1. business and industrial
2. agriculture and forestry
3. forestry

MALAYAN FORES'r RECORDS
NO· 3
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ercta
rees
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ala
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Peninsula
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By F. W. FOX WORTHY
Forest Research Officer, Federated Malay States
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Plates by
PERPUSTAKAAN
£ 34, cy oCf 5'1,5,
NEGARAMALAYFO)(
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LasceHcs & Co. U.d.
~p
Lo r~Dn : l.
PUBLISHED BY PERMISSION OF THE
FEDERATED MALAY STATES GOVERNMENT
AN D
PRINT ED BY FRASER & NEAVE, LTD.,
SINGAPORE
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1927.
No.3.
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COMMERCIAL TIMBER TREES OF THE
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MALAY PENINSULA.
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By F. W.
FOXWORTHY,
Forest Resea't'ch Officer, F.M.S.
INTRODUCTION.
The timber trees of the Malay Peninsula are of many kinds
and are very imperfectly known. The need of a manual which
could be used by forest officers and others as an aid in identifying
the more important trees has been very much felt. Such a manual
should give, as simply as possible, the identification marks for each
kind of tree and should also give a concise summary of what is
known about each of the commercial trees. Work of this kind
was begun by the late Conservator of Forests, A. M. Burn-Murdoch,
who, in 1911 and 1912, published the first two parts of his" Trees
and Timbers of the Malay Peninsula." This work was stopped
by his death in 1915 and was discontinued for a time. When the
work was taken up again, it seemed appropriate to organize it on
a more systematic basis and to condense it into one volume of
not too large size. This offered some difficulty and it was necessary
to eliminate as much a possible. The work has been restricted,
almost entirely, to those forms which are considered as commercial
timber trees, or which are so conspicuous in appearance as to
command attention in the forest, and the descriptive matter has
been condensed and presented in a uniform manner.
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Commercial Timber Trees
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[MAL. FOR. REC.
METHODS OF WORK.
It was necessary, first of all, to become acquainted with the
species producing the different timbers. This was accomplished
by as extensive collecting as was practicable. The collection of
good herbarium material made it possible to work out the botanical
status of the different pecies and al 0 furnished a good deal of
information about their natural distribution and habitats. The
next step was to determine the relative and actual abundance of
the different forms. Several kinds of work were required for this.
A large chart was prepared to show the known occurrence of the
different commercial timbers in the different districts. Forest
officers sent in samples of the different woods from their districts
and entries were made on the chart as the pieces were received.
Outline maps of the Peninsula were prepared to show the occurrence by district of each kind of tree and each species. Special
valuation surveys were done, on a definite percentage basis, of
more than one million acres of forest in different parts of the
Peninsula. The method of taking these valuations was described
in "Forest Reconnaissance in British Malaya" (Empire Forestry
Journal, Vol. m., 1924, pp. 78-86), and the details of the different
pieces of reconnaissance were presented in a series of special departmental reports. These valuation surveys gave us a good deal of
preliminary information, besides showing what were the abundant
forms and the amount of timber carried by different areas. The
next step was to make a detailed study, in the field, of each of the
forms·and to write descriptions containing the results of field studies.
It was also necessary to go through the departmental files and
get out all of the available information concerning sylvicultural
treatment, to compile this information and compare it with the
literature of the subject from other countries. Rough descriptions,
prepared as a result of the above work, were sent to the different
forest officers for criticism. These de criptions were later rewritten
embodying the results of the criticisms. Each description in this
work has been written at least three times and may be taken as
fairly representative of our present knowledge of the form described.
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FORESTS OF THE MALAY PE INSULA.
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Some general statements as to the location, extent, natural
condition , and composition of our forests need to be made before
proceeding with the consideration of individual kinds of trees .
Geography. The Malay Peninsula extends from a little over
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oj the Malay Peninsula.
700 miles and its greatest breadth about 200 miles. The extent
of the Peninsula in longitude is from 98° 20' E. to 104° 20' E.
Nearly all , of that part of the Peninsula lying south of 6° N. lat.
is under British, and nearly all of the part north of that latitude
under Siamese influence. The Siamese portion of the Peninsula
has an area of approximately 20,000 square miles. The commercial
forms in the Siamese portion are, in the main, the same as those
further south, and the distribution notes include the records for
this portion, so far as they are known. The political divisions
of the Peninsula are, the Unfederated Malay States of Perlis,
Kedah, Kelantan, Trengganu, and J ohore, the Federated Malay
States of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and Pahang, and the
Straits Settlements of Penang, Province Wellesley, the Dindings,
Malacca, and Singapore. The area of each of these is given in the
following table:Area in square miles.
