1. travel
2. tourist destinations
3. national parks

Grand Canyon National Park
Geology
Lesson Plans
Table of Contents
Glossary of Geological Terms ….……….. GEO-2
Create a Cover ……………………………GEO-4
What’s Inside the Earth? ............................ GEO-7
Plate Tectonics ........................................... GEO-9
Which Rock am I? ..................................... GEO-16
Grand Canyon Geologic Timeline…….…. GEO-23
Canyon Carver ........................................... GEO-27
Make a Fossil ............................................. GEO-28
Fossilization Game .....................................GEO-30
Color the Grand Canyon ............................ GEO-31
United States Department of the Interior
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
Grand Canyon National Park
PO Box 129
Grand Canyon, Arizona 86023-0129
GEO- 1
Glossary of Geological Terms
Classification: the grouping or ordering of objects or organisms into categories based on shared or common
characteristics.
Colorado Plateau: a large geologic area uplifted thousands of feet in elevation covering parts of Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico and Utah.
Colorado River: a major river of the southwestern United States, flowing 1450 miles from its headwaters in
the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, through the Grand Canyon, and ending in the Gulf of California.
Deposit: anything that is laid down, especially the settling of matter by a natural process.
Dune: a mound, hill or ridge of windblown sand.
Environment: the total of all of the surroundings – air, water, vegetation, human element, wildlife, climate,
location – that has influence on something’s existence.
Erosion: the slow wearing away of rocks or soil by natural processes, such as rain, wind, ice and snow.
Fault: a fracture in bedrock along which movement has taken place.
Fossil: the hardened remains or imprints of plants or animals preserved in stone or other material.
Geography: the study of the earth’s surface features, and the distribution of life, including human life and the
relationship of humans to their environment.
Geology: the study of the origin, history and structure of the earth.
Gneiss: a common metamorphic rock similar in composition to granite but in which the mineral grains are
aligned in distinct bands.
Granite: a common intrusive igneous rock that is hard, course grained, light colored, rock, and is composed
primarily of quartz and feldspar or mica.
Igneous Rock: rock formed from hot magma which then cools and hardens. Ex: granite
Inner Gorge: the steep-walled gorge at the bottom of the Grand Canyon where the Colorado River flows.
Lava: the general term for molten rock that erupts and cools at the Earth’s surface.
Law of Superposition: states that in a sequence of rock layers, lying one on top of the other in the order they
were originally deposited, the first layer deposited is the one on the bottom, thus the bottom layer is the oldest,
and the top layer is the youngest.
Limestone: a sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate), often containing
marine fossils.
Magma: molten rock found beneath the surface of the earth.
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Metamorphic Rock: rock that has been subjected to high heat and pressure, causing it to change chemically or
physically from its original form (unlike igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks never melted). Ex: Sedimentary
limestone changes into metamorphic marble; Vishnu Schist is the dark-colored, metamorphic rock found at the
bottom of the canyon.
Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a definite chemical and physical properties and a
definite crystal structure.
North Rim: the top of the north side of Grand Canyon, a less visited part of the park that is closed from midOctober through mid-May due to snow. The North Rim is approximately 8000 feet in elevation, which is 1000
feet higher than the South Rim.
Paleontology: the study of fossils and ancient life forms.
Plate Tectonics: the theory that the surface of the earth is made up of moving plates which are responsible for
geologic activity, such as earthquakes, mountain ranges, and uplifts.
Plateau: an elevated area of flat land.
Radiometric Dating: a way to determine the age of various materials by watching the rate at which chemicals
in the material break down.
Sandstone: rock made mostly of sand-like quartz grains, often cemented in calcite or silica.
Schist: a metamorphic rock with distinct parallel layering.
Sedimentary Rock: rock that is formed when deposits of loose materials are cemented together, usually by
lime or silica, to form layers. Ex: limestone, sandstone, and shale - the upper 4000 feet of visible rock at the
Grand Canyon are sedimentary.
Shale: a sedimentary rock composed primarily of fine-grained materials such as silt and clay; also called
mudstone.
Silica: quartz (silicon dioxide, SiO2), one of the most common rock-forming minerals.
South Rim: the top of Grand Canyon on the south side where most people visit; open year-round. The
elevation at the South Rim averages 7000 feet.
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Creating a Cover
School Subjects
Grade Level
AZ Standards Addressed
Science; Art
3rd – 5th
SC03-S1C4-01: Communicate investigations and explanations using evidence and appropriate terminology.
SC03-S1C4-03: Communicate with other groups to describe the results of an investigation.
SC04-S1C1-04: Locate information (e.g., book, article, website) related to an investigation.
SC04-S1C4-01: Communicate verbally or in writing the results of an inquiry.
SC04-S1C4-03: Communicate with other groups to describe the results of an investigation.
SC05–S1C1-03: Locate information (e.g., book, article, website) related to an investigation.
SC05-S1C4-01: Communicate verbally or in writing the results of an inquiry.
SC05-S1C4-03: Communicate with other groups to describe the results of an investigation.
VA-S1C2-202: Demonstrate purposeful use of materials, tools, and techniques in his or her own artwork
VA-S1C4-302: Create artwork that communicate substantive meanings or achieve intended purposes
Lesson Overview
Students create their own cover for the journal they will complete during a Dynamic Earth, Stories in Stone, or
Grand Canyon Rocks program. The cover can include a collage of photos and/or drawings of rock formations
found in Grand Canyon or representations of the 3 major rock types.
Lesson Objectives
Students will be able to identify the three main rock types, or families, and how they form. Additionally, they
will be introduced to the idea of a journal as a tool for studying Grand Canyon and will understand how a
creative and personal approach to their journal will increase their memory and understanding of Grand Canyon.
Materials
• Construction paper (various colors may be used; size can be 8 ½ x 11 or 9 x 12)
• Journal insert included in your confirmation packet for your in-park program with the Environmental
Education Office (make enough copies so each student will have one)
• Magazines, brochures, or other media with photos of rocks near your hometown and/or from Grand
Canyon (for more introductory activities, see What Rock am I? on page 16 of this packet).
• Scissors
• Glue
• Colored pencils, crayons, or markers
• Staples and stapler
• Optional: reference books on animals, encyclopedias, field guides, etc.
Background Information
Rocks are continually changing. Wind and water wear them down and carry bits of rock away. Rock deep
below the surface of the earth is being heated to the melting point. Movement of the plates exerts heat and
pressure, metamorphosing existing rock. Modern geologists have classified rocks into three groups according to
the major Earth processes that formed them: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. You can see all three rock
types at Grand Canyon National Park.
