating the glomerular fil-
The management of tumor lysis syndrome
Grading of clinical TLS ranges from I to IV and corresponds to the highest grade of the observed clinical
complications, i.e. seizures, cardiac arrhythmia and
renal failure (Table 1).
How should pre-treatment risk be assessed?
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TLS tends to occur more frequently in hematologic
malignancies than in solid tumors. The highest risk of
developing TLS is observed in patients with acute lymphoproliferative disorders with high proliferative rate
and high tumor sensitivity to chemotherapy, like
Burkitt’s lymphoma and B-cell acute lymphoblastic
leukemia (B-ALL), although TLS has also been recorded
in other B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas and TALL.11,15,16 Tumor burden, reflected by serum lactate
dehydrogenase (LDH) level, white blood cell count (initial count over 50,000/mm3), extensive bone marrow
involvement and tumor size, is the main predictor for
development of TLS in these patients.11,12,17
Comorbidities predisposing to higher risk of developing TLS are elevated pre-treatment serum uric acid level,
pre-existing renal damage, tumor infiltration in the kidney, obstructive uropathy, and advanced age.11,12,17
Cytotoxic therapies more frequently associated with
TLS are those employing highly active, cycle specific
drugs (cytosine arabinoside, etoposide, cisplatin).18
Corticosteroids have often been implicated in the
pathogenesis of TLS probably because they are used as
primary therapy for highly proliferating lymphoid disorders.19 Less frequently, TLS has been reported after
administration of intrathecal methotrexate20 monoclonal antibodies (rituximab, gemtuzumab ozogamicin,
campath), radiotherapy, interferon, thalidomide,
hydroxyurea, fludarabine, imatinib, bortezomib,21-25 and
it has rarely been described also as a spontaneous
event.26 The Penn predictive score of tumor lysis syndrome (PPS-TLS) is a recently revised prognostic scoring
system based on a single institution experience of 194
AML patients receiving induction chemotherapy.27
Multivariate analysis showed that serum creatinine levels, serum urate levels and male gender were significant
predictors, and all three variables were used to formulate a scoring system. The EP deemed that this scoring
system, being derived only from patients with AML,
could not be generally applicable. The same pitfalls can
be observed in a more recent retrospective study performed in a larger series of adult AML patients.28
TLS is not a frequent complication in the treatment of
adult solid tumors.29,30 High-risk tumors include cancers
known to be highly sensitive to chemotherapy, like
bulky small cell lung cancer and metastatic germ cell
carcinoma (either gonadal or extragonadal).31,32 For other
tumor types, bulky disease, especially in combination
with massive liver metastases, can be considered a risk
factor. Anedoctal cases of TLS after hormonal therapy
for breast carcinoma and prostate cancer have also been
documented.33,34 In general, the TLS-related fatality rate
is surprisingly high in adults with solid tumors (nearly
35%) compared to hematologic malignancies; the reasons might lie in an earlier initiation of prophylactic
measures in hematologic patients and a general closer
monitoring during and soon after chemotherapy.29,30
At the present time, there are no data to clearly set-up
a comprehensive risk score classification for TLS in
adult patients with solid tumors. Co-morbidities which
may place a solid tumor patient at higher risk of developing TLS are: dehydration, hyponatremia,35 pre-existing renal damage, hyperuricemia, obstructive uropathy.
LDH level needs to be included in the work-up of cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, since it generally reflects bulky disease and is considered a high-risk
factor. High and rapid response to anticancer therapy
(either with pharmacological treatment as well as with
radiation therapy) has also to be included in the possible risk factors. As far as treatment modalities are concerned, nephrotoxic agents, such as cisplatin, have to be
taken into account when evaluating patients’ risk
score.36
Children with malignancies have a 70% chance of
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tration rate of pediatric patients according to the
Schwartz formula:14
Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (mL/min) =
0.55 × length (cm) /serum creatinine (mg/dL)
Table 1. Grading of clinical tumor lysis sindrome.