Perlis
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Kedah • •
Kelantan
Trengganu
Johore • •
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316
3,648
5,713
6,000
7,678
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Total Unfederated Malay States
Perak
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Selangor ..
Negri Sembilan
Pahang • •
23,355
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7,875
3,195
2,572
14,006
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Penang • •
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Province Wellesley
Dindings
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Malacca • •
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Singapore
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Total Federated Malay States
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27,648
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108
280
183
720
217
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1,508
Total for British portion of Peninsula ..
52,511
Total Straits Settlements
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Comme1'cial Timber T'rees
[MAL. FOR. REC.
The total population of these Malay state is omething over
3,300,000, or an average of rather more than 60 to the square mile.
Portions of Pahang, Kelantan, and Trengganu are still very sparsely
populated.
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CLIMATE.
There is remarkably little seasonal change on the west
coast of the Penin ula; the east coast feel the effect of the
monsoon and has more or less pronounced wet and dry seasons.
The northern part of the Peninsula has more of s
change
than has the outhern part. The state of Pahang hows some
ariation of . ea on from ea t to we t, but we have very meagre
information about the degree of change. Rainfall, in different
part, varie from 77 to 220 inches per year. Rains are very
localized and occur as brief and heavy howers. All day rains
are unu ual, except in Pahang during the wet monsoon. Heavy
and prolonged torrential rain, such an i experienced in certain
other tropical countrie , i practically unknown, and few places
have ever hown a maximum rainfall of more than six inches
in twenty-four hours. The temperature i very uniform, the
average being about 80° the maximum 96 °, and the minimum 67°,
at ea level. Evaporation is very heavy on orne days, but strong
winds are rarely experienced and severe wind storms are practically
unknown, aUhough small and local whirl winds have sometimes
been reported.
SOIL AND TOPOGRAPHY.
The soils most commonly recognized are, laterite, alluvium,
peat, and clay. There are certain portions where limestone is
common and there are a number of places where the subsoil contains
a clay layer, resulting in the formation of fresh water swamps.
The topography is, for the most part, of a very rugged type.
Level areas are not extensive, except in swamps. The country
in general is hilly or mountainous and the slopes are often very
steep. A consequence of this is that the treams are usually short
and have small drainage basin. Trees are found growing on
steeper lope than i u ually the case in other countries. Erosion
is rapid when the cover is removed. The main range is granite,
but there are a number of place where there are limestone cliffs.
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EXTE T OF THE FOREST.
The area occupied by commercial forest is e timated to be
about 30,000 square miles, but considerable parts of this have not
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of the Malay Peninsula.
yet been carefully examined, and the actual area may be less than
that given. There are also considerable areas where the original
forest has been destroyed and the land is now occupied by the
second growth forest known as belukar.
COMPOSITION OF THE FOREST.
Wealth of species. There are about 2,500 known species of
trees in the Malay Peninsula. This is, perhaps, more than are
recorded from all of British India and Burma. It is doubtful if
we have yet learned as much as 75 % of our species. It is certain
that we have many more tree species than are found in India or
in Burma, or in the tropical portions of the two countries. The
multiplication of species of woody plants is very marked, in the
wet tropics, as the equator is neared, and ours is a nearly equatorial location and climate. It is not unusual to find, in the Malay
Peninsula, single acres of forest which carry more than 100 species
of trees. Much the largest part of these are trees of small size and
do not have any present economic value.
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CLASSES OF FOREST.
Our forests may, for convenience, be roughly grouped as
littoral, lowland, and mountain or hill forests, each of which may
be capable of a number of sub-divisions.
LITTORAL FORESTS .
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These may be sub-divided into beach forests and mangrove
swamps.
Beach forests. These occupy a very narrow strip along
the sandy beach and produce very few timber trees. Kayu Ru
(Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.) and Penaga Laut (Calophyllum
Inophyllum L.) are the only ones of our commercial timber trees
that belong to this type of forest.
Mangrove swamps. These tidal forests occupy a few hundred
square miles and are most important because of the firewood which
they supply. They will be treated in a separate pUblication.
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HILL FORESTS.
