1. health and fitness
2. disease
3. cancer

Reflexology and cancer
by Nicola Ramirez, MFHT, MICHT, MPACT
Nicola Ramirez investigates the potential benefits of reflexology for cancer
patients, drawing upon information from published research papers to
supplement her own preliminary study.
Abstract
The objective of this study is to investigate the ways in which reflexology may
benefit cancer patients. I will identify any factors during a reflexology session that
may be involved in providing possible benefits to patients and explore the
reasons for their efficacy. Reflexology treatments will be given to six patients,
with cancer of various types and degrees of severity, over a six-week period. I
will track the progress of each patient over the six weeks, assessing whether
there have been any noted benefits through a combination of information gained
from conversations with patients and the use of thematic analysis. If the results
are not conclusive, it is nevertheless possible to appreciate that this study has
contributed to an area of research that is currently under-represented. ‘The
urgent need for more research into complementary and alternative medicine has
been highlighted by the House of Lords’ Select Committee on Science and
Technology. There are thought to be up to 50,000 complementary practitioners in
the UK, yet this is not reflected in the number of researchers, research projects
undertaken or published reports’ (The Prince of Wales 2002). If the outcome of
this study is positive, it has the potential of increasing awareness of the
usefulness of reflexology in palliative care, contributing to its increased
availability within NHS hospices, and ultimately ensuring that patients are given
the option of utilising its benefits or not.
Introduction
The idea for this dissertation developed from my time working as a reflexologist
at an NHS hospice, where I was treating patients suffering from cancer. The
feedback that I received from those patients was highly positive, with most cases
reporting deep relaxation experienced during and after treatment and an overall
reduction in feelings of stress. In some cases, the easing of depression,
improved sleeping patterns, and increased energy levels were also reported.
Despite my own observations, I occasionally encountered a seemingly dismissive
attitude from some of the doctors towards reflexology’s strength as a valid
therapy, labelling it ‘just a foot massage’. Even if reflexology is nothing more than
a foot massage, based on my experience there is enough anecdotal evidence to
warrant further investigation into reflexology’s potential to benefit cancer patients.
A range of theories exist that attempt to explain how reflexology works, although
none of them, as yet, have enough scientific evidence to support their claims.
What we can say however is that reflexology is the application of pressure onto
specific points of the feet, which are thought to correspond to organs and
systems of the body. It is also said to be ‘a powerful system of healthcare, useful
for achieving and maintaining health and enhancing well-being, and for relieving
symptoms or causes of illness and disease. It is expounded as a means of
maintaining homeostasis, aiding relaxation and triggering the body’s own innate
self-healing capacity’ (Lett 2000).
The nerve impulse theory (Bliss & Bliss 2000) states that by applying pressure to
the foot, an impulse is triggered through the afferent neurons, which reaches the
brain via the ganglia and spinal cord. Impulses are then returned to the muscle
groups via the motor neurons, ganglia and spinal cord. Reflexology is seen as
working indirectly on the muscles through massage of the feet, assisting the
targeted muscle groups in an anti-spasmodic manner, subsequently helping the
individual towards a state of relaxation.
The meridian theory is based on the ancient Chinese system of subtle energy
flow, which states that energy runs through the body in channels (meridians)
from head to toes. In a balanced, healthy state, this energy flows unimpeded
through the meridians, but illness, stress, or imbalance can cause the energy
flow to become blocked, sluggish or excessive. It is believed that reflexology can
help restore equilibrium by stimulating or reducing the energy, and unblocking
any stagnating energy (Crane 1997).
Other theories include the gate control theory, which is a means of explaining
pain control such as transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS).
‘Reflexology may work similarly to a TENS machine, relieving or suppressing
pain impulses. This may be similar to the impact of any touch therapy, for it is
known that touch impulses reach the brain before pain impulses, thereby
effectively ‘shutting the gate’ to the perception of pain’ (Mackereth & Tiran 2002).
As a qualified reflexologist, with training in anatomy and physiology, I work
according to the understanding that the systems and organs of the body are
represented in miniature on the feet. By applying pressure to certain parts of the
feet called reflexes, I am aware of the corresponding body part I am potentially
accessing, and adapt my treatments according to individual needs. For example,
if I am treating a client with polycystic ovaries, I would concentrate on the
reproductive system reflexes in an attempt to regulate hormone production, but
conversely if I were treating a client who is less than three months pregnant, I
would avoid the reproductive reflexes for fear of over-stimulation, potentially
resulting in a miscarriage.
Due to professional ethics, I would never claim to be able to cure any condition,
and while I inform patients of the existing theories of reflexology, I also state that
there is no definitive explanation as yet. But based on the anecdotal evidence I
have encountered, I propose that reflexology may benefit cancer patients by
providing the time and space in which they can relax, and are able to discuss
their fears and concerns, all of which can help to reduce stress and enable a
greater degree of optimism.
Literature review
In this section, I am going to examine studies that are relevant to the above
proposition that reflexology may be beneficial to cancer patients through its ability
to induce relaxation and create a non-confrontational space in which they can
discuss any problems, which may help to ease stress and increase positivity.
A study conducted by Hodgson (2000) examined whether reflexology had an
impact on cancer patients’ quality of life by using randomised control trial (RCT)
methodology, which ‘involves the random allocation of different interventions (or
treatments) to subjects’ (Wikipedia 2008). Twelve cancer patients in the palliative
care stage of their disease were randomly divided into two groups: the
experimental group receiving reflexology treatment, and the control group
receiving foot massage, which did not involve the stimulation of foot reflex points.