Renal failure
Cardiac arrhythmia
Seizure
I
II
III
IV
Serum creatinine = 1.5 UNL
or creatinine clearance
30-45 mL/min
Serum creatinine= 1.5-3 UNL
or creatinine clearance
10-30 mL/min
Serum creatinine=3-6 UNL
or creatinine clearance
10-20 mL/min
Serum creatinine >6 UNL
or creatinine clearance
<10 mL/min
Intervention
not indicated
Non-urgent intervention
indicated
Symptomatic and incompletely
controlled or controlled with
device (e.g. defibrillator)
Life threatening
(e.g. arrhythmia associated
with CHF, hypotension,
syncope, shock)
None
One brief generalized seizure; seizure(s)
well controlled by anti-convulsivant
or infrequent focal motor seizures
not interfering with ADL
Seizure in which consciousness
is altered; poorly controlled seizure
disorder, with breakthough
generalized seizures despite medical
intervention
Seizure of any kind which
is prolonged, repetitive
or difficult to control
(e.g. status epilepticus,
intractable epilepsy)
haematologica | 2008; 93(12) | 1879 |
P. Tosi et al.
high-risk pediatric patients. The Panel reached no consensus
as to whether renal ultrasound was mandatory to assess pretreatment TLS risk in adult patients.
When and which tumor lysis syndrome prophylaxis?
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Prophylaxis is the best strategy to reduce the frequency and the severity of TLS episodes. The Panel agreed
that prophylaxis of isolated hyperuricemia in cancer
patients cannot be assimilated to TLS prophylaxis.
The first approach to TLS prophylaxis is vigorous
hydration, i.e. no less than 2 L/m2/day. Increased hydration and accompanying increase in urine flow improves
intravascular volume, enhances renal blood flow and
glomerular filtration, and promotes urinary excretion of
uric acid and phosphate.44,45
Drugs for TLS prophylaxis include allopurinol, which
blocks the activity of the liver enzyme xanthine oxidase, and thereby decreases the risk of uric acid crystallization in the kidneys,5,6 and rasburicase, a recombinant
urate oxidase enzyme, which converts existing uric acid
to allantoin which is 5 to 10 times more soluble in urine
than uric acid.7,8 In patients with renal impairment, the
allopurinol dosage must be adjusted due to accumulation of the drug and its metabolites. However, as in
gouty patients with chronic kidney disease it is highly
probable that also in TLS patients with kidney insufficiency higher therapeutic plasma oxipurinol concentrations might be required to meet the treatment goal.46
Few studies evaluated the efficacy of prophylactic use
of rasburicase in patients at high risk of TLS. In a phase
II dose finding study, all patients, including those treated at lower doses (0.15 mg/kg), achieved a significant
and rapid decrease in uric acid level within four hours
after rasburicase administration and none of the
patients developed severe TLS or required dialysis.47 A
retrospective analysis carried out by Patte et al.48 compared the rates of dialysis in the treatment of children
treated for B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in the UK
and in France. Patients in the French group received
urate oxidase to prevent tumor lysis and those in the UK
received allopurinol. Only 2.6% in the French group
required dialysis compared with 16% in the UK. Urine
alkalinization has historically been a general recommendation for the prevention and/or treatment of TLS. The
use of sodium bicarbonate to alkalinize urine appears to
be a reasonable approach as this will convert uric acid to
the more soluble urate salt, thereby diminishing the tendency to uric acid precipitation in the renal tubules.49
However, the current use of sodium bicarbonate to
alkalynize the urine is controversial. The maximal solubility of urate occurs at a pH of 7.5 and at alkaline urine
pH (6.5) the solubility of xanthine and hypoxanthine
significantly decreases, leading to the development of
urinary xanthine crystals during and after allopurinol
therapy. Moreover, alkaline urine favors calcium phosphate precipitation in patients with increased serum calcium-phosphate cross-product.50
Recommendations
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EFS at ten years with the use of current multimodal and
sometimes highly intensive chemotherapy protocols.