Igneous rocks are formed from melted rock that has cooled and solidified. When rocks are buried deep within
the Earth’s crust, they sometimes melt because of the high temperatures forming an underground mass of
molten rock known as a magma chamber. This magma may rise to the surface and cause a volcanic eruption, or
it may cool slowly underground. When magma cools slowly underground, large crystals grow from the molten
liquid, and a course-grained rock, such as granite, forms. This is called an intrusive igneous rock. When
magma erupts onto the earth’s surface the molten rock cools quickly. This rapid cooling does not allow time for
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large crystals to form, therefore the crystals are small and a fine-grained rock, such as basalt, is formed. This is
called extrusive igneous rock, and is also known as volcanic rock.
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the Earth, either in water or on land. They are layered
accumulations of sediments – fragments of rocks, minerals, or animal or plant material. If a layer of sediment is
buried beneath overlying rock, the layer becomes compacted and may form a layer of sedimentary rock. The
sediment becomes cemented together by minerals and chemicals or is held together by electrical attraction.
Sand and gravel deposits on beaches or in river bars look like the sandstone and conglomerate they may
become. Compacted and dried mud flats harden into shale. Mud and shells settling on sea floors can cement
into limestone.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when sedimentary or igneous rocks are subjected to pressures so intense and/or
heat so high that they are completely changed. The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but
instead transforms them by reorganizing and changing their crystalline structure. New minerals are created
either by rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids that enter the rocks. Pressure or
temperature can even change previously metamorphosed rocks into new types of metamorphic rock.
Procedure
1. Prior to conducting the activity, begin collecting magazines, brochures and other printed media with canyon
images and photos of rocks found in Grand Canyon. You can also have students start bringing some of these
items in from home, too. If you will be introducing rock types for the first time, consider asking students to
bring a rock from home.
2. Tell the students that they will be making the front and back covers of a journal they will use during their
field trip to Grand Canyon. Discuss the value of journals; in addition to recording observations, feelings and
impressions, they are places to record important data to refer to later. Both words and artwork can be
important ways to record all these things; and both recording methods will be used in the Dynamic Earth,
Stories in Stone, or Grand Canyon Rocks journal. If you are not taking a fieldtrip to Grand Canyon, you can
adapt this activity to meet your needs with another sort of journal.
3. If you had students bring rocks from home, have them study their rock, describe it and compare it with rocks
other students brought into class. Use the student descriptions to suggest categories rocks are grouped into.
Introduce or review the three rock types, or families, and how they form. Explain that Grand Canyon has
examples of rocks in all three families. Though Grand Canyon has a lot of exposed rock in which to study the
earth’s history, rocks are found in their backyard.
4. Hand out the construction paper – if you have a variety of colors, they can come up and choose which color
they want. Have students fold the construction paper in half. Get out colored pencils, crayons, marking pens,
or the like. Also get out the scissors, glue, tape and stapler.
5. If you have collected a lot of canyon and rock photos, have the students cut out at least one of each found in
Grand Canyon*. Have them glue the photos to what will be their journal cover. Make sure they leave room to
put their own name on the cover, too.
*if you don’t have enough photos, they can also draw the rocks or symbols to represent how they form.
6. Take the journal insert and have the students staple it into their journal cover such that their artwork forms
the outside front and back covers of their journal.
GEO- 5
Extension Activity
The “Which Rock am I?” activity on page 16 of this packet is also highly recommended. On the inside of the
front and back covers, the students could even write a poem, haiku or other such creative writing about Grand
Canyon or the rocks found there.
One option is the following type of poem, called a “cinquain”, which uses this format:
Line 1: one word to name the subject (noun)
Line 2: two words to describe it (adjective)
Line 3: three action words about it (verbs)
Line 4: four-word phrase about it
Line 5: one new word that renames the subject (noun)
EXAMPLE
canyon
huge, colorful
eroding, growing, changing
making me feel small
chasm
Resources
The following organizations have websites with information that may be useful:
National Park Service
• www.nps.gov/grca/pphtml/nature.html (Grand Canyon specific)
• www.nps.gov (will enable you to see an alphabetical listing of parks)
Environmental Education Sites
• www.arizonaee.org
• www.eelink.net/classroomresources-directories.html
• www.ag.arizona.edu/extension/plt
• www.azresourceed.org
Science Teacher Association Sites
• www.nsta.org
• www.azsta.org
GEO- 6
What’s Inside the Earth?
School Subjects
Grade Level
AZ Standards Addressed
Science, Math
3rd - 6th
SC03-S6C1-01: Identify the layers of the earth: crust, mantle, core
SC03-S6C1-02: Describe the different types of rocks and how they are formed: metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary
M03-S1C1-02: Compare and order whole numbers through six digits by applying the concept of place value.
Lesson Overview
The students will practice using the concept of scale by constructing a scale model of the earth.
Lesson Objectives
This lesson will help the students to develop an understanding of the structure and materials of the earth’s
interior.
Materials
ƒ paper and crayons, markers, or colored pencils
ƒ apple and knife
ƒ construction paper (blue, orange, yellow, red, and white), scissors, and glue
ƒ compass for drawing circles
ƒ metric ruler
ƒ food coloring (red and yellow) and baker’s clay mix: flour, salt, and water
ƒ plastic wrap or bags, large knife, aluminum foil, oven, and poster paint/brush
Background Information
In order to understand how the Grand Canyon came to be, it helps to have some basic knowledge of earth
science including the theory of plate tectonics. To understand plate tectonics, it helps to know something about
the earth’s interior.
The planet earth is made up of three main parts: the crust, the mantle, and the core. The mantle and core are
each divided into two parts. Although the core and mantle are about equal in thickness, the core actually forms
only 15 percent of the Earth’s volume, whereas the mantle occupies 84%. The crust, which is very thin and
brittle, makes up the remaining one percent. Our knowledge of the layering and chemical composition of the
Earth is steadily being improved by earth scientists doing laboratory experiments on rocks at high pressure and
analyzing earthquake waves traveling through the Earth.
Because the crust is accessible to us, its geology has been extensively studied, and therefore much more
information is known about its structure and composition than about the structure and composition of the mantle
and core. By the large-scale process of plate tectonics, seven large plates and about a dozen smaller ones have
moved about on the earth’s surface through much of geologic time. The edges of the plates are marked by
concentrations of earthquakes and volcanoes. Collisions of plates can produce mountains like the Himalayas,
the tallest range in the world. The plates include the crust and part of the upper mantle, and they move over a
hot, yielding upper mantle zone at very slow rates of a few centimeters per year. The crust is much thinner
under the oceans than under the continents.
