1. hobbies and interests
2. paranormal phenomena

Moody Gardens
Education Department Curriculum
Oceans of the World
Written and compiled by Robyn Bungay
Cover design by Lynn Velasco
Edited by Kelly Drinnen
Second Edition, October 2000
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
MISSION STATEMENT ................................................................................................i
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................iii
CHAPTER ONE: WHAT IS AN OCEAN? ....................................................................1
The Abiotic Aspect ..........................................................................................................1
The Biotic Basics .............................................................................................................5
Activity: Fill ‘Em Up!..........................................................................................6
Activity: Density Deductions...............................................................................8
Activity: Message in a Bottle...............................................................................9
Map ......................................................................................................................10
CHAPTER TWO: WHERE ARE THE OCEANS FOUND?..........................................11
The Layer of Light ...............................................................................................12
The Murky Middle...............................................................................................12
The Lowest Levels...............................................................................................12
Special Areas .......................................................................................................13
Worldwide locations of Coral Reefs and Kelp Forests........................................14
Rocky Coasts .......................................................................................................15
Coral Reefs...........................................................................................................15
Kelp Forests .........................................................................................................16
Activity: From Top to Bottom .............................................................................17
Activity: Sound Off! ............................................................................................19
Activity: Ecotones................................................................................................22
CHAPTER THREE: MARINE PRODUCERS ...............................................................23
Phytoplankton Power!..........................................................................................23
The Scoop on Seaweed ........................................................................................24
Utterly Useful.......................................................................................................26
Plants....................................................................................................................27
Chemical Converters............................................................................................27
Activity: We Need Some Light, Please! ..............................................................28
Activity: Algae vs. Plant ......................................................................................29
Activity: Appetizing Algae ..................................................................................32
CHAPTER FOUR: THE OCEAN’S INHABITANTS....................................................37
The Drifters..........................................................................................................37
The Swimmers .....................................................................................................37
The Bottom Dwellers...........................................................................................38
Coloration ............................................................................................................39
Shape....................................................................................................................40
Locomotion ..........................................................................................................41
Defensive Structures ............................................................................................42
Behaviors and Special Adaptations .....................................................................42
Activity: Animal Insulation .................................................................................44
Activity: Balancing Act .......................................................................................46
Activity: Bewildering Beasts ...............................................................................48
CHAPTER FIVE: RELATIONSHIPS IN THE OCEAN................................................51
Mutualism ............................................................................................................52
Commensalism.....................................................................................................53
Parasitism.............................................................................................................53
Activity: Wanted!.................................................................................................54
Activity: Web of Life...........................................................................................56
Activity: Quick Skits............................................................................................57
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CHAPTER SIX: THE SEAFARING TRADITION........................................................59
Age of Exploration...............................................................................................59
Ocean Cultures.....................................................................................................61
A Whale of a Tale!...............................................................................................61
Sailing the Ocean Blue.........................................................................................62
Underwater Exploration.......................................................................................62
Activity: Build an Igloo .......................................................................................64
Activity: Mythical Monsters ................................................................................65
Activity: A Day in the Life ..................................................................................67
CHAPTER SEVEN: THE IMPORTANCE OF THE OCEANS.....................................69
Mixture of Marine Life ....................................................................................................69
An Escape from Everyday ...............................................................................................69
Watery Wisdom ...................................................................................................69
Floating Along .....................................................................................................70
Off-shore Oil........................................................................................................70
Weather Watchers................................................................................................71
Food, Glorious Food!...........................................................................................72
Marine Medicinals ...............................................................................................72
Activity: Oceans Alive¾In Your Classroom!.......................................................74
Activity: On the Right Track ...............................................................................76
Activity: Just an Ocean a Day.............................................................................78
CHAPTER EIGHT: PROTECTING AND PRESERVING OUR OCEANS..................81
Pollution Problems...............................................................................................81
Overharvesting.....................................................................................................83
Legislative Efforts................................................................................................83
People Power! ......................................................................................................84
Scientific Solutions ..............................................................................................85
Moody Gardens....................................................................................................85
What Can I Do? ...................................................................................................85
The Future............................................................................................................86
Activity: Conservation Pond................................................................................87
Activity: The Problem with Plastics ....................................................................89
Activity: Toxin Multiplication.............................................................................91
GLOSSARY ....................................................................................................................93
APPENDIX 1...................................................................................................................98
Ocean Conservation Organizations
APPENDIX 2................................................................................................................100
Helpful Websites
APPENDIX 3................................................................................................................101
Alignment with Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS)
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................121
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MOODY GARDENS MISSION STATEMENT
Moody Gardens is a public, nonprofit educational destination utilizing nature in the
advancement of rehabilitation, conservation, recreation and research.