Therapy-related morbidity and mortality have, for this
reason, a substantial impact on the outcome of childhood cancer. TLS arises more frequently in children
with tumors that have a high proliferative fraction, large
tumor burden or wide dissemination and high chemosensitivity. For these reasons, this metabolic emergency
occurs most commonly in Burkitt’s lymphoma, lymphoblastic lymphoma, B-cell acute lymphoblastic
leukemia (ALL) and T-cell ALL with hyperleukocytosis
and extensive extramedullary disease.37-39 In a recent
paper, Wossmann et al.40 analyzed the incidence and
complications of TLS in 1,791 children with NHL
enrolled in two subsequent multicenter studies. Out of
this group, 78 (4.4%) developed a TLS and 42 (2.3%)
oligo-anuria. Patients with Burkitt’s lymphoma or BALL had a higher incidence of TLS (8.4%) and anuria
(4.4%); in particular, patients with B-ALL had the highest risk of developing a TLS (26.4%) and anuria (14.1%).
Of the 790 patients with Burkitt’s lymphoma or B-ALL,
tumor burden, as indicated by LDH levels was the main
predictor for the development of both TLS and anuria.
The incidence of TLS was 1.2%, 12.7%, 19.1% for
patients with LDH levels <500 U/L, 500-1,000 U/L and
>1,000 U/L respectively. The incidence of TLS in
patients with T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma and other
B-cell NHL was below 2% and anuria occurred in less
than 1%. TLS is rare in acute myeloid leukemia (AML)
despite the high blood cell count. TLS has also been
documented in childhood solid tumor such as neuroblastoma, medulloblastoma and germ cell tumors.41
In the pediatric literature there are a few case reports
of children who present hyperuricemia and acute renal
failure as initial presentation of occult lymphoproliferative disorder.42 Renal impairment at diagnosis appears to
be the only relevant co-morbidity in stratifying pediatric
patients at risk of TLS. Apart from renal failure,
kidney(s) involvement at onset represents a rare but relevant risk factor.37,43
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Patients at high risk of developing TLS carry at least one of
the following factors: (i) Host-related factors (comorbidities):
dehydration; hyponatremia (limited to solid tumors); pre-existing renal impairment (including renal infiltration by hematologic malignancies which induce a reduction in renal function);
obstructive uropathy; hyperuricemia (uric acid >8 mg/dL in
children and >10 mg/dL in adults). (ii) Disease-related factors
(cancers with a high and rapid response to anticancer therapy):
bulky disease (especially patients with bulky SCLC or concomitant massive liver metastases); metastatic germ cell tumor
(either gonadal or extragonadal); high-grade lymphomas (in
particular Burkitt’s lymphoma and T-cell lymphoblastic NHL);
acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adults and advanced T-cell
ALL in pediatric patients; elevated serum LDH (>2 upper normal limit). (iii) Therapy-related factors: intensive polychemotherapy including cisplatin, cytosine arabinoside, etoposide,
methotrexate.
The following evaluations should be made before starting
antineoplastic therapy: creatinine clearance (or estimated GFR)
and serum LDH levels in all patients, renal ultrasound in all
| 1880 | haematologica | 2008; 93(12)
Recommendations
TLS prophylaxis is recommended to all pediatric patients and
adult patients with hematologic malignancies undergoing
chemotherapy. Patients who experienced TLS during previous
The management of tumor lysis syndrome
ity). Blood cell count, serum LDH, albumin, serum osmolality,
blood gases and acid-base equilibrium, electrocardiogram, and
body weight should be assessed every 24 hours.
Which tumor lysis syndrome therapy?
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Clinical TLS is an emergency that can lead to death
or can severely impair the possibility of the patients
receiving an adequate cytotoxic therapy. It is thus
mandatory to achieve a rapid relief of all the symptoms
and a prompt correction of all the metabolic alterations
related to TLS. Urine alkalinization has traditionally
represented a cornerstone of TLS treatment as it increases uric acid solubility. However, it has some major
drawbacks, including increased precipitation of calcium
phosphate and reduced xanthine solubility.