Between 100 and 200 kilometers below the Earth’s surface, the temperature of the rock is near the melting
point; molten rock erupted by some volcanoes originates in this region of the mantle. This zone of extremely
yielding rock is presumed to be the layer on which the tectonic plates ride. The lower mantle is made up of
relatively simple iron and magnesium silicate minerals, which change gradually with depth to very dense forms.
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Based on how earthquake waves travel through the earth, the outer core is presumed to be liquid while the inner
core is considered to be solid. The core is presumed to be composed principally of iron and nickel.
Procedure
1. Have students draw a picture answering the questions below:
• Where do you live?
• What is your house on top of?
• What is the dirt on top of?
• What are the rocks on top of?
2. Have a discussion on what the students believe the earth is made of and capture ideas on the board.
3. Present an apple as representing the earth. Cut the apple in half. Discuss the make up of the apple by talking
about it having skin, an inside, and a center. Discuss whether the earth would have similar characteristics.
Point out that the skin could be the crust, the heart the mantle, the seed covering the outer core and the seed
the inner core. On the back of their picture, have students draw the apple as a model of the earth with all
parts named.
4. Using various colored construction paper, have each student cut circles modeling the layers of the earth. Use
the chart below to determine circle diameters and colors for each layer. Label each circle at the top with its
layer name. Glue the crust circle on white paper, gluing successive layers on top, largest to smallest.
Layer
Radius (km)
Inner Core
Outer Core
Mantle
Crust
0 - 1216
1216 - 3486
3486 – 6336
6336 – 6371
Relative Volume
(%)
0.7
14.3
84.0
1.0
Suggested Color
Red
Yellow
Orange
Blue
Diameter of
Paper Circles
2 cm
6 cm
10 cm
10.2 cm
5. Prepare baker’s clay by mixing two cups of flour, one half cup of salt, and one half cup of water with hands
(you may need to adjust these ratios depending on the size of your class and the size of the models made).
Add additional water until mixture forms a ball. Knead until the salt feels dissolved (about five minutes).
Clay should be very firm (not overly moist) and smooth. Cover or put in a plastic bag until ready to use.
6. Have students divide the clay into volumes which they believe correspond to the volumes that match the
percentages given in the chart above. You may wish to have the students “problem solve” this part of the
activity to figure out the best and most accurate method to do this. Color the layers with food coloring to
match the colors in the chart above (except the crust). Since the crust is so thin, it is easier to paint the blue
on the outside of the model after it is baked.
7. Roll the smallest volume (inner core) into a sphere. Cover inner core with each successive layer of
colored clay, each time making a concentric hemispherical layer. Cut the 3-D clay Earth model in half. You
should be able to see the interior layering. The relative volumes will be more understandable after
constructing the model.
8. Bake the halves of the model on aluminum foil, flat side down, in a 200 degree F (94 degree C) oven until
dried. Baking time takes one hour for every one centimeter of dough thickness. Paint the spherical exterior
with poster paint to represent the crustal layer. An additional coating of acrylic or polymer will protect the
painted surface (optional).
Extension
To help students understand more about the inside of the earth, read and/or discuss the book “Magic School Bus
Inside Earth” by Joanne Carro.
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Plate Tectonics
School Subjects
Grade Level
AZ Standards Addressed
Science, Social Studies
3rd - 8th
SS03-S4C1-01: Discuss that different types of maps serve various purposes.
SS03-S4C1-06: Recognize characteristics of human and physical features.
SS03-S4C1-07: Locate physical and human features using maps, illustrations, images, or globes.
SC03-S6C1-01: Identify the layers of the earth: crust, mantle, core
SC03-S6C1-02: Describe the different types of rocks and how they are formed: metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary
SC03-S2C1-01: Identify how diverse people and/or cultures, past and present, have made important
contributions to scientific innovations.
SC05-S2C2-01: Provide examples that support the premise that science is an ongoing process that changes in
response to new information and discoveries.
SC05-S2C2-02: Explain the cycle by which new seientific knowledge generates new scientific inquiry.
SC06-S2C2-01: Describe how science is an ongoing process that changes in response to new information and
discoveries.
SC06-S2C1-02: Describe how a major milestone in science or technology has revolutionized the thinking of the
time.
SC06-S2C2-02: Describe how scientific knowledge is subject to change as new information and/or technology
challenges prevailing theories.
SC06-S2C2-03: Apply the following scientific processes to other problem solving or decision making
situations: observing, questioning, communicating, comparing, measuring, classifying, predicting, organizing
data, inferring, generating hypotheses, identifying variables
SC06-S5C3-04: Explain how thermal energy can be transferred by: conduction, convection, radiation
Lesson Overview
Students will label maps, and use them to demonstrate change over time due to plate tectonic movements.
Lesson Objectives
Students will become familiar with the theory of plate tectonics through an activity that helps them understand
how continents move slowly over millions of years. This will help students on the field trip better understand
the formation of Grand Canyon’s rock layers and the uplift of the Colorado Plateau.
Materials
ƒ present day map of the world
ƒ scissors, stapler (heavy duty best), and crayons, markers or colored pencils
ƒ copies of figures 1-20 for each student (preferably on thick paper such as card stock), found on pages 6-10
ƒ calculator
Background Information
The belief that continents have not always been fixed in their present positions was suspected long before the
20th century. However, it was not until 1912 that the idea of moving continents – called Continental Drift – was
first proposed by a German meteorologist named Alfred Wegener. Wegener’s theory was based in part on what
appeared to him to be the remarkable fit of the South American and African continents, by the occurrence of
unusual geologic structures, and of plant and animal fossils found on matching coastlines. Drifting continents
also helped explain the evidence of dramatic climate changes on some continents such as tropical plant fossils
found in Antarctica. Wegener’s proposal was not well received at the time. However, after his death, new
evidence from ocean-floor exploration and other studies rekindled interest in Wegener’s theory starting in the
1950s and the theory of plate tectonics was born.
One of the exciting advances in geology has been the realization that the continents and substantial parts of the
bordering ocean floor have slowly moved with respect to each other and that the outermost layer of the Earth’s
crust is made up of lithospheric plates. As these thin plates of ocean and continental crust move, they change the
GEO- 9
positions of the continents; the theory that describes their formation, movement, and destruction is called plate
tectonics. The North American plate is slowly moving at the rate of about an inch per year. About 200 million
years ago, a supercontinent (called Pangea) linked North and South America, Africa, and Europe.