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT MISSION STATEMENT
The Education Department at Moody Gardens strives to instill in guests an
enthusiasm, appreciation and stewardship for the natural world by creating a
stimulating environment for learning.
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT GOALS
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To offer a variety of educational programs and publications.
To create programs which motivate guests to action.
To provide a fun and educational experience for guests of all ages.
To ensure that every guest learns something new.
To present accurate information.
To establish a rapport with the local community.
To support local school districts.
To supplement the traditional classroom experience.
To furnish continuing education opportunities for teachers.
To encourage research and investigation.
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INTRODUCTION
With about 70% of the earth's surface under water, the oceans play a big part in the survival of
the human race. In fact, about 67% of the world’s population lives within 300 miles (483 km) of
the ocean. For thousands of years, the ocean and its creatures have provided clothing, food,
solace, and a sense of awe and wonder as to what lay just beyond the grasp of mankind. With
recent scientific advancements, such as SCUBA and underwater exploratory equipment, we have
been able to further explore the mysteries the sea has to offer. The information obtained has only
led us to more intriguing questions of all dimensions. The ocean truly is the last frontier on
earth.
Because we must travel to an underwater world that is foreign to our species, it is difficult to
identify, observe, and explore all aspects of oceanic life. However, with the help of the
Aquarium at Moody Gardens, it is possible to attain a glimpse of the habits, behaviors and
adaptations of various species of fish, birds, mammals, and invertebrates that inhabit the world's
oceans. With greater understanding and appreciation for the marine environment, people have
the opportunity to do something about the problems the ocean is facing. With the threat of
overharvesting, sedimentation, eutrophication, and pollution, the sea certainly has a lot to
contend with. It is with individuals that protection and preservation must begin, and it is by
understanding the importance of the oceans that people are able to make intelligent choices about
saving them.
This curriculum guide is provided to help students and educators link the processes of the oceans
with our everyday lives.
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CHAPTER ONE
WHAT IS AN OCEAN?
An ocean is a large body of salt water on the earth's surface. At the present time, about 70% of
the earth's surface is covered by oceans, which have an average depth of 13,124 feet (4003 m).
This may sound like a lot of water, but if you compare it to the diameter of the earth, it is
actually a very thin layer. The world ocean has commonly been divided into four main oceans:
Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic, and Indian, but in reality, they are all interconnected. These
connections allow for the transfer of seawater and marine organisms.
Because oceans are found all over the world, the surface temperature can range from a freezing
32° F (0°C) near the North and South Poles to over 80° F (26.7°C) around the tropics! It is the
mixing of the waters due to ocean currents that allows for the dispersal of heat to different parts
of the world. The sea never stays in one place; it is constantly moving in different directions, at
different speeds, and is influenced by many forces. Wind, water temperatures, and salinity all
influence the movement of ocean waters.
Oceans are a rich source of food, energy, minerals, and medicines, and have influenced
everything from the world’s climate to different cultures. Their importance is increasing
dramatically as technology improves and terrestrial resources become scarce.
The marine environment can be divided into two distinct categories: abiotic and biotic. It is very
important for the complete understanding of marine processes to look at how each aspect
interconnects with the other.
The Abiotic Aspect The abiotic portion of the ocean consists of the non-living, or physical,
characteristics, such as the chemical (molecular) make up of seawater, salinity, temperature,
density, and movement of water by way of currents and tides. These physical characteristics are
important because they determine the life forms that make up the ecosystem in a given region of
the ocean.
Molecular Make-up Water is crucial to the survival of living organisms. In fact, water
accounts for 80-90% of the volume of most marine organisms, providing buoyancy, a medium
for life-sustaining chemical reactions, and structural support.