Results were collected by the use of a visual analogue scale (VAS), which was
used prior to, and following treatment, but it is not specified in the study which
questions were asked or how the scale was graded.
It is just stated that the VAS was used to help gain the information necessary to
answer the question: ‘do patients report any impact on their quality of life after
receiving reflexology?’ (Hodgson 2000). By omitting this information, an insight
into the method Hodgson used to derive results was not as clear as was
possible. Although lacking in this area, Hodgson does present the study’s results
in a concise manner: 100 per cent of the reflexology group reported an
improvement in quality of life (QOL); 33 per cent of the control group reported an
increase in QOL; and 100 per cent of all participants found the intervention to be
relaxing.
Below is a copy of the results table from Hodgson’s study. I have highlighted in
bold the QOL components that were improved by the control group’s foot
massage:
PLACEBO
(n=6)
CHANGE
FREQUENCY
Appearance
0
Appetite
1
Breathing
1
Concentration 2
Constipation 1
Diarrhoea
1
Fear of Future 2
Isolation
0
Mobility
1
Mood
2
Nausea
0
Pain
1
Sleep
3
Tiredeness
1
PER CENT
0
17
17
33
17
17
33
0
17
33
0
17
50
17
REFLEX
(n=6)
FREQUENCY
5
3
5
4
4
3
4
2
2
2
1
4
4
4
PER CENT
83
50
83
67
67
50
67
33
33
33
17
67
67
67
Looking at this table, we can see that 11 out of 14 QOL components improved in
the placebo group. This suggests that there may be some factors other than
reflexology contributing to the amelioration of the patients’ QOL.
Thirty-three per cent of the control group reporting increased QOL is a significant
number, and certainly worthy of further investigation. By examining how
reflexology could benefit cancer patients, I may be able to potentially highlight the
other factors that have contributed to the improvement of QOL in the control
group.
Another interesting and relevant study, Use of Reflexology Foot Massage to
reduce Anxiety in Hospitalised Cancer Patients in Chemotherapy Treatment
(Quattrin et al 2006) used reflexology as a relaxation intervention to investigate
its usefulness in controlling side-effects of chemotherapy, such as
nausea/vomiting and anxiety. A sample of 30 patients was used, and similarly to
Hodgson’s study, half were randomly assigned to a control group and half to the
experimental group. Patient anxiety levels were measured using a Speilberger
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), which consists of the following levels: not at
all, somewhat, moderately so, and very much so. This was completed before and
after the treatment, and worked on the basis that a higher score indicates a
higher level of anxiety.
Before treatment, anxiety scores for the experimental and control group were
55.7 and 57.1 respectively, and after treatment they were 47.7 and 56.3, so we
can see there was a decrease in anxiety post intervention in both groups. ‘This
result was consistent with the findings of other previous studies that verified the
efficacy of relaxation measures to reduce anxiety levels related to chemotherapy.
Relaxation techniques are thought to reduce people’s anxiety… and enhance a
patient’s sense of well-being’ (Quattrin et al 2006). These positive results
suggested that reflexology is useful in aiding relaxation, which in turn helps to
reduce anxiety. Although this is a useful study, it is limited because Quattrin et al
have not detailed what kind of intervention the control group received, but have
merely stated that ‘the experimental subjects received therapeutic massage
whereas the control patients did not’ (Quattrin et al 2006). From the lack of
specification, one can only assume that the control group did not receive an
intervention of any kind, so although there was improvement in this group’s
anxiety levels, we are unable to attribute it to anything. The fact that this study
has referred to reflexology as ‘reflexology foot massage’ indicates their
awareness of reflexology’s usefulness also as a massage.
According to Stress & Cancer (2008), ‘regular massage is an effective way of
lowering cortisol levels and has countless benefits, including an improved state of
mind and an overall sense of well-being. During a massage, the mind sends
signals to the nervous system to completely relax the entire body at a very deep
level. This results in a significant lowering of stress hormone cortisol levels.’
Cortisol is a stress hormone, which has been linked to suppression of the
immune system, and the development of cancer (Stress & Cancer 2008),
therefore reducing levels of cortisol in the bodies of cancer patients can be seen
as an important factor. ‘The practice of massage to lower stress hormone cortisol
levels and restore adrenaline levels was further validated when it became the
cornerstone of a new program at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center,
generally considered to be one of the world's top-ranked cancer hospitals. It is
critical for the cancer patient to lower stress hormone cortisol levels within their
body in order for their immune system to recover and to restore adrenaline levels
to normal to prevent new cancer cell mutations’ (Cancer & Stress 2008).
In the study, Optimistic Personality and Psychosocial Well-being During
Treatment Predict Psychosocial Well-Being Among Long-Term Survivors of
Breast Cancer, Carver et al attempted to show a possible link between cancer
survivors disposition and the level of their well-being. They said ‘it seems very
likely that psychosocial variables play a major role in predicting long-term wellbeing, just as they do in short-term well-being. Identifying such variables would
seem to be an important priority’ (Carver et al 2005).
This research examined optimistic versus pessimistic personality traits to
determine how they may influence well-being in cancer patients. It was a
longitudinal study that provided a follow-up on three similar studies that had been
carried out on survivors of breast cancer. The study re-recruited 20, 22 and 20
women respectively from the original 70, 68 and 64 women. Outcome was
measured using a QOL questionnaire, and a three-point scale questionnaire
based around the question: ‘to what extent do you believe that you will remain
free of cancer in the future?’ This was answered with: absolutely sure I won’t get
cancer again; I don’t know; and not at all confident—I expect to get cancer again.