What drives plate tectonics? Most scientists believe the plates slowly move from the force of convection
currents and from the creation of new crust. Below the rigid plates, hot, softened mantle, heated by radioactive
decay and residual heat leftover from the formation of the earth, is slowly moving in a circular motion,
somewhat like a pot of thick soup when heated to boiling. The heated soup rises to the surface, spreads and
begins to cool, and then sinks back to the bottom of the pot where it is reheated and rises again. This cycle is
repeated over and over to generate what scientists call a convection cell or convection flow. This circular
motion of the mantle carries the continents along in much the same way as a conveyor belt.
Look at an atlas, globe or map and identify the mid-ocean ridge, a series of huge mountain ranges that extend
along the floors of the oceans. Along these ridges, the plates are moving away from each other. This is known
as sea floor spreading. As they move apart, magma (molten rock) escapes from the mid-ocean ridge, cools and
hardens, thereby adding to the crust at each side of the ridge. This theory is supported by dating the rocks on the
ocean floor with radiometric dating. Rocks right at the mid-ocean ridge are the youngest; the further the rocks
are from the mid-ocean ridge, the older they are.
What happens to all the new sea floor that is created when magma escapes from the mid-ocean ridge? There are
no rocks on the ocean floor older than 200 million years. In addition, our earth is not getting bigger, so for all
the new crust that is created, some must be destroyed. This appears to happen where plates collide, and is called
plate convergence. When two plates of different densities move toward one another, the denser plate slides
under the other and it is forced back into the hot interior of the earth’s center. Places where one plate is forced
under another are called subduction zones. Earthquakes and volcanoes are common along these convergent
plate boundaries. Since oceanic crust is made of denser, heavier material than is continental crust, it (the oceanic
plate) dives beneath the lighter continental crust when the two collide.
Procedure
1. Discuss plate tectonics with the students. Look at a present day map of the world and use it as a key to name
each of the continents shown on Figure 20 (Present). MYA = Million Years Ago.
2. Have the students color the North American continent on each figure the same color, starting with Figure 20
and working back through time. (You can also have each student choose a different country or continent to
color the same on each of their figures.)
3. Each student should then cut the rectangles apart, keeping each rectangle about the same size as the others.
Assemble the rectangles by date with the present at the top or bottom of the stack. Align the right side of the
rectangles and staple the books on the left side. Left-handed students may wish to reverse the alignment and
staple area. A heavy duty stapler may be required.
4. Now each student can flip through their book to watch the continents move through time. If each student
colored a different continent, students can trade books to see how other continents have moved. If the pages
do not flip easily, students may need to slightly “stair-step” the pages from bottom to top. Heavier paper
may also help.
5. North America has been moving northwestward at the rate of about an inch per year. Figure out how far it
has come in the past 200 million years by using the following information; there are 5,280 feet per mile and
200 million is expressed mathematically as 200,000,000 (2 x 108).
6. Now find where you live on a map and figure out approximately where it was 200 million years ago, using
latitude and longitude. Look on the map and see what exists now at that longitude and latitude. What is the
climate like at that spot? How does it compare to the climate where you live now?
*Adapted from Project Earth Science: Geology, by National Science Teachers Association, 1996.
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Which Rock Am I?
School Subject
Grade Level
AZ Standards Addressed
Science
3rd - 7th
SC03-S6C1-02: Describe the different types of rocks and how they are formed: metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary
SC07-S6C1-07: Explain the following processes involved in the formation of the Earth’s structure: erosion, deposition, plate
tectonics, volcanism
Lesson Overview
After giving a brief explanation of the different types of rocks, students will listen to rock cycle process
scenarios and go to the station that best describes the rock type.
Lesson Objectives
The student will learn about the three types of rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary), the rock cycle,
the earth’s dynamic nature (rocks are ever-changing), and that the Grand Canyon has all three types of rocks
(sedimentary being the most abundant).
Materials
ƒ Signs for rock cycle game (pages 19-21)
ƒ Examples of different rock types, or pictures if rocks are not available
ƒ Optional, enough copies of the Rock Cycle Diagram for each student to label and color (page 22)
Background Information
Rocks are continually changing. Wind and water wear them down and carry bits of rock away. Rock deep
below the surface of the earth is being heated to the melting point. Movement of the plates exerts heat and
pressure, metamorphosing existing rock. Modern geologists have classified rocks into three groups according to
the major Earth processes that formed them: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. You can see all three rock
types at Grand Canyon National Park.
Igneous rocks are formed from melted rock that has cooled and solidified. When rocks are buried deep within
the Earth’s crust, they sometimes melt because of the high temperatures forming an underground mass of
molten rock known as a magma chamber. This magma may rise to the surface and cause a volcanic eruption, or
it may cool slowly underground. When magma cools slowly underground, large crystals grow from the molten
liquid, and a course-grained rock, such as granite, forms. This is called an intrusive igneous rock. When
magma erupts onto the earth’s surface the molten rock cools quickly. This rapid cooling does not allow time for
large crystals to form, therefore the crystals are small and a fine-grained rock, such as basalt, is formed. This is
called extrusive igneous rock, and is also known as volcanic rock.
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the Earth, either in water or on land. They are layered
accumulations of sediments – fragments of rocks, minerals, or animal or plant material. If a layer of sediment is
buried beneath overlying rock, the layer becomes compacted and may form a layer of sedimentary rock. The
sediment becomes cemented together by minerals and chemicals or is held together by electrical attraction.
Sand and gravel deposits on beaches or in river bars look like the sandstone and conglomerate they may
become. Compacted and dried mud flats harden into shale. Mud and shells settling on sea floors can cement
into limestone.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when sedimentary or igneous rocks are subjected to pressures so intense and/or
heat so high that they are completely changed. The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but
instead transforms them by reorganizing and changing their crystalline structure. New minerals are created
GEO- 16
either by rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids that enter the rocks. Pressure or
temperature can even change previously metamorphosed rocks into new types of metamorphic rock.
Procedure
1. Explain there are many rocks that make up the earth’s crust, but science has categorized all the rocks into
three types: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary.
2. Define an igneous rock and show an example. Igneous rock is molten material that has cooled and lithified
(hardened into rock). Igneous literally means ‘fire’ rock, so ask children words that have ‘ign” in them that
mean fire (ignite, ignition).
3. Define metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rock is rock that has been changed through the process of extreme
heat and pressure. ‘Morph’ means change. Caterpillars metamorphose into butterflies. Show an example of
a metamorphic rock.