Water is a very common, yet unique, substance on earth, with large portions found
in the liquid form. There is also a tremendous amount of water in the atmosphere
tied up in the gaseous phase, and a significant portion can be found as ice and snow, the solid
phase of water. Separately, each water molecule is a very simple
105°
structure; it is made of two hydrogen molecules and one oxygen molecule
that are joined together due to differences in charges. When placed with
other water molecules, the collective properties become very complex.
Hydrogen bonds between different molecules provide for a strong link
from molecule to molecule. This link causes water to
be very “sticky,” holding the molecules together unless a significant amount of
energy is put into the system. This is why water has such a high boiling point (212°
F, 100° C) and low freezing point (32° F, 0° C), and why water exhibits surface
tension. The mutual attraction of water molecules at the surface of water creates
a flexible “skin” over the water surface. Animals such as water striders are fully
supported by the surface tension of the water.
Salinity Ocean water contains thousands of dissolved particles. The amount of these particles is
known as the salinity. Over 98% of the particles in water are salt. The major contributing
elements of salinity are sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl). Salinity is typically measured in parts per
thousand (ppt). Full strength seawater has a salinity of 35 ppt, meaning that if you had 1000
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parts of water, 35 parts of that would be the dissolved particles. Fresh water has a salinity of less
than 1 ppt. Brackish water is a mixture of salt and fresh water and may have a salinity ranging
from about 1 ppt to 25 ppt. Examples of brackish water systems are bays and estuaries.
Temperature The average ocean temperature is fairly consistent throughout the world. Surface
waters around the globe vary greatly due to uneven warming by the sun. However, below the
photic layer (where light penetrates), water temperatures drop rapidly in a layer called the
thermocline, until you get to the deep open waters where it can be as chilly as 39° F (4° C)!
Density The density of any substance is measured by the mass per unit volume (grams per
milliliter¾g/ml). Pure water has a density of 1 g/ml. However, changes in salinity, temperature,
and pressure affect the density of water. Water is denser at higher salinities, lower temperatures
(as low as 39°F or 4°C), and higher pressures. Water is less dense at lower salinities, higher
temperatures and lower pressure. The only exception to this rule is when the temperature of
water drops below 39° F (4° C). At this point water becomes less dense due to the arrangement
of the water molecules. This explains why ice floats.
pH When a pH measurement is taken, a scientist is looking at the concentration of hydrogen
(H+) ions in the solution. The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14, with 1 having a high concentration
of hydrogen ions and being very acidic. Pure water falls in the middle of the scale at 7, and basic
solutions lean towards the 14 end of the spectrum.
ACIDIC
BASIC
1____2____3____4____5 ___6_ 7___8____9___10__ 11__12__13 _14
oven cleaner
bleach
ammonia
milk of magnesia
baking soda
Seawater
pure water
saliva
black coffee
tomatoes
beer, vinegar,
wine
lemon juice
gastric juices
The ocean has a pretty consistent pH of 8.1; it is slightly alkaline (basic).
The Ocean is in Motion! Water in the ocean is always on the move. Wind generated currents
carry large masses of surface water great distances across the open sea. Deep-water currents are
created by differences in the temperatures of water masses. Either way, water never remains in
one place for a long period of time.
Prevailing wind currents, the winds that constantly blow in the same general direction, are
responsible for many of the surface currents (see map on page 10). These winds blow the water
along with them, allowing the redistribution of energy from the sun, nutrients and oxygen. Wind
currents would continually flow in the same direction if not for the rotation of the earth around
its axis. A phenomenon known as the Coriolis Effect causes water and winds to deflect from
their set path. In the northern hemisphere, the result is a clockwise deflection, while the southern
hemisphere experiences a counter-clockwise deflection.
Currents caused by temperature differences between warm equatorial waters and cool polar
waters allow deep ocean water to get circulated throughout the ocean. At the poles, the cold,
dense water sinks, and moves like a conveyor belt slowly towards the equator. In the Atlantic
Ocean, the deep water has a residence time of 275 years! At the same time, warm water at the
equator flows to the poles, replacing the sinking colder water.
The vertical mixing caused by currents brings much needed oxygen to deeper depths, and
nutrients are brought to the surface of the water. Warm waters also help to bring a milder
climate to regions that would otherwise be very cold. The Gulf Stream that forms in the Gulf of
Mexico and flows across the Atlantic Ocean brings warm weather to much of Northern Europe.
Without this circulation, European countries would be just as cold as Canadian provinces at the
same latitude.