The results showed that pessimism in the first year post-surgery predicted
pessimism and lower QOL at follow-up, and conversely optimism post-surgery
predicted optimism and higher levels of QOL at follow up. ‘The importance of this
trait has been shown in several health-related contexts. As a broad sense of
confidence, optimism keeps people engaged in efforts toward desired goals,
resulting in better behavioral outcomes and more adaptive coping. Optimism has
also predicted lower distress in many populations, including breast cancer
patients studied during the time surrounding diagnosis and through the next year.
We predicted that optimism would similarly predict better well-being in the long
term’ (Carver et al 2005).
From the above study, it appears that having an optimistic outlook can improve
QOL, and subsequently to could be considered useful to utilise an intervention
for cancer patients that could help promote a sense of optimism. I will investigate
if, as per my proposition, reflexology could be such an intervention.
Being diagnosed with cancer can be a huge shock to an individual and can signal
the beginning of dramatic life changes, both physically and mentally/emotionally.
The individual has to cope with either a rapid physical decline, resulting in death,
or the gruelling process of treatment for cancer (radiotherapy, chemotherapy or
medication), which frequently causes negative physical reactions such as loss of
hair and/or sickness. ‘The diagnosis of cancer itself produces physiological and
psychological pain, it produces pain and shock, sometimes experienced
simultaneously (Goldie 2005).
We must also consider the possible lifestyle changes, such as having to give up
work, and giving up/limiting interests and activities. Relationships may cease or
the dynamics of them may change. All of these factors are likely to cause a
change in identity, and/or a fragmented sense of self. ‘Loss of identity is thought
to be central to the experience of enduring illness. Identity loss derives from both
internal recognition (subjective or experienced) and external reaction, when, for
example family carers change their attitudes and behaviours towards the affected
individuals’ (Gillies & Johnson 2004).
Identity loss may be a major problem for those with cancer, as suggested by
Gillies & Johnson’s study, Identity Loss and Maintenance: Commonality of
Experience in Cancer and Dementia. This study attempted to show a link
between identity loss and long-term illness, using cancer and dementia as
examples. For the purposes of this literature review, I will be focusing on what
the results demonstrated for those suffering with cancer.
Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 16 participants; all with
advanced cancer. The interviews were audio-taped, transcribed and analysed
using the Grounded Theory approach. The results showed that the sufferer may
experience a sense of ‘role erosion’ as their previously-held roles, such as
breadwinner, mother or father, are abandoned due to their illness. Their role
within the family became less central as they became more dependent; ‘a patient
with cancer described the changing role she experienced in her family from being
the matriarch around whom things revolved, to being someone who now needed
to be watched and looked after’ (Gillies & Johnson 2004). They saw themselves
as burdens, who had no more social value, yet it seems they employed methods
to retain a link with their identity. ‘Both cancer and dementia respondents
appeared to reclaim their identity through references to an earlier life where pride
in one’s achievements provided a contrast to their current, increasingly frequent
reminders of decline’ (Gillies & Johnson 2004).
A misconception of cancer is that it is incurable, so we must consider that for
many receiving such a diagnosis, they are absorbing the shock of what they
perceive to be a ‘death sentence’. Whatever the individual circumstances, there
is undoubtedly going to be some stress experienced by the person trying to cope
with having cancer. It could be suggested that discussing worries and fears may
help to reduce the individual’s stress. A study by Boudioni et al (2000) aimed to
investigate the effectiveness of The Cancer Bacup London Counselling Service,
which is a local counselling service for those with cancer. If the results showed
that the clients were gaining benefit from the service, they were considering
extending it from a local service to a national one. They sent 309 clients an
evaluation form and 142 responded. The form contained fixed choice questions
whereby client’s views were to be given on a four-point scale, and open-ended
questions asking clients to express if they felt the service had helped them, and if
there was anything they would change. The forms were then analysed using
qualitative analysis, with the results showing that ‘the great majority of clients
who returned forms felt that they had benefited’. They also revealed that 90 per
cent of the clients indicated that their emotional health had improved and 84 per
cent stated that the reason they had gone to counselling in the first place had
been dealt with. Overall, this study elicited positive results, and suggested that
counselling is useful for those with cancer. I have included a study on cancer and
counselling in this literature review because I propose that a reflexology session
creates a relaxed environment that may encourage the patient to discuss any
problems or worries.
From the first two studies in the literature review, it seems that there may be
something other than reflexology itself that is benefiting cancer patients. From
anecdotal evidence obtained from cancer patients I have previously given
reflexology treatments to, I suspect that these benefits may be associated with
the environment created during a reflexology session that is conducive to
relaxation. This allows the patient to talk about any worries they have, which may
subsequently aid stress relief and improve mental disposition. There appears to
be a lack of studies on reflexology promoting optimism, and reflexology as a
talking therapy, hence my inclusion of studies on cancer and optimism, and
cancer and counselling, for they have provided a point of discussion that I may
not have been able to include in my study otherwise.
After conducting an extensive search through various medical journals and
complementary therapy journals for studies on reflexology and cancer, it is
apparent that they tend to predominantly use randomised controlled trials
(RCTs). The use of this type of methodology appears to be prevalent because
these studies are specifically trying to prove the usefulness of reflexology as a
therapeutic intervention. According to Lewith et al, this methodology is the
appropriate choice when aiming for such an outcome, because ‘an RCT answers
one particular question and this question is always related to the specific efficacy
of a particular intervention on a particular outcome, over and above the
contextual effects of the treatment in general or in comparison to another
treatment’ (Lewith et al 2002). My study appears to be unique in that it is of a
more investigative nature. I will be looking at the beneficial factors surrounding
reflexology, and therefore this methodology would not elicit the type of results I
am aiming for. Having identified this distinct difference between my study and the
ones that I have encountered, I will devise my methodology accordingly.