4. Define sedimentary rock. First define sediment, then explain sedimentary rocks are created from sediments
that deposited and then cemented together, creating a rock. It is good to show sandstone for the example
because it is easier to see the individual grains.
5. Ask students if an igneous rock today will always be an igneous rock. Ask if it can erode (break down) and
become something else. Ask if it can become sedimentary rock (through weathering, erosion, deposition,
cementation). Ask if it can change into a metamorphic rock (subject it to extreme heat and pressure-plate
tectonics). Do this with each rock type until you have completed the entire “rock cycle.” Make sure that it
is clear that these processes take millions of years.
6. Print out the six Rock Cycle Cards (cardstock is best).
7. Evenly space the rock cycle cards in a large, clockwise circle in the following order: S – Thermometer – M
– Volcano – I – Cloud. The circle size will vary depending on number of students and space available.
The cards can be attached to sticks, posts, or taped on classroom walls. This activity is best done outdoors
or in a gym, but can be done in the classroom, if space permits.
8. Break the students into three groups. Start one group at each rock type: I for igneous, S for sedimentary
and M for metamorphic. There are two choices for each rock type which will direct the students to a
different part of the rock cycle.
9. Hold up the number one or two (using fingers) and/or say the number to indicate which path the students
should take (each rock type card has two choices listed for the students).
10. When the students get to the process cards (cloud for weathering/erosion, thermometer for heat/pressure, a
volcano for volcanic activity) they will follow the instructions on the card (acting out the process), then
proceed to the rock type indicated on the process card represented by a letter (I, S, or M).
11. Again, hold up one or two fingers and/or say the number.
12. Continue until each group has traveled each path represented on the rock cycle diagram. The following
sequence covers all the paths represented on the rock cycle diagram: 1, 2, 2, 1.
13. Optional: Hand out the Rock Cycle Diagram (page 22). Instruct the students to write-in the six parts
(Sedimentary, Heat and Pressure, Metamorphic, Melt, Igneous, Weathering and Erosion) in the rock
cycle and then permit time for students to color the diagram.
Other thoughts:
Make sure students understand that this is the rock “cycle.” Any rock that is broken down through
weathering and erosion, melted, or changed by heat and pressure, may become another rock type. Rocks
can also undergo change and still remain part of the same rock type. For example: granite, an igneous rock,
can be re-melted and released as lava from a volcano; forming a different igneous rock.
Activity follow-up questions:
1. What machine drives the rock cycle? (Plate tectonics)
2. Does the rock cycle ever stop? (no)
3. What are the 3 categories of rocks? (sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic)
GEO- 17
4. Could a rock go from a sedimentary rock to a metamorphic rock? Could a metamorphic rock become a
sedimentary rock? Could a metamorphic rock become an igneous rock? (yes, to all)
5. Could a rock go through the entire cycle in our lifetime? (no)
6. Does geology move quickly or slowly compared to our lives? (slowly)
GEO- 18
You started as magma and either cooled quickly above ground or cooled
slowly underground. You are an igneous rock.
Go to the number your teacher tells you.
1. Go to the Cloud.
2. Go to the Thermometer.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Little pieces of rock and sand are cemented together. You are
sedimentary rock.
Go to the number your teacher tells you.
1. Go to the Thermometer.
2. Go to the Volcano.
GEO- 19
Rain, snow and ice are
beating down on you.
You break into little
pieces.
Act like you are getting
wet from rain, snow and
ice, then act like you are
breaking into little pieces.
Go to the S.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Two tectonic plates collide and
you are feeling tremendous heat
and pressure.
Act like you are being squeezed
and are getting really hot! Go to
the M.
GEO- 20
Heat and pressure have caused you to undergo a change or
metamorphosis. You are a metamorphic rock.
Go to the number your teacher tells you.
1. Go to the Volcano.
2. Go to the Cloud.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
One tectonic plate is
pushed downward
under another plate.
You start to melt and
become magma.
Act like a volcano. Go
to the I.
GEO- 21
The Rock Cycle
GEO- 22
Grand Canyon Geologic Timeline
School Subjects
Grade Level
AZ Standards Addressed
Science, Social Studies
3rd - 7th
SS03-S1C1-01: Use timelines to identify the time sequence of historical data
SC03-S6C1-02: Describe the different types of rocks and how they are formed: metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary
SC03-S6C1-03: Classify rocks based on the following physical properties: color, texture
SC03-S6C1-04: Describe fossils as a record of past life forms
SS05-S1C1-02: Construct timelines of the historical era being studied
SS06-S1C1-03: Construct timelines of the historical era being studied
SS07-S1C1-03: Construct timelines of the historical era being studied
SC07-S6C1-07: Explain the following processes involved in the formation of the Earth’s structure: erosion, deposition, plate
tectonics, volcanism
Lesson Overview
Students will construct a timeline of the Earth’s geologic history.
Lesson Objectives
Students will be able to describe the sequence of geologic events that occurred to form Grand Canyon. Through
this exercise, students will begin to conceptualize a relationship between human historical events and geologic
events.
Materials
ƒ Download the GEOLOGIC TIMELINE CARDS available on the park’s website at
<http://www.nps.gov/grca/forteachers/lessonplansandteacherguides.htm>
ƒ markers, crayons, and/or colored pencils
ƒ large piece of butcher paper at least 46 feet long (optional)
ƒ measuring tape
Background Information
The earth is very old — about 4½ billion years — based on current scientific research. This vast span of time,
called geologic time by earth scientists, is difficult to comprehend in the familiar time units of months and
years, or even centuries. How then do scientists reckon geologic time, and why do they believe the Earth is so
old? The evidence for an ancient Earth is concealed in the rocks that form the Earth’s crust and surface. The
rocks are not all the same age—or even nearly so—but, like the pages in a long and complicated history, they
record the Earth-shaping events and life of the past. The record, however, is incomplete. Many pages, especially
in the early parts, are missing and many others are tattered, torn, and difficult to decipher. But enough of the
pages are preserved to reward the reader with accounts of astounding episodes which certify that the Earth is
billions of years old.
The oldest known rocks on Earth are close to four billion years old. They are found on the shores of Great Slave
Lake in Canada’s Northwest Territory and in remote areas of Greenland. The rock layers of Grand Canyon
range in age from 1800 million years old at the bottom of the canyon to 270 million years old at the top. The
canyon landscape we see today, however, is relatively young, having been sculpted in just the last 5-6 million
years. The metamorphic rocks, found in the Inner Gorge at the bottom of the canyon formed when sedimentary
rocks were subjected to igneous intrusions followed by deep burial. Subsequent flooding by inland seas and
windy desert conditions deposited and then reworked the sedimentary rock layers above them. The canyon seen
today is relatively young, having been sculpted in just the last 5-6 million years. The Colorado River carved
through many rock layers to create Grand Canyon. Lateral erosion widened the canyon.