Furthermore, alkalinization does not provide any
advantage in improving biochemical abnormalities of
TLS, therefore, its use has been progressively abandoned, particularly since the availability of rasburicase.52
Another controversial issue is the use of calcium gluconate: this measure is not recommended to correct
mild hypocalcemia as it leads to increased tissue and
renal precipitation of calcium phosphate. But it is a
potentially useful supportive therapy for hyperkalemiainduced cardiac arrhythmias.53
As regards the treatment of hyperuricemia, allopurinol can reduce the formation of uric acid but is not able
to degrade it, and this implies a significant delay in the
resumption of chemotherapy. Rasburicase affects a
rapid and complete degradation of uric acid to allantoin
thus potentially allowing a prompt continuation of
chemotherapy.7,8 No randomized study aimed at comparing rasburicase with allopurinol has so far been performed in adult patients with TLS. Several single-arm
either compassionate or phase I-II trials have shown
that this drug is active in reducing uric acid levels with
a favorable safety profile.54-57 Alternative schedules of
administration have been recently proposed; however,
only a small fraction of the reported patients presented
with metabolic abnormalities other than hyperuricemia,
so more data are needed to support the possible use of
these schedules even in overt TLS.58,59
Studies comparing rasburicase with allopurinol in the
treatment of pediatric patients with hyperuricemia due
to TLS have shown better results with rasburicase. In a
study by Bosly et al.,56 166 pediatric patients who had
leukemia (74%), lymphoma (24%), or solid tumors
(3%) were treated with rasburicase. Mean serum uric
acid level in 29 hyperuricemic children decreased from
15.1 to 0.4 mg/dL. In another study by Pession and
Barbieri,60 26 children with malignancy at risk of TLS
were submitted to treatment (group 1) or prophylaxis
(group 2) of acute hyperuricemia with rasburicase. The
drug significantly decreased serum uric acid in all
patients. Control of serum uric acid was obtained in
both groups within 24 hours of the first dose with a
response rate of 100% (group 1) and 93% (group 2). In
a study by Shin et al.,61 serum uric acid endpoint (≥7.0
mg/dL) was reached in 97.3% of the patients and serum
uric acid levels were significantly reduced in all patients
(p<0.001). In a randomized prospective trial, children
with hematologic malignancies at high risk of TLS
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therapy lines can potentially go through another episode and in
case salvage treatment needs to be started51 these patients are
thus candidates for prophylaxis. Patients with successful debulking of tumor mass and without end organ dysfunction secondary
to previous TLS do not seem to benefit from any prophylactic
measures once the offending condition(s) has been resolved.
It is suggested that nephrological consultation be taken before
starting therapy in cases with previous episodes of clinical TLS
before restarting therapy.
Low-risk pediatric and adult patients should receive oral
allopurinol, hydration and urine alkalinization.
High-risk patients should receive rasburicase and hydration in
an inpatient setting. At the end of the treatment with rasburicase,
patients should start receiving oral allopurinol. Rasburicase
should be administered at the dose of 0.20 mg/kg/day, infused
over 30 minutes, administering the first dose at least four hours
before the start of tumor-specific therapy and continuing for at
least 3-5 days. Application of lower doses of rasburicase for TLS
prophylaxis are still under evaluation. In order to avoid xanthine
accumulation and lack of substrate for rasburicase, concomitant
allopurinol should not be administered.
Allopurinol should be administered orally at the dose of 100
mg/m2 thrice daily (maximum 800 mg/day).
Rasburicase is contraindicated in patients with metahemoglobinemia, G6PDH deficiency or other metabolic disorders that
can potentially cause hemolytic anemia; these patents should be
treated with oral allopurinol, hydration and urine alkalinization.
When possible, hydration should start at least 48 hours before
tumor-specific therapy; however, the use of rasburicase with subsequent rapid degradation of uric acid allows earlier administration of chemotherapy, if needed. Urine output should be kept at
least 100 mL/hour in adults (3 mL/kg/hour in children <10 kg
body weight). The state of hydration is extremely important in
optimizing urine output. The measurement of urine osmolality
and fractional excretion of sodium may be helpful in defining the
hydration status. Loop diuretics may be required in order to
maintain this urine output, except for patients with concomitant
obstructive uropathy or hypovolemia. The hemodynamic status
and the hydration level of the patient should be checked before
loop diuretics should be used.