Methodology
As cancer patients are considered ‘sensitive subjects’, I was concerned about the
possibility of having my proposal turned down by both the hospice and the
university ethics committee. A discussion with the relevant person at the hospice
resulted in an agreement that if my research did not cause me to depart from the
usual procedure of a reflexology session, then approval could be given. On
seeking ethical approval from the university, my proposal was initially refused
due to the ‘sensitive subject’ issue. However, I then received agreement when I
clarified that there would not be any changes in the delivery of care in order to
conform to an experimental design. I discarded my initial plan to use interviewing
techniques, and conversational analysis, having decided that I could gain
sufficient data from naturally occurring conversations between the patients and I,
coupled with information from the patients files. Working within such a limited
framework, I concluded that thematic analysis would enable me to get the best
out of my data. ‘Through its theoretical freedom, thematic analysis provides a
flexible and useful research tool, which can potentially provide a rich and
detailed, yet complex account of data’ (Braun & Clarke 2006).
Methods
Participant requirement included a diagnosis of cancer, for which the individual
was either attending the hospice as a daycare patient, or was on one of the
wards as an inpatient. I wanted to use both outpatients and inpatients for my
study, as I wanted to investigate whether reflexology could help participants with
cancers of varying severities. This supposition was based on my initial
misunderstanding of the conditions under which a patient is admitted onto the
wards. I thought it was only for terminal care, which would provide participants
with severe symptoms, but terminal care is only one of four criteria for admission
as an inpatient. The other criteria include symptom control, respite, and
rehabilitation. Regardless, it was possible to use any patient, at any stage of their
illness to determine if reflexology provides benefits. To be eligible for
participation, outpatients were not to be receiving any other form of
complementary therapy, which could potentially interfere with the results,
whereas it was felt that because inpatients can be very unwell, it would be unfair
to deny them any other available treatments so they may also have been
receiving massage and/or healing.
I had hoped to enrol four outpatients and two inpatients to participate in my
study, as six is the maximum number of reflexology sessions I could feasibly give
in one day. The procedure for obtaining participants was different for outpatients,
and inpatients. A member of the day therapy unit (DTU) informed outpatients that
they could sign up to a reflexology course of one treatment a week for six weeks
if they so wished. If a patient chose to sign up for a course they in return
contacted the DTU and booked in their first session. Inpatients were informed by
the nurses on the wards that reflexology was available to them, and those
interested had their name added to a board in the office. This system worked well
because I could turn up on the ward, check the board and immediately treat the
patients listed without having to confer with anyone, which helped to save time.
At the initial point of contact, patients were not informed of my research to
prevent any discouragement from signing up for treatment, and as the primary
concern lies with the patients’ well-being, we did not want them to miss out on
the opportunity for treatments. It was agreed that I would ask patients if they
would take part in my study once they were in the treatment room, enabling an
explanation of the study face-to-face. If the patient agreed, I asked them to sign a
consent form, which had been modified from its original format to include a brief
summary of the intention of the study.
Prior to seeing a patient for the first time, I made sure I was quite informed
regarding their illness, and their psychosocial situation by reading relevant
sections of their medical file, and speaking to either the DTU manager or one of
the ward nurses. Subsequently, I was aware of the patient’s diagnosis; any
treatment they were receiving; how their illness was responding to treatment; any
symptoms (tiredness, pain, sickness, etc) they were experiencing due to the
cancer or treatment; their psychosocial situation, for example, depression or
anxiety; or any relationship problems, i.e. between the client and their family.
During the initial meeting with a patient, similarly to a usual reflexology session, I
introduced myself, talked about reflexology, and asked the patient how they were
feeling and if there was anything they wanted me to know. Having these
conversations prior to treatment helped the patient to feel comfortable, as well as
potentially providing further background information. I kept the consultation as
similar to the usual reflexology treatment procedure, and avoided interviewing
patients or asking any intrusive questions. Instead, I took notes on the naturally
occurring conversations that took place between the patients and I.
During each treatment, the patient lay down on the treatment couch as I worked
on their feet. I began with a foot massage, before proceeding to work through all
the reflex points, concentrating on any areas that felt cold or congested. Every
patient is different: some liked to talk throughout the session, whether that be
regarding their illness, how they felt, or completely unrelated chit-chat; others
preferred to enjoy the treatment by relaxing in silence. For outpatients, the
session usually lasted 45 minutes, and for inpatients, I usually worked on them
for 15 minutes due to their more fragile state of health. After the session, I asked
the patients how they felt, which provided a good opportunity for me to gain
information about any responses to the treatment. I added notes to the patient’s
medical file, as well as to my own comprehensive client records; the latter
providing the information that formed the data for my analysis.
Findings
Unfortunately, my results were incomplete, as three patients did not attend the
full six-week course. Patient A forgot about sessions three and four, and was
suffering from severe oral pain during sessions five and six and did not feel like
attending. Chemotherapy can cause the teeth to rot, and as she was in her third
cycle of chemo, it seems likely she may have been experiencing these symptoms
as a side effect.
Patient E had bowel cancer, which was causing abdomen pain that could not be
managed at home. The pain subsided to a manageable degree after two weeks
and she was able to return home.