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A Maze of Waves Not only is wind responsible for the generation of currents, it also creates a
number of different types of waves. The difference between currents and waves is that currents
transport water from one place to another. Waves do not. Instead, waves are simply a form of
energy that is transferred through water. Water molecules do not actually move forward as a
wave passes through. Think about a bobber on a fishing line. It moves up and down with the
waves but is not moved forward.
Waves that have no set pattern or size are known as “seas.” They are generally described as
choppy waves. As seas move further from the area where they form, they fall into a more
regular pattern based on their wavelengths.
SEAS
SWELLS
SURF
These more regular waves are called “swells.” Swells can travel hundreds, even thousands of
miles across the ocean! Eventually, as the water becomes shallower, the waves slow down and
their wavelength decreases. This causes the waves to get taller and taller, relative to the water
depth, until they become top-heavy and fall over on themselves. These are what we call
breaking waves, or surf.
Daily Highs and Lows Tides are the daily rise and fall of the sea; essentially they are waves
with a very long wavelength and a small height. While most other waves are driven by winds,
tides are the result of the gravitational pull of the moon and to a lesser extent, the sun. Several
other factors, including the relative positions of the earth, moon and sun to each other, and the
size, shape and depth of the earth’s oceans all influence the rise and fall of the tides.
Pull of the water on earth
Sun
Earth
Moon
Most places on earth experience two high tides and two low tides in a 24-hour period. There are
some places, such as the coast of Alaska, that only have one high tide and one low tide every
day. The average change in water level between high and low tides is 3-10 feet (1-3 m).
However, one location experiences a bit more of a change. The funnel-shaped Bay of Fundy in
Canada has a tidal range of 65 feet (20 m)!
The Biotic Basics Any living portion of an ecosystem is known as the biotic portion. This
encompasses all living plants, animals, bacteria and protists. The oceans are where life
originated. While some life forms slowly adapted to living on land, a vast majority of species
remained in the sea.
Generally, the biotic community is divided into three basic categories based on the organisms’
sources of nutrition¾producers, consumers and decomposers. Producers, such as the marine
plants and algae utilize incoming sunlight to create their own food through the process of
photosynthesis. Consumers graze on producers or prey on other consumers for food.
Decomposers are responsible for breaking down the dead organic material in the ecosystem.
The biotic community can also be categorized based on the organisms’ spatial distribution.
Plankton, both phytoplankton (plant) and zooplankton (animal), are small and are at the mercy of
the waves and currents. Nekton, the larger animals, are able to move in and out of the currents.
They occupy all regions of the ocean. Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers. They are
distributed across the ocean floor.
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FILL ‘EM UP!
Activity: Grades K-5
Objective: To show the relative amounts of water found in each of the four
major oceans.
Materials:
globe or map of the world
bucket
graph paper
measuring cup
4 one-quart containers
pencils
Procedure:
1. Display a map or globe. Point out the four major oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian,
Arctic). Ask students to name the largest ocean (Pacific).
2. Label each quart container with the name of a different ocean.
3. Fill the bucket with 1 gallon of water. Using the measuring cup, place _ cup of water in
the quart container labeled “Arctic Ocean.” This represents the comparative amount of water
in the Arctic Ocean.
4. Place 1_ cups of water in the container labeled “Indian Ocean” to show the comparative
amount of water in the Indian Ocean.
5. Measure 1_ cups of water and place it in the “Atlantic Ocean” container.
6. Have students take a good look at the map and ask them how much water they think
should be placed in the “Pacific Ocean” container. Take the Arctic, Indian, and Atlantic
containers and pour them into the Pacific container. Ask students if they think this is the
right amount of water in the Pacific Ocean. Measure out _ cup more and pour it into the
Pacific container. This is the right amount for the Pacific Ocean.
7. Discuss with students that all the other oceans of the world would easily fit into the
Pacific Ocean.
Pacific Ocean = 4 cups water
Atlantic Ocean = 1_ cups
Indian Ocean = 1_ cups
Arctic Ocean = _ cup
8. Have each student graph the relative amounts of water in each ocean. Which type of
graph would be the best representation of the relative amounts of water?
Related Activity:
Have students determine what percentage of all ocean water lies in each ocean. Graph the results
in either a bar graph or a pie graph.