GEO- 23
Procedure
1. Create a timeline with the measuring tape or piece of butcher paper. Determine how long you want the
timeline to be.
Remember we’re covering 4.6 billion years (4,600 million years) of geologic history. The longer the
timeline, the better.
We suggest a 46-foot timeline, which means: 1 foot = 100 million years
2. Make geologic time cards by cutting apart the following geologic events (see pages 24 – 26). If desired, you
can cut and paste each geologic event description on 8 ½ x 11 paper or heavy stock. This allows room for
the drawing described in step 3.
As an alternative you can print out the GEOLOGIC TIMELINE CARDS available on the park’s website (see
above web address). These cards already have artwork depicting the past environments/events.
3. Students can work individually or in groups. Give each group a Grand Canyon geologic time card. Have the
students draw a picture on the card to represent the event listed on their card.
4. Ask the students to take five minutes to decide where they think their card should be placed on the Earth
timeline. You may need to discuss scale on a timeline.
5. Each team makes a short presentation to the group explaining why and where they think their card should go
and then placing it in the appropriate location on the timeline.
6. Walk through the timeline in chronological order, discussing the major geological events with respect to the
depositional environment and the type of rock left behind. Explain that the rock had to be deposited before
the canyon could ever exist.
7. Once the cards are in place ask questions such as:
-What took longer, the building of layers or the carving of the canyon?
-We usually think of dinosaurs as very old. But, looking at the timeline, can dinosaur fossils be found in the
layers of Grand Canyon? (Answer: No, all the rocks are older than the dinosaurs). Are dinosaurs old
compared to the oldest rocks at Grand Canyon?
-How does a timeline help you see or learn more than just order of events through time?
-Where do you fit on the timeline? (Answer: Human history is less than the width of a strand of hair on the
46 foot timeline).
Extension:
Have students do further research on their rock’s depositional environment before drawing the picture.
(Ex: what is a brachiopod, cephalopod, cross-bedding, trilobite, why do some rocks form slopes and others
cliffs, etc…)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.7 – 1.8 Billion Years Ago: The Vishnu Schist and other basement rocks formed
Precambrian Era
Metamorphic rocks and intrusive igneous rocks formed deep within the earth’s crust when volcanic islands
created by subduction collided with the ancestral North American Plate. Life did not yet exist on the earth.
The Vishnu Schist is the dark colored metamorphic rock that forms the narrow gorge at river level in the bottom
of the Grand Canyon. Other basement rocks, such as Zoroaster Granite, are intrusive igneous rocks that look
like pink veins running through the darker-colored metamorphic gorge. These are the oldest exposed rocks at
Grand Canyon National Park.
GEO- 24
515 Million Years Ago: The Bright Angel Shale formed
Paleozoic Era (Cambrian Period)
The Grand Canyon area was covered by a very muddy, warm, shallow sea. Trilobites, brachiopods, crinoids
and worm-like creatures that burrowed in the sea-floor thrived in the nutrient-rich water.
This greenish-colored shale forms the broad, flat area known as the Tonto Platform in the Grand Canyon.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
340 Million Years Ago: The Redwall Limestone formed
Paleozoic Era (Mississippian Period)
North America lay close to the equator. The Grand Canyon area was covered by a shallow, warm, clear and
well-lit sea where crinoids lived in abundance. Other species included corals, bryozoans, brachiopods, and
cephalopods.
This limestone layer creates a 500 foot cliff in most areas of the Grand Canyon. While the limestone itself is
gray in color, the surfaces of the exposed cliffs are stained red by iron that seeps down from the layers above
with rain and snow melt.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
315- 285 Million Years Ago: The Supai Group formed
Paleozoic Era (Pennsylvanian and early Permian Periods)
The Grand Canyon area was covered by rapidly changing coastlines as sea levels rose and fell. Therefore, the
Grand Canyon area was sometimes covered with beaches and dunes, and sometimes covered with sea water.
The marine environments contained a rich population of brachiopods, while the terrestrial environments hosted
a sparse distribution of plants. Both environments contained multiple types of burrowing creatures.
This layer consists of a wide variety of rock types, including limestones, mudstones, and sandstones that form a
series of cliffs and slopes, which look like stairs into the Grand Canyon.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
280 Million Years Ago: The Hermit Formation formed
Paleozoic Era (Permian Period)
The Grand Canyon area was covered by a broad coastal plain fed by multiple slowly meandering streams. The
environment was prime habitat for an abundance of ferns and conifers, along with reptiles and insects, including
dragonflies with three-foot wingspans.
This layer consists of siltstones, mudstones, and fine grained sandstones rich in iron that create a gentle slope in
most parts of Grand Canyon National Park.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
275 Million Years Ago: The Coconino Sandstone formed
Paleozoic Era (Permian Period)
North America lay near the equator. The Grand Canyon area was covered with coastal dune-fields that reached
as far north as present day Monument Valley, and as far south as Sedona. The ocean lay to the west. Reptiles,
spiders, scorpions, and other insects dwelled on the sand dunes of this extensive desert.
This sandstone layer creates a broad, light-colored cliff a few hundred feet below the rim of Grand Canyon.
Cross-bedding (lines that run at steep angles to one-another) can be seen in the rock, giving evidence to the sand
dunes that once covered the area.
GEO- 25
270 Million Years Ago: The Kaibab Formation formed
Paleozoic Era (Permian Period)
North America was the western part of the super-continent Pangaea. The Grand Canyon region was once again
covered by a shallow, warm, and well-lit clear sea with a sandy/muddy floor. The coast was nearby and to the
northeast. Brachiopods and sponges dominated these waters. Other species included crinoids, corals,
bryozoans, cephalopods, sharks and fish.
This limestone is the top-most layer, and thus the youngest rock, found at Grand Canyon National Park.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
245 Million Years Ago: Dinosaurs First Appear
Mesozoic Era (Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods)
The Paleozoic Era ended about 250 million years ago with the largest mass extinction known; 90% of all known
living organisms died. Thus began the Mesozoic Era, known as the Age of the Reptiles. Reptiles during the
Mesozoic dominated the land, skies and seas.