Patient F had been admitted as an inpatient to get some respite from her
stressful home situation for two weeks; her eight-year-old daughter was not
coping with her mother’s illness very well, and was displaying rebellious
tendencies that were hard to manage.
Regardless, from the data gathered and through the use of inductive thematic
analysis, ‘which reports experiences, meanings and the reality of participants’
(Braun & Clarke 2006), I have still been able to achieve the aim of my research:
an investigation into reflexology’s potential benefit to cancer patients. My results
suggest that reflexology did seem to bring benefit to the six study participants,
even if that was just through the relaxation they experienced for the duration of
the session.
In light of my limited data, thematic analysis as a ‘method for identifying,
analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data’ has proven a highly useful
tool. The process of organising my data based on the principles of thematic
analysis involved searching my data for information relating to my research
question, such as comments made by the participants about the reflexology
treatment, comments on how they felt, or any complaints they may have had.
This selected information formed the ‘data set’, from which I searched for
prevalent, relevant pieces of data or ‘themes’. ‘A theme captures something
important about the data in relation to the research question, and represents
some patterned response or meaning within the data set’ (Braun & Clarke 2006).
I initially identified six key themes: cancer; reflexology; medication; relaxation;
talking; and positivity, and multiple sub-themes. I narrowed these down to the two
key themes of relaxing and talking, and the five sub-themes: positive outlook;
improvement in physical symptoms; stress relief; cathartic release; and identity.
These are evident in the thematic map below:
As can be seen from the thematic map, relaxation is one of the main themes. All
six patients reported that they felt relaxed after their reflexology treatments,
which seemed to help them on other levels. Patient A commented that he
believed the relaxation was helping to counteract his stress levels (sub-theme).
He was going through a particularly stressful time, as a second tumour had just
been found, indicating his current medication was not working and that doctors
would have to try him on something different. Despite this, he said that he did not
feel too stressed or worried, and in fact was feeling very positive (sub-theme):
‘I’ve been feeling really chilled considering. I feel so relaxed after I see you, and it
kinda seems to stay with me for a few days. It [reflexology] has definitely helped
my stress levels, and I would say I feel more positive as well’. Patient A also
reported an improvement in sleeping patterns: ‘I usually take a sleeping pill about
four nights a week, but now you mention it, I haven’t been taking that many since
the reflexology, and I’m sleeping well’. It appeared evident from Patient A’s
comments that there has also been an improvement in one aspect of this
patient’s physical symptoms (sub-theme).
Patient D also experienced an improvement in physical symptoms. Due to his
medication, his food was not digested properly, which causeed constipation.
However, after reflexology, he found the constipation had eased: ‘it must have
been the reflexology, because not long after, I went to the toilet and it was fine’.
Patient C is an inpatient with breast cancer that had spread to her brain. The
secondary tumour was causing problems with her memory, which subsequently
made conversations difficult as she had difficulty recalling words. It was a
frustrating experience for her, as she struggled to remember the words she
wanted to use. She could become quite uptight and tense in the process, but
found that reflexology helped: ‘I feel myself more relaxed and it’s a little easier for
me to get the word’.
Patient C also mentioned feeling more positive after reflexology: ‘feeling nice
helps me feel positive’. She believed being positive was a very important state of
being, which I will discuss in greater depth in the ‘Discussion’ section.
I also discovered that a lot of the participants found talking to be a great help to
them, so I felt it was relevant to categorise talking as a key theme. Patient B
talked excessively throughout the sessions, and had a tendency to repeat herself
a lot. The content of the dialogue was regarding her dissatisfaction with the
medical consultants, as she felt they did not give her the time to listen to what
she had to say. She repeatedly told me in her first two sessions that she was
displeased with their decision not to operate on her tumour, and wanted to get a
second opinion. She commented: ‘I feel so much better; it is like I’ve just been to
counselling’. Her reflexology sessions provided her with a time to talk about her
worries, providing a cathartic release (sub-theme).
As previously mentioned, Patient C was for the most part bed-bound and towards
the end of the six weeks she was completely blind, so she found the opportunity
to talk hugely beneficial. During our sessions, she liked to reminisce and talk
about the life she used to lead: her job; the travelling she did; and all about the
places she visited. Through talking, she was able to remember times when she
was happy and had led a full life; and provided her with the chance to remember
her identity (sub-theme) before she was sick.
We can also see this at play with Patient D, who also used the time during our
session to talk. He had approximately two months to live due to his aggressive
pancreatic cancer, and his left foot had been amputated due to gangrene. He
was physically reliant on other people, but before he became ill he was very
successful, working in a senior position for a well-known software company. His
identity had taken a dramatic new form, and being able to talk about his other
‘self’ seemed to serve the important function of enabling the merging of his old
and new identity.
As a final note, I would like to add that all participants reported that they felt
relaxed either during or after (or both) their session; five participants felt that the
session improved their mood; and four participants felt that their stress levels
were reduced.
Discussion
Stress can be a major problem affecting those with cancer, whereby ‘the
diagnosis, treatment and course of cancer are almost universally viewed as
extremely stressful’ (Cooper 1991). Stress can have a detrimental effect on an
already compromised immune system (Stress & Cancer 2008), thus it is certainly
an unwanted element in the experience of cancer. As stress can originate from a
wide range of factors associated with cancer, a multi-disciplinary approach may
be considered the most useful in attempting to eradicate a cancer patient’s
stress. The medical field is undoubtedly necessary from the point of diagnosis,
through to recovery, or death, providing patients with support, advice and
important interventions, such as chemotherapy and surgery, in the fight against
cancer.