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The highest mountains are covered with a very dense, lowgrowing forest cover, made up of very large numbers of species
of small trees, very many of which have thick leathery leaves,
crooked, much-branched stems, and with large numbers of epiphytes
on their bark. This kind of forest is not at present commercial
and is not likely to become so for many years. Below this is what
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Commercial Timbe1' Trees
[MAL. FOR. REC.
may be called the mid-mountain fore t, with larger leaves and
much better po ibilitie of commercial de elopment. Thi fore t
is al 0 not of pre ent economic importance, except in the vicinity
of hill tation. :Many of the hill fore t have a very den e undergrowth and the ground i often covered with mall plants and
plant remain to a depth of a number of inche. The hill fore ts
may be con idered a being all that are aboye an elevation of 2,000
feet above ea Ie el, a line which i cho en arbitrarily becau e it
eem to mark the upper limit of what it i practicable to work
at pre ent. Fore t above the 2,000 feet level occupy, perhap ,
10 % of the total land area of the Penin ula. Their pre ent value
i a a protective fore t, preventing ero ion and pre erving stream
flow.
Ridge forests. A one get into mountainou country, the
high ridge tand out very sharply. The e bear a den e cover of
large tree on their crests, but are much Ie den ely covered on
their ide. The top of such ridge, from 1,000 to 3,600 feet above
ea level, often beal' large number of Seraya (Shorea Curtisii
Dyer) tree. (See fronti piece).
LOWLAND FORESTS.
The e begin ju t back of the beach and extend up to the hill
type. The dividing line between lowland and hill forest is not
sharply marked and certain lowland form arc often found above
the 2,000 feet contour.
Lowland fore~t may be cla ified, according to drainage, as
swamp fore t or high forest, the latter of which i frequently
interrupted by patches of belukar.
Fresh 1.uater swa1np forest. It i e timated that 10% of the
area of the Penin ula i occupied by fre~h water wamps. These
vary greatly in depth of water level, relation to drainage, and in
the pecie that occupy them. Even the deepe t wamps contain
many more or Ie firm pot where tree occur. There i , in some
place an accumulation of plant remain to a depth of many feet.
Swamp with the greate t permanent depth of water u ually contain
no, or few, tree pecie. Slightly more shallow swamps may contain
Meranti Bakau (Shorea p.), Punah (Tetramerista glabra :Miq.),
Dedaru (Urandra corniculata (Becc.) Foxw.), Kempas (Koompassia
malaccensis Maing.), and certain other forms.
Lopak. This i a pecial type of wamp forest, which is subject
to occasional inundation, but ha a fairly firm soil with mud holes.
Such a forest may contain a number of forms which are characteristically found in dry land forest.
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Swamps often conkin low ridges of dry land, bearing the usual
dry land forms. The name of such a ridge is permatang.
There is a great deal of work needed in the study of fresh
water swamps, which can receive only incidental mention in this
work.
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Bel-ukar. This is the name applied to the volunteer growth
which covers areas that have been cut over. It is, at first, composed
of quick-growing species, which are often short-lived. Later, the
seedlings of forest trees find a place and there is a gradual transformation to high forest. It is believed that this change may
require about 250 years, under natural conditions. The area of
belukar in the Peninsula is not known, but it will run into many
thousands of acres, because of the system of shifting cultivation
that has been practised by the wild people since very ancient times.
There are also many abandoned cultivation areas of more recent
date. Such regions, if frequently burned over, may be occupied
by lalang (Imperata spp.), a coarse grass which is very hard to
eradicate. This grass does not, however, occur in anything like
the abundance with which it occurs in some other countries of the
eastern tropics. The reason for this is that the uniform high
humidity makes fires less frequent; and, if lalang is not burned
over at frequent intervals, other plants become established and
will, in no very great time, eliminate the lalang. In consequence
of this we have no large lalang areas in the southern part of the
Peninsula; and, even in the drier parts, lalang is not a serious pest,
-so far as occupation of large areas is concerned.
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High forest. The mature inland forest is of the type described
by Schimper (Plant Geography, Chaps. II. and IV.) as rain forest.