Unless other clinical conditions require urine alkalinization,
urines should not be alkalinized in patients who receive concomitant rasburicase therapy.
Which monitoring approach for tumor lysis syndrome?
No studies have been published investigating the best
monitoring approach and the appropriate related time
periods in patients at risk of TLS. The Panel provided
recommendations based on good clinical practice principles.
Recommendations
In patients at high risk of TLS, levels of LDH, uric acid,
sodium, potassium, creatinine, BUN, phosphorus and calcium
should be monitored every 12 hours for the first three days, and
every 24 hours subsequently.
In patients with TLS, the following parameters should be
monitored every six hours for the first 24 hours and daily subsequently: vital parameters (heart rate, blood pressure, urine
output, respiratory rate), serum uric acid level, serum electrolytes (phosphate, calcium, potassium), renal function (serum
creatinine, BUN, urine pH and osmolality, urine specific grav-
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Hydration through a central venous access and rasburicase
should be administrated to all patients with clinical TLS.
Hydration and rasburicase should also be administrated to
adults with laboratory TLS, children with high risk of TLS or
children with a rapid worsening of biochemical parameters of
TLS.
When possible, hydration should start at least 48 hours
before tumor-specific therapy; however, the use of rasburicase
with subsequent rapid degradation of uric acid allows earlier
administration of chemotherapy, if needed. Urine output
should be kept at least at 100 ml/hour (3 mL/kg/hour in children <10 kg body weight). Loop diuretics (or mannitol) may be
required in order to maintain this urine output, except for
patients with concomitant obstructive uropathy or hypovolemia.
The schedule and contraindications for rasburicase administration should be the same as those for prophylaxis. Mild
hyperphosphatemia (< 1.62 mmol/L) does not require treatment or can be treated with aluminum hydroxide at 50-100
mg/kg/day divided in 4 doses that can be administered orally
or by nasogastric tube.
Asymptomatic hypocalcemia does not require treatment. In
case of symptoms, such as tetany and seizures, a single dose of
calcium gluconate 50-100 mg/kg should be infused and cautiously repeated if necessary.
Mild (< 6mmol/L) asymptomatic hyperkalemia can be corrected with hydration, loop diuretics and sodium polystirene 1
g/kg either orally or by enema. For more severe hyperkalemia,
rapid insulin (0.1 units/kg) plus glucose (25% dextrose 2
mL/kg) is also suggested; further interventions include calcium
carbonate 100-200 mg/kg/dose and sodium bicarbonate to
stabilize myocardial cell membrane and to correct acidosis.
Careful ECG monitoring should be peformed in hyperkalemic
patients.
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Recommendations
purine by-products and to improve hyperphosphatemia,
hyperkalemia, and hypocalcemia associated with TLS.64
Oliguria due to acute uric acid nephropathy rapidly
responds to hemodialysis (HD) often restarting diuresis as
the plasma uric acid level falls to 10 mg/dL. Molecules,
such as uric acid and phosphate, are effectively removed
by diffusive therapy and intermittent hemodialysis (IHD).
In HD, uric acid clearance is approximately 70-100
mL/min and the plasma uric acid level falls by about 50%
with each 6-hour treatment. However, renal replacement
techniques have to be applied in TLS characterized not
only by sudden increase in uric acid but also by the presence of acid-base and electrolyte abnormalities and the
appearance of oliguria and extracellular fluid volume
overload. As well as the suggestion that daily HD may
provide an improved outcome in end-stage renal disease,
it is conceivable that more frequent dialysis treatments
may well improve the course of TLS with kidney damage. Apart from conventional HD, multiple therapy
modalities may be used in the management of TLS,
including peritoneal dialysis (PD), continuous renal
replacement therapies (CRRT), and new hybrid therapies,
such as sustained, low-efficiency dialysis and extended
daily dialysis. CRRT, as compared with IHD, are associated with a greater improvement in hemodynamic instability, azotemia and fluid overload control, as well as a better nutritional support. However, there are no studies
evaluating and comparing outcomes with IHD and CRRT
in TLS.
Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is seldom used in the management of TLS. The major drawback to the use of PD in TLS
is the lower efficiency of PD in removing solute and fluid
as compared with IHD and CRRT. This limits its usefulness in patients who require a significant solute removal
(uric acid, urea) and electrolytes (potassium, phosphate).
There are no data to compare conservative treatment
with pre-emptive dialysis and to develop reliable clinical
profiles for identifying patients at risk of developing renal
failure and subsequent complications. However,
decreased renal function with advanced age and associated co-morbidities (diabetes, cardio-vasculopathy) may be
responsible for a higher incidence of acute renal failure.
Fo
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(newly diagnosed ALL or stage III/IV NHL) were stratified and randomized to receive rasburicase or allopurinol.62 Results showed that the 27 patients who received
rasburicase had a significantly lower serum uric acid and
a significantly lower mean uric acid area under the curve
measured from 0 to 96 hours (128±70 mg/dL/hour vs.
329±129 mg/dL/hour; p<0.001).
As laboratory TLS implies the presence of at least 2
biochemical alterations among hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, hypocalcemia and hyperuricemia, treatment of laboratory TLS is superimposable to treatment
of clinical TLS.
When are dialytic procedures for tumor lysis syndrome appropriate?
The release of intracellular nucleic acids following
effective cytotoxic therapy results from the lysis of large
numbers of tumor cells and can produce high uric acid
concentrations that facilitate crystallization in the collecting ducts and the deep cortical and medullary vessels,
causing acute oliguric renal failure and anuria. Kidney
injury may be aggravated by the appearance of hyperphosphatemia.63 High serum phosphate concentrations
and calcium phosphate complexes deposited in the renal
interstitium and the tubular system are the possible
mechanisms exacerbating kidney damage. The early start
of renal replacement therapy has been advised to remove
| 1882 | haematologica | 2008; 93(12)
Recommendations
Indications for the start-up of renal replacement therapy in
TLS include persistent hyperkalemia, severe metabolic acidosis, volume overload unresponsive to diuretic therapy, and overt
uremic symptoms, including pericarditis and severe
encephalopathy.
Dialysis may be initiated “prophylactically” before the
development of overt uremic symptoms in response to severe,
progressive hyperphosphatemia (>6 mg/dL) or severe symptomatic hypocalcemia.
The appropriate timing for this criterion remains unresolved.
Frequent (daily) dialyses are recommended considering the
continuous release into the bloodstream of purine-products,
potassium, and other metabolites and electrolytes resulting
from lysed tumor cells. The timing of dialysis and the dialysis
dose should be linked to the purine generation rate.
Potential indications for CRRT in patients with TLS include
the appearance of pulmonary edema, maintaining fluid balance, facilitating the delivery of nutritional therapy, improving
The management of tumor lysis syndrome
Pharmaco-economic issues
Although TLS is a rare event, occurring in 5-20% of
cancer patients,11,12,43-45 it represents a serious complication
that can potentially lead to death. It is, therefore, mandatory for the treating physician to recognize risk factors,
and to set up prophylaxis and treatment of TLS in order
to offer patients the opportunity to receive an adequate
therapy for their neoplasm. This issue is particularly
important for pediatric patients who in up to 70% of the
cases can be cured with appropriate chemotherapy regimens.
The existing scientific literature on the management of
TLS does not provide strong evidence-based recommendations on diagnosis, risk stratification, prophylaxis,
monitoring and therapy. In this work, experts of the field
judged whether the body of evidence was sufficient to
provide any recommendation in a decision process
grounded on the concept that the relative benefit-to-risk
balance of any decision results from a partially subjective
process. As a consequence, consensus was a critical part
of the present recommendation production. This document was mainly based upon the experience and knowledge of experts in the field co-ordinated by the methods
of group decision.
As regards prophylaxis, the present recommendations
were aimed at increasing physician awareness of risk factors associated with TLS and of the most appropriate
measures to avoid the occurrence of overt TLS. The most
obvious limitation of these recommendations was the
small number of literature reports on solid tumors and on
the occurrence of TLS on targeted therapy, i.e. using novel
drugs that are highly tumor-specific. This latter issue
should, therefore, be considered a topic for further
research.