However, it may also be important to consider that ‘the medical doctor examines
the body and, from the combination of symptoms and signs, diagnoses the
condition and its relationship to symptoms of other known diseases. In this
process of medical diagnosis, the doctor moves away from consideration of the
particular individual to the general process of disease. In short, the doctor is not
concerned with how the individual feels or thinks but how the disease performs.
With cancer patients, on whom the disease makes a devastating psychological
impression, physical treatment and palliation can only do so much’ (Goldie 2005).
There seems to be a need for the inclusion of some form of non-medical
interventions, so it is my aim in this section to discuss reflexology as a nonmedical intervention, and detail how it could provide benefits to cancer patients
that may be lacking from the medical arena.
Conversations with the participants of my study suggest that the main stressors
are related to their treatment and medication, as seen with patient A. She was on
her third cycle of chemotherapy, and after each dose she was put on steroids for
the following three days. She was experiencing not only the physical illness
caused by chemo, but was also suffering from mood swings, irritability,
depression, difficulty sleeping, tiredness, and flu-like symptoms. She was also
going through the actual process of receiving treatment, such as chemotherapy,
which was intrusive and unpleasant. In the case of Patient B, the discovery of a
secondary tumour made it clear that his current cancer medication was not
working, and it was decided he would have to try other medication in the hope of
finding something that works. Patient B’s response to this was: ‘well, that last
medication gave me another two years so I hope the next one works otherwise
there’s nothing else’. He is living with the knowledge that this new medication
determines whether he does continue to live or not. Stress from family
relationships was also prevalent: Patient A and Patient F were concerned about
being reliant on their daughter and partner respectively, while Patient F was also
stressed about her young daughter not coping very well with her mother’s illness.
Looking at these stressors, we can observe that they are things that the
individual has no control over. It seems control, or lack of, is the main factor that
makes stress harmful, for ‘our sense of control over what is happening to us is
critical. When we feel in control, stress becomes the spice of life, a challenge
instead of a threat. When we lack this crucial sense of control, stress can spell
crisis – bad news for us, and our health’ (Cooper 1996).
Studies have shown that stress can inhibit immune system function, and ‘the
longer the stress, the more the immune system shifted from the adaptive
changes seen in the fight or flight response to more negative changes, first at the
cellular level and later in broader immune function. The most chronic stressors –
those that seem beyond a person’s control or appears endless – resulted in the
most global suppression of immunity. Almost all measures of immune system
function dropped across the board’ (Mental Health 2008).
Considering the already compromised immune system of the cancer patient due to the cancer itself, and/or any treatment they might be receiving – we can
acknowledge their need to boost immune function. I have suggested throughout
this study that reflexology may be a useful intervention for cancer patients on
several levels; one of which being its capacity to possibly reduce stress through
inducing relaxation. As all participants in Hodgson’s study found reflexology to be
relaxing, I expected the same response from the participants in my study, as was
the case (see the ‘findings’ section), but through which means did reflexology
create these feelings of relaxation? I propose that it was through the application
of massage techniques on the feet. Massage is seen as a useful relaxation aid,
as ‘during a massage, the mind sends signals to the nervous system to
completely relax the entire body at a very deep level. This results in a significant
lowering of stress hormone cortisol levels’ (Stress & Cancer 2008).
A study conducted by Gruber et al (1988) examined patients who were involved
in relaxation interventions, such as guided relaxation and imagery exercises over
the period of a year. The research revealed ‘several changes in measures of
immune system function drawn from blood samples, and psychological measures
from the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) and Rotter’s Test
for locus of control, were found to parallel the use of relaxation and imagery. The
researchers concluded that relaxation and imagery can influence immune
responsiveness (Cooper 1991). The ‘lowered immune defenses clearly
predispose to the development of malignancy, and conversely, heightened
immune resistance is presumed to provide protection’ (Cooper 1996). The study
by Gruber et al suggests that relaxation can improve immune system function,
and by acknowledging this study’s participants’ claims that reflexology made
them feel relaxed, it seems the therapy could be utilised to help cancer patients’
immune function via its ability to induce relaxation.
Another area in which reflexology could be a useful intervention for cancer
patients is its ability to seemingly improve mood. Five out of the six participants in
this study reported that their mood had improved; they felt ‘uplifted’ and ‘more
positive’, which lasted beyond just the duration of the session. The forementioned study by Carver et al reinforces this, revealing an optimistic attitude
seemed to help improve the participants’ quality of life. There are also studies
that suggest optimism can actually prolong the cancer patient’s life, as ‘once
cancer has been diagnosed, exceptional survival rates have been associated
with highly optimistic and positive psychological states. In addition, it appears
that emotional reactions and adjustment to diagnosis can affect progression’
(Evans 2000). Evans also states that ‘psychosocial treatments have been shown
to be helpful in improving mood in cancer patients and have also been reported
to improve survival’ (Evans 2000).
Patient E was 68-years-old and had been diagnosed with bowel cancer eight
years ago. She was admitted to the hospice as an inpatient for help with
symptom control. When I visited her, she immediately told me that she was
supposed to be going on a Caribbean cruise, but because of the unmanageable
pain she was experiencing she could not make it. I commented on her relatively
good mood, to which she replied: ‘och well, there’s no point feeling sorry for
myself, I’ll just go next year’. She also told me that she has had it [cancer] for so
long, and she is not going to let it stop her living her life, and doing what she
wants to do. Could we consider that her ‘fighting spirit’ and positive attitude may
have helped to prolong her life? Some studies seem to think this is possible:
‘several studies have examined the possible influence of psychosocial factors on
cancer relapse or survival. Fighting spirit and optimism after surgery for breast
cancer were related to recurrence-free survival’ (Greer et al 1979).