It is made up of a very large number of species and includes most of
our commercial timber trees. The average height of the top of the
crowns is something more than 150 feet and the canopy is very
dense. The vegetation is arranged in several storeys. The first,
or top, storey is made up of very large trees, whose crowns start
at 60 or 100 feet or more above the ground. The trees in this
storey are Keruing, Kapur, Meranti, Resak, Chengal, Kempas,
Tualang, and J elutong, and occasionally some other forms. All of
these are trees which, at maturity, require very full light. The
second storey is made up of trees which spread out at a lower
height and whose crowns usually begin as low as 50 feet above
the ground. Occasionally some of these trees may reach up into
the top storey. The third storey is made up of smaller trees whose
crowns are below those of the top storey and which usually branch
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Comme'rcial Timber Trees
[MAL. FOR. REC.
quite low. Example are Petaling, Dedali, and many forms of
Kelat. The fourth torey i made up of much the large t number
of pecie. The e are u ually Ie than 60 feet in total height.
This storey probably contains more species, by far, than do all of
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the other , but very few of the e pecie are of any present economIC
importance. Member of the familie Anonaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
and Flacourtiaceae are very prominent in this storey. Beneath this
are hrubs, low-growing palms and herbs, but the number of
herbaceous form on the floor of the fore t is relatively small.
The undergrowth contains large number of the eedlings of the
species making up the higher storeys and very large numbers of
low-growing palms. In many of our fore t regions the mo t
con picuou feature of the undergrowth is the bertam palm
(Eugeissonia tristis Griff.). This short or stemless palm has large
pinnate leaves which make a very dense cover, beneath which it is
often very difficult for seedling to thrive. Bertam seems to be
our mo t pernicious fo
weed. It can be eradicated by repeated
cutting back, but thi i expen ive. In some places, other palms
are very prominent in the undergrowth, u ually where bertam does
not occur. Some of the e are: Pala (Licuala spp.), Salak
(Zalacca spp.) , Chuchok (Calamus p.), Pinang (Pinanga spp.),
Teronoh (/guanura spectabilis Ridl.) , Daun Sang (Teysmannia
altifrons Miq.), Bayas (Oncospe1'ma hon'ida Scheff.), Pinang Rajah
(Cyrtostachys Lakka Becc.), Langkap (Arenga Westerhoutii
Griff.), and Serdang (Livistona pp.).
Rattans and other climbers are con picuou ly pre ent, although
there i nothing like the amount of climber development that there
i in certain tropical regions where there i a mon oon climate.
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The
be very
parang.
straight
undergrowth i quite den e and any fore t officer would
fooli h to attempt to go through the forest without a
There i u ually a good deal of cutting to be done, if a
line is to be followed.
Very few trees display the deciduous habit and, when they
are deciduous, the period of leaf-fall and the duration of leaflessness are sometimes uncertain. Some of our trees which are known
to have a deciduous habit are : Bungor, J elutong, Kempas, Merbau,
Nyatoh (one form), Renga , Sena, Sepetir, Simpoh, and Tualang.
There are a number of forms not mentioned in this work which
are deciduous, but the number of deciduous pecies is relatively
very small.
of the Malay Peninsula.
No.3]
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Many species of trees carry a large epiphytic flora on their
trunks and branches. Trees of the first storey usually have trunks
relatively free from climbers, but have a good many epiphytes on
their branches.
The forest floor is not usually carpeted with a thick layer of
leaves and humus, because of the rapid oxidation which take place.
In most of the inland forests the leaves are quickly decomposed;
but most of our forest soils give a slightly acid reaction.
The natural feeling of a newly arrived forest officer upon entering the forest here, with its stral:zeness and amazing complexity,
is one of bewilderment. The effect of this wears off as detailed
studies of composition are made. Although the number of tree
species is so great, the proportion of species which are of economic
importance is small. Most of the earlier writers who dealt with
tropical forests strongly emphasized the extreme complexity, and
it was only within the present generation that studies by foresters
showed that, in spite of the great number of species, the greatest
part of the volume of timber produced comes from but a few, often
closely related, forms.
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Our forests are most closely related to those of the Netherlands
Indies, Borneo, and the Philippines. Detailed studies in Borneo
and the Philippines have shown that the forests in those countries
have from 60 to 90 0/0 of their volume produced by trees of onc
family, the Dipterocarpaceae. The indications are, from such studies
as have been made in the Malay Peninsula, that our forests have
about 60 0/0 of their volume of timber in this group .
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The following table gives a summary of the measurements of
all the trees of commercial size on 3,642.8 acres of forest in various
parts of the states of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and Pahang,
and may be considered as fairly representative of the composition
of average good forest in the Peninsula. The table is taken from
" Forests of the Malay Peninsula, their composition and value", in
the proceedings of the second forest conference of the F.M.S., Kuala
Lumpur, February 1926.
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