Most well-known are the dinosaurs, which first appear 230 million years ago and evolved into the largest land
animals ever known. They walked with their legs tucked under their bodies, unlike living reptiles, which have
splayed legs.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
65 Million Years Ago: Dinosaurs Went Extinct
End of Cretaceous Period (End of Mesozoic Era)
Approximately 50% of all known living species, including the dinosaurs, died out at the end of the Cretaceous
Period (this also marks the end of the Mesozoic Era). This extinction coincides with the impact of a large
meteorite in the Caribbean Sea off the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. The resulting shock waves, tidal waves,
and intense heat, followed by years of cold and darkness, are all thought to have contributed to the
disappearance of so many life forms.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
60 Million Years Ago: Colorado Plateau Uplift Began
The Colorado Plateau was lifted up high above sea-level during the Laramide Orogeny, a mountain-building
event that culminated in the uplift of the Rocky Mountains.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
5-6 Million Years Ago: The Colorado River began to carve Grand Canyon
There is much debate as to how the Colorado River started to carve the Grand Canyon, however geologic
evidence indicates that the canyon is no more than 5 or 6 million years old. The Colorado River is 1,400 miles
long and empties into the Gulf of California, which itself is no older than 5.5 million years old.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Present Day
Dynamic geologic processes are at work today. Even Grand Canyon is not static and continues to slowly
become wider and deeper as the processes of weathering and erosion endlessly grind away at the rock.
GEO- 26
Canyon Carver
School Subject
Grade Level
AZ Standards Addressed
Science
4th
SC04-S6C2-01: Identify the earth processes that cause
erosion.
SC04-S6C2-03: Describe the role that water plays in the
following processes that alter the Earth’s surface
features: erosion, deposition, weathering
SC04-S6C3-01: Identify the sources of water within an
environment.
SC04-S6C3-03: Differentiate between weather and climate
as they relate to the southwestern United States.
Lesson Overview
Students will demonstrate the process of erosion
(transportation of sediment by water) using the milk
carton technique.
Lesson Objective
Students will learn the basics of erosional processes and how they form the landscape of Grand Canyon.
Materials (each group of two or more students will need)
ƒ 1.9-L milk carton
ƒ 2.0-L (water) bottle
ƒ source of sediment (sand or potting soil)
ƒ ruler
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
scissors
source of water
garden trowel
Background
Students often know that rivers such as the Colorado River can be muddy. But they may not know that some of
the sediment (sand, silt, and clay) that makes the river muddy comes from the riverbed itself and is a result of
the river cutting down. The canyon, and all of the formations within it, resulted directly from weathering and
erosion in various forms. The Grand Canyon is one of the world’s greatest examples of arid land erosion
through layers of stratified rock.
Procedure
1. Provide each team with an empty half-gallon milk carton.
2. Use scissors to cut out the side panel of the carton under the spout, leaving the spout intact. For younger
students, you may prefer to do this cutting ahead of time.
3. (You may wish to continue this activity outside; don’t forget all the necessary materials.) Lay the carton on
its side with the cut out panel facing up. Fill the container about half full with the sediment, of which you
may wish to smooth the surface.
4. To simulate a flowing river, set one end of the carton approximately 1-cm higher than the other end, using
something to prop it up such as a rock or piece of bark. Be sure the lower end of the carton is the one with
the spout.
5. Place the mouth of the (water) bottle on the higher end and slowly pour the water out. The water should
flow steadily down and out the spout end. Remember, the water flow will be directly affected by your
sediment choice and degree of its saturation.
6. Continue repeating steps 3-5, but raise the elevated end a cm or two at a time. Then discuss the various
depths and formations created.
GEO- 27
Make a Fossil
School Subject
Grade Level
AZ Standards Addressed
Science
3rd - 4th
SC03-S6C1-04: Describe fossils as a record of past life forms.
SC03-S6C1-05: Describe how fossils are formed.
SC04-S6C2-06: Analyze evidence that indicates life and environmental conditions have changed.
Lesson Overview
Students will simulate making a fossil.
Lesson Objectives
Students will learn what fossils are and how they are formed. Students will also understand how fossils and the
rock layers they are found in can be used as clues to the past.
Materials
ƒ clear plastic cups, petroleum jelly, and tubs of various colored mud
ƒ something to scoop mud with (scoops, trowels, large spoons, etc.)
ƒ shells, leaves, plastic animals and/or their tracks, plastic plants, bones (cleaned chicken bones work
well)
ƒ small digging tools such as toothpicks, spoons, etc.
ƒ paper, pencil or pen, and art supplies such as crayons, colored pencils, etc.
ƒ optional: Plaster of Paris, disposable cups (7 oz.), plates and spoons, modeling clay, and water
Background
A fossil is any evidence of ancient life. This evidence may be the actual remains, such as bone, teeth, shells or
plant tissues; chemically altered remains; or traces of the activities of organisms, such as burrows and tracks.
Paleontology is the study of fossils. Scientists who study fossils are paleontologists. Paleontologists use fossils
to reconstruct ancient life, using what we know about the present to understand the past and drawing upon the
sciences of geology and biology. Paleontology is often confused with archaeology, which is the study of ancient
humans and their cultures. The focus of paleontology is the history of life on earth, from its beginnings
approximately 3.6 billion years ago, up to the advent of human culture about 10,000 years ago. Except for rare
occurrences, fossils are found only in sedimentary rocks.
Upon death, most plant and animal remains are soon digested by bacteria and other living organisms. Thus
some of the organic elements of life are recycled to build new organisms. Rare and special circumstances are
necessary for any parts or traces of an organism to be preserved as a fossil. Preservation usually requires that an
organism or its remains be buried rapidly, be insulated from oxygen and decay-producing organisms, and
remain buried and undisturbed. Under even the best of conditions, the preservation of soft parts is exceptionally
rare. Usually only hard skeletal elements are preserved as fossils.
Fossils are not always the actual remains of living organisms. Many fossils are just copies called imprints,
molds, or casts. Imprints are impressions made by organisms in soft sediment that were preserved when the
sediment solidified. Imprints can be traces of an animal’s activity, rather than its actual remains. The hardened
tracks of animals or the burrows of prehistoric worms in solidified mud are examples of fossil imprints. Molds
are made when organisms are totally or partially buried in sediment that hardens into rock. Over time, ground
water may dissolve the organisms, leaving cavities shaped like their bodies. Both imprints and molds are mirror
images of the organisms. If a mold was later filled with mud or mineral material, the hardened filling is called a
cast. It is a reproduction that has the same outer shape as the organism. A cast looks like the organism itself, not
GEO- 28
like its imprint. Paleontologists make casts of fossil molds by filling them with liquids, such as plaster, that
harden.