Conversely, Carver et al’s study into optimism versus pessimism, and quality of
life, suggests that a more negative outlook may have a damaging effect. There
has been the identification of a ‘cancer-prone personality’, which is characterised
by ‘suppression of emotional reactions, especially anger, and by
conformity/compliance’ (Cooper 1991). A study conducted by Schmale and Iker
(1966) reviewed questionnaires completed by women with suspicious pap
smears to examine whether there is a link between personality, antecedent
stress, and cancer of the cervix. The researchers expected to see a link, and
predicted ‘with almost 75 per cent accuracy, those who would subsequently
develop cancer’ (Cooper 1991). The women most likely to get cancer had a
‘helplessness-prone personality’ (Cooper 1991). This study suggested there may
be another group of women who may have a tendency to get cancer; those who
had ‘an overwhelming sense of frustration due to some emotional loss or conflict
during the preceding six months, and this has recently been confirmed’ (Cooper
1996). This ‘emotional loss’ is particularly evident in the death of a loved one.
Patient C, who was suffering from breast cancer that had spread to her brain,
was very open and told me that she was certain that she became ill because she
had never got over her father’s death. She told me that ‘his death was such a
shock that I never emotionally recovered, and because of this I absolutely believe
I made myself ill’. Some studies suggest that ‘bereavement has been associated
with increased morbidity and mortality’ (Cooper 1991). In addition, a study
conducted by Ramirez et al (1989) showed that ‘severe life events and difficulties
during the post-operative disease-free interval’ indicated a higher risk of breast
cancer recurrence. This may suggest a link between mental disposition and the
condition of our body. Patient C’s belief that her negative emotional/mental state
was the cause of her illness has caused her to try and stay as positive as she
can in an attempt to prolong her life. Reflexology makes her feel ‘uplifted’,
therefore it could be said that reflexology proved to be a beneficial intervention
for her.
Although it may seem that remaining optimistic can help the cancer patient in
their fight against cancer, I did observe that cancer patients can potentially feel
pressurised to remain positive. Patient A was living with and being looked after
by her daughter who was very interested in alternative remedies. During our
weekly sessions, Patient A would inform me of the new remedy her daughter was
giving her, which ranged from a specific amount of black tea in the morning for
one week, to an apple cider vinegar concoction again for the duration of a week.
It seems that her daughter was enthusiastically researching alternative cancer
cures, and Patient A felt she had to embrace them with the same energy.
However, in our sessions she expressed her true feelings towards these
remedies through body language, such as rolling her eyes when talking about
them. She also told me that she did not understand nor ask what the remedies
were supposed to do, but instead just took them because her daughter wanted
her to. Patient A wanted to appear positive for the sake of her daughter, but there
is the suggestion that the pressure to be positive also comes from sources
outside the family. In Positive Thinking: An Unfair Burden to Cancer Patients,
Rittenberg said that ‘in no way should psychological support add an extra burden
to an already devastated patient. By forcing positive mental attitude, health-care
professionals are not allowing patients to face reality. It is felt that positive
thinking may be appropriate as one of many successful coping strategies. To
attribute more to it or, worse, to insist that patients believe in its power to cure
may be courting emotional disaster’ (1994).
Trying to push positivity onto cancer patients may negate the point of positive
thinking, yet the responses from my participants seemed to suggest that
reflexology sessions provided a non-pressured time and space in which feelings
of positivity may naturally occur. My experience with Patient A seemed to
suggest that a reflexology session also created an environment that could allow
the patient to express their true feelings. Patient A having felt obliged to engage
with her daughter’s alternative remedies despite feeling they were pointless,
commented upon the ability to express this during our session: ‘I feel so much
better, its like I’ve just been to counselling’. This reinforced Boudioni’s study,
which suggested counselling appeared to be helpful for those with cancer. Some
studies suggest that through interventions such as counselling and
psychotherapy, the cancer patient’s life can be prolonged. Spiegel et al (1989)
found that patients with metastatic breast cancer who were randomly assigned to
weekly sessions of group therapy that was designed to ‘reduce distress through
therapeutic social support and improvement of coping’ (Spiegel et al 1989) had
higher survival rates than those who had been assigned to a control group.
Another study by Grossarth-Maticek and Eysenck (1989) randomly assigned 50
patients with breast cancer who were receiving chemotherapy, and 50 patients
refusing chemotherapy to either psychotherapy group or the non-psychotherapy
control group. The results showed that ‘survival time was significantly longer in
patients receiving chemotherapy; psychotherapy alone also had a positive effect
on survival. Patients receiving both chemotherapy and psychotherapy had longer
survival times and higher percentages of lymphocytes before the beginning of the
next chemotherapy treatment than did patients receiving chemotherapy alone’.
These results seemed to suggest that the use of a talking therapy as an
intervention actually had an influence over the physical body as lymphocyte
production was increased. This interestingly highlighted the possible connection
between mind and body, in that being in a relatively good place psychologically,
may also improve the body’s functioning.