In the context of recommendations for TLS therapy, the
use of dialytic procedures was analyzed and discussed,
and this issue is relatively new when compared to the
existing literature in the field. It was not intended as a
substitute for nephrology consultation but it has the purpose of making the treating physician aware of these
measures in order to improve patients’ outcome.
Finally, the most appropriate use of the available drugs
aimed at reducing hyperuricemia, allopurinol and rasburicase, was discussed both in prophylaxis and in a therapeutic setting, and an analysis of pharmaco-economic
issues was also performed. Rasburicase is the drug of
choice for TLS therapy and for TLS prophylaxis in highrisk patients, while allopurinol should be administered for
prophylaxis in low-risk patients and in case of metabolic
contraindication to rasburicase.
Evaluation of different dosing and schedules of rasburicase administration should be considered another topic
for further research.
©
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ta
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Intravenous rasburicase is approved in the US and the
EU for the management of acute hyperuricemia in pediatric patients and adult patients (in the EU only) with
hematologic malignancies or solid tumors who are at risk
of anticancer therapy induced TLS and elevated plasma
uric acid concentrations. The pharmaco-economics of rasburicase and its administration has been considered in
relation to that of allopurinol. A secondary economic
evaluation assessed the cost-effectiveness of intravenous
rasburicase based on a retrospective review of data from
charts of pediatric and adult patients with acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia or non-Hodgkin’s
lymphoma in the UK, the Netherlands, Spain and
Belgium.65,66 Health care resource-related costs attributable to treatment include medications, interventions, consultations, laboratory monitoring, imaging, and hospitalization.65-67 The cost of hyperuricemia and TLS were calculated from the health care payer perspective-based
resource use, and the cost of rasburicase treatment was
based on the average treatment duration (3-4 days) and
body weight of patients in the compassionate-use programs. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs)
for prevention and treatment of hyperuricemia and TLS
with rasburicase were calculated per life-year saved (LYS)
considering costs, probability of development of hyperuricemia and TLS, and the percentage of these conditions
prevented by rasburicase. Rates of 100% and 90% were
assumed for preventions of TLS and hyperuricemia with
rasburicase. A threshold of 31,600 euros (€) per LYS was
considered acceptable. Rasburicase was highly cost-effective for prevention of TLS and hyperuricemia in children
(ICER between €425 and €3054 per LYS) regardless of the
malignancy. Treatment of TLS and hyperuricemia with
rasburicase in children was cost-saving (i.e. less costly and
more effective than allopurinol). In adults, the cost-effectiveness of rasburicase for prevention of TLS and hyperuricemia depended on the malignancy (ICER between
€23,794 and €101,734 per LYS), whereas the cost-effectiveness of treatment of these conditions appeared to be
independent of the malignancy. The ICERs of rasburicase
for prevention or treatment of TLS were influenced by
variables such as the life expectancy of patients incidence
and percentage of TLS cases that were avoided with rasburicase treatment. Rasburicase was less cost-effective
when there was a lower incidence of TLS.
Many pharmaco-economic issues remain to be solved.
Studies that determine the cost-effectiveness of the treatment in patients at intermediate risk of TLS, e.g. acute
myeloid leukemia or non-B-cell ALL, are lacking and this
could be tackled by a randomized study.
Discussion
at
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gas-exchange in ARDS patients and removing inflammatory
mediators in sepsis and MOF patients.
Potential candidates for CRRT are hemodynamically unstable patients, as CRRT can be more safely performed due to a
diminished tendency to exacerbate hypotension.
In centers unequipped to perform CRRT, long-duration daily
dialysis may be a good alternative in patients with cardiovascular instability.
Peritoneal dialysis should be reserved for situations where
other therapy modalities are unavailable.
Authorship and Disclosures
Two chairmen (ST and GB) appointed the Expert
Panel (EP) that included 5 hematologists (PT, VL, EM,
PLZ and the same ST), 1 pediatrician (AP), 1 oncologist
haematologica | 2008; 93(12) | 1883 |
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