Procedure
1. Ask the class what they think a fossil is and how they think fossils are formed. Tell them that they are now
going to simulate the making of a fossil.
2. Distribute a clear, plastic cup to each student, or distribute one cup to each group if they will be working
cooperatively. Grease the inside of the cup with a thin layer of petroleum jelly. Have several tubs of mud
available, preferably of different shades or colors. Explain that they are going to simulate a body of water
(lake, ocean, etc.) in which sediment (mud, sand, etc.) is slowly being deposited. In this water body, plants
and animals fall to the bottom when they die. Add liquid mud to the cup in increments, alternating colors
and allowing the mud to settle between each addition. Have the students add small shells, leaves, plastic
animals/plants, or bones on top of some of the layers of mud. Choose only one type of item for each layer.
Ask the students which layer is the “oldest” (that is, which layer is laid down first) and which is the
“youngest” (that is, which layer is laid down last). Tell them that this is known in geology as the law of
superposition which states that, in any sequence of sedimentary strata (layers) that has not been overturned,
the youngest stratum is at the top and the oldest is at the base.
3. Dry the sediment. The drying of the mud simulates turning the sediment into rock. Drying will take place
much faster if the cups are placed in a warm, dry place for a few hours. Remind the students that real
fossilization is a bit more complicated and does not happen this quickly but can take millions of years.
4. Have the students swap cups. If possible, carefully remove the hardened mud from the cup. Students can
then excavate the “fossils” using simple tools such as toothpicks, spoons, etc.
5. Have each student write a story and draw a picture (or make a diorama) about each “environment” based on
the “fossils” they find in each layer. For example, if they found a shell, they might draw a picture of an
ocean, and write a description of what that ocean might have been like. Remind them to start with the oldest
layer and work forwards in time, pretending that the layers were formed over millions of years. Discuss how
our knowledge of today’s environments might help them decide what the past environments were like. Some
things to consider are:
What other animals and plants might have been living in that environment? What did those plants and
animals need to survive? What did they eat and who ate them? What dangers might have threatened them?
What was the climate like? What did the landscape look like?
Extension (making fossil casts)
1. Squeeze clay until it is pliable and place the clay on a paper plate.
2. Coat one side of a shell, thick green leaf, plastic animal footprint, flat plastic plant (such as a fake fern), or
bone with petroleum jelly. Press the lubricated side of the item into the clay. Carefully remove the item from
the clay. Observe the imprint. Compare the imprint in the clay with the shape and texture of the item.
3. Place four spoonfuls of dry plaster of Paris and two spoonfuls of water in disposable cup and stir with a
disposable spoon until smooth. Pour the plaster mixture into the shell imprint in the clay. Allow the plaster
to harden. This will take about 20 minutes. (Note: Do not wash any plaster down the sink as it can clog the
drain. Throw the cup and spoon away.)
4. Gently separate the clay from the plaster. Compare the shape and texture of the item with the shape and
texture of the plaster cast.
GEO- 29
Fossilization Game
School Subject
Grade Level
AZ Standards Addressed
Science
3rd - 4th
SC03-S6C1-04: Describe fossils as a record of past life forms.
SC03-S6C1-05: Describe how fossils are formed.
SC04-S6C2-06: Analyze evidence that indicates life and environmental conditions have changed.
Lesson Overview
Students will play a game to understand the fossilization process.
Lesson Objective
Students will understand the fossilization process and why some things get fossilized and some things don’t.
Materials
ƒ Fossilization cards
Background
See previous activity titled Make a Fossil.
Procedure
1. Have students choose an environment in which there is a depositional setting such as a lake, pond, stream,
swamp, desert, river, forest, or sea floor. The students can use their imaginations to describe this setting in
as much detail as they desire.
2. Each student should then choose the role of an animal or plant that might inhabit the environment they have
chosen (alternative suggestion: you can also put roles on cards and hand them out to the students). For
example, in an aquatic setting, possible roles include not only snails, clams, fish, salamanders, turtles,
alligators, and other aquatic animals, but also horses, deer, monkeys, rabbits, and birds that come to drink.
Help students think of ways they could act out their animal or plant and how different roles might interact.
For instance, a fish might wiggle and make gulping noises, a plant might grow or sway in the breeze or
current, carnivores might chase predators, herbivores might nibble on plants, etc.
3. Have the students act out their roles. Each can be given a turn to make vocalizations or gestures. Students
can also interact with each other as they might in their natural environment.
4. At a time determined by the teacher, the teacher yells “freeze” (or makes a noise with some kind of sound
maker such as a whistle or duck call). “Freeze” means that the time for possible fossilization begins and all
students must stop in their tracks. The teacher then has each student pick a card which will tell their fate.
Use the cards below, or make up your own. If you need more cards, simply make a double set. Be sure that
there are many more “destruction” cards than “fossilization” cards to represent the small chance of
something being fossilized in the real world. Students can then act out the role of their demise or
fossilization.
5. Discuss the meaning of this exercise. Have each student discuss his or her role as an organism and what
happened to this organism after it died. On the blackboard, make one list of the organisms that were
fossilized and another list of those that were destroyed. Remind the students that the only animals and plants
future paleontologist will know anything about are the ones that become fossils. Discuss whether your list of
fossils is a good representation of the living community they just acted out. Ask the students how this might
affect the science of paleontology.
GEO- 30
Extension
Play the game again with a new environment, this time asking a few of the students to pretend to be a
paleontologist and leave the room before the new environment is decided. After the rest of the students have
acted out their parts and then received their fate cards, have the destroyed plants and animals leave the scene.
The “paleontologists” can then enter the room and examine the “fossils” (allow them to read the cards and ask
what plant or animal the fossil was). The paleontologists should work as a team, taking notes of their findings
and then trying to determine what the environment was. They can also make educated guesses as to what plants
and animals are missing from the fossil record. The rest of the class can tell them the answers after the
paleontologists are done with their study.
Dry up
Dry up
Rot away
Rot away
Rot away
Eaten alive by an animal
Eaten alive by an animal
Eaten alive by an animal
Eaten alive by an animal
Eaten alive by an animal
Eaten by scavengers after death
Eaten by scavengers after death
Buried in sediment (mud, dirt, sand, etc.) – your
harder body parts become a fossil!
Buried in sediment (mud, dirt, sand, etc.) – your
harder body parts become a fossil!
Washed away by water
Washed away by water
Washed away by water
Washed away by water
You rot away but your imprint or track is buried Rot away
in sediment (mud, sand, dirt, etc.) and becomes a
fossil!
GEO- 31
GEO- 32