From the above, we have established that psychotherapy can help to enable the
patient to talk about their situation or whatever else they wish to discuss, which
may be beneficial. It is also beneficial with regards to the patient’s fragmentation
of their identity, for ‘when an individual is diagnosed with cancer, he or she tends
to lose their established sense of self in the community and in the hospital world
becomes a cipher. This kind of marginalisation makes patients extremely
vulnerable to despair and their relationships both internal and external to the
hospital environment can be seriously undermined as a consequence’ (Goldie
2005). This may then cause ‘the patient [to be] confronted with the prospects of
helplessness, physical deterioration, and associated feelings of blemishment,
loss of social identity, and loss of social utility. We must speak in terms of
multiple combinations of predicaments and factors that threaten to dishevel,
fragment, splinter, depress, breakdown and decimate his psychosocial identity’
(Moller 1996). Gillies and Johnson’s study (2004) examined methods used by
patients to counteract this fragmentation of identity, which - as discussed
previously - I also observed in the participants of this study. To reiterate, Patient
D previously had a high-powered executive job working for a multi-national
company, but was now diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and very ill. He had a
couple of months to live and was reliant on those around him. Throughout our
sessions, he liked to talk about his previous role and past experiences in life,
which I felt helped him to establish a connection between his past and current
self. This was also evident with Patient C who was bed-bound and blind due to
the spreading of breast cancer to her brain. She frequently reminisced about the
travelling she had done in her life and the fun she had had, which again may
have helped regain a sense of who she was and is. This process can be
summed up as ‘the fragility of their sense of identity is ameliorated by drawing on
sources of self-esteem from the past’ (Gillies & Johnson 2004).
Limitations
One of the main limitations I encountered while conducting this study were the
methodological restrictions I had to work around due to ethical considerations. If I
had used interviews and questionnaires to acquire data from participants, my
results may have been more conclusive in that I could have asked specific
questions to elicit certain information. I would like to have used a Speilberger
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to measure whether reflexology helped to
reduce anxiety, involving participants rating levels of anxiety before and after
their reflexology session by selecting one of the following: not at all; somewhat;
moderately so; and very much so. I would also have liked to have determined
whether a course of reflexology had improved clients’ quality of life overall, by
asking participants to complete a relevant questionnaire both before and at the
end of their six-week course. If I had been able to use interviews and
questionnaires I could have been more specific with my research question, such
as, ‘Does Reflexology Benefit Cancer Patients?’ but by adapting to the
methodology used my study became more of an investigation.
Due to the small number of study participants, my study can also be viewed as
preliminary in that it provided an insight into factors that may be useful for further
investigation in the future. Lewith et al suggested that ‘these are smaller studies
which, while not being conclusive, will nevertheless contribute to the pool of
information. Such studies may also provide the groundwork for making decisions
about the appropriateness of undertaking a full study (Lewith et al 2002). In my
study, I have highlighted factors during a reflexology session that may, in part, be
responsible for reflexology’s effectiveness, which may lead to further, more
conclusive studies into these factors.
For the purposes of my study, I wanted to create a relaxing, peaceful time and
space in which the patient could completely relax. In the treatment room, I played
relaxing music and had the lights dimmed to help create such an environment,
yet these attempts may have been slightly thwarted due to the fact that there was
building work being carried out at the hospice. Subsequently, on some days
there was a degree of noise that could have detracted from the tranquillity of the
room. Due to the building work, there was also a temporary lack of space, so I
had to carry out my treatments in an office with a treatment couch put in it, yet it
still contained a desk, and a computer, and had a clear impression of being an
office. These factors may be considered limitations on my ability to carry out my
study, for they could have affected my attempts to provide a relaxing
environment.
Another concern I had regarding the efficacy of my study was that participants
might have felt obliged to respond with positive feedback. Over the period of six
weeks, a rapport developed between the participants and I, and they were
usually very grateful for the reflexology treatments. In light of the fact that they
were aware of the objectives of my study, it was possible they may have wanted
to ‘help’ me by being effusive with their responses. If this was the case then it
could be considered a limitation to my study, as it was creating inaccurate
results.
As an investigative study, a few areas of discussion have come to light. It has
revealed that there appeared to be multiple factors during a reflexology session
that can provide benefit, and they do so through more than just the application of
specific techniques to the feet. There is the human touch, and the benefits of
massage, as well as the special time between therapist and patient created in a
‘safe’ environment. By providing a non-clinical ‘sanctuary’ in the midst of a clinical
setting, and by allotting a set time for the patient to have some ‘time-out’, the
reflexology sessions helped to alleviate some stress the patient may have had.
‘When the therapist says to the patient, ‘we have an hour’, he or she is
transforming the usual hospital experience, because the unspoken message is,
‘Whoever you are, howsoever we proceed, I give you this time because your life
is precious’ (Goldie 2005).
In this study, I have concentrated on showing how reflexology may benefit those
with cancer, and how it may be utilised in a highly important area of work to help
induce relaxation, positivity and a general sense of well-being. Reflexology also
has the potential ability to help physical conditions, with the participants of this
study indicating an improvement in sleeping patterns and digestion, as well as
concentration, energy and stress levels. Having a pleasant intervention such as
reflexology that makes cancer patients ‘feel nice’ and ‘feel good’, when they are
facing a frightening illness, is very important. By helping cancer patients and
empowering them in the face of their disease, by giving them the opportunity to
make decisions at a time when they often feel a loss of control (as medical staff
take over the management of their illness), reflexology is also crucial. Providing a
range of complementary therapies available in hospices can help patients regain
their sense of control by enabling them to make the decision whether to have
therapies, and by choosing which ones they have. It allows a degree of
autonomy in a world that they are unable to control.
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About the author:
This study was completed by Nicola Ramirez, MFHT, MICHT, MPACT as part of
Psychosocial BA (Hons) at the University of East London (2008).