Total = 7_ cups
Arctic = _ 7_
Indian = 1_ 7_
Atlantic = 1_ 7_
Pacific = 4 7_
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DENSITY DEDUCTIONS
Objective:
Activity: Grades 6-8
To determine how the differences in temperature and salinity affect
water density.
Materials:
3 beakers
salt
refrigerator
graduated cylinder
electronic balance
glass baking dish
food coloring
spoon
Procedure:
1. Using the graduated cylinder, measure out 100 ml of tap water. Place 100 ml of water in each
of the three beakers. Add 4 drops of green food coloring to one beaker, and place it in the
refrigerator for 30 minutes.
2. Using the electronic balance, measure 50 grams of salt. Place it in the second beaker along
with 4 drops of blue food coloring. Stir with the spoon.
3. Measure 100 grams of salt and add it to the third beaker. Add 4 drops of red food coloring.
Stir.
4. Partly fill the baking dish with room temperature tap water.
5. Slowly pour the blue salt solution into the dish. Next, slowly pour the red solution into the
pan. What happens? (Saltier water is heavier and should sink to the bottom. A layering effect
should be observed with the colorless water on top, blue in the middle and red on the bottom.)
6. After the salt experiment is completed, clean out the baking dish and partially fill it with room
temperature fresh water. Remove the beaker of green water from the refrigerator. Slowly pour
the green water into the baking pan. What happens? (The cold water is heavier and should sink
below the colorless water.)
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MESSAGE IN A BOTTLE
Activity: Grades 9-12
Background:
Duck Overboard! In 1992, a ship carrying a cargo of rubber ducks, frogs and other bath toys
got caught in a storm in the Pacific Ocean. One of the containers carrying over 7,000 toys split
open, releasing the bath toys into the ocean. Over the course of the following year, a number of
the rubber ducks made their way to Alaska, and some even got stuck in polar ice! Several ducks
flew the coop and made their way around North America and into the Atlantic Ocean. What
brought them there? It was the major ocean currents that carried the ducks from the site of the
storm in the Pacific to various locations around the world.
Objective: To identify ocean currents, their origin, and direction of flow.
Materials:
map of currents (page 10)
Procedure:
1. Distribute map of world currents to each student. Have each student choose a country or
region of the world they would like to learn about.
2. Explain that they are going to send a message to that country asking for information, but they
don’t have enough postage to send a letter. Instead, they are going to send their message by way
of a bottle.
3. Students should consult their maps to determine the path the bottle must travel to make it to
its final destination. Ask them to identify the ocean currents in which the bottle would travel.
Related Activities:
1. Have students write a letter, seal it in a bottle and drop it in the ocean. Record the departure
site of the bottle and wait for a response to see where the bottle ends up. Don’t forget to include
a way for the finder of the bottle to reach them!
2. Read the story at the beginning of the page. Ask students to devise their own methods of
studying ocean currents. What physical properties can be looked at to see the paths of the
currents? (temperature, water density) What are some of the methods of tracking the paths?
(satellite imagery, trace element tracking) Ask them to present their tracking techniques to the
class.
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CHAPTER TWO
WHERE ARE THE OCEANS FOUND?
At the beginning of the 20th century Alfred Wegner proposed the theory of continental drift,
saying that about 200 million years ago, all the continents were joined together to form a super
continent known as Pangaea. There was only one ocean that surrounded this super continent.
He believed that the breakup of Pangaea produced ocean basins where none existed before. As
the land masses drifted apart, water from the super ocean spilled in between, creating the
beginnings of the oceans we have today.
At the present time, there are four major oceans. The largest, both area and volume-wise, is the
Pacific Ocean. This ocean has more water than all the other oceans combined! The second
largest is the Atlantic Ocean. On a map, the Indian Ocean looks much smaller than the Atlantic
Ocean, but it contains almost as much water. This is because the Indian Ocean is very deep.
Finally, the smallest of the oceans is the Arctic Ocean.
If you were to take a look at the ocean from a boat, it may appear to be one large, uniform mass
of blue, salty water. But this is far from true! Because of its three-dimensional properties, it is
important to realize that depth plays an important role in defining where oceans are found.
Scientists have devised a way to classify these zones; they look at how much light reaches
various depths in the water and the temperature of those waters. By noticing these two
characteristics, scientists can tell a lot about the plants and animals that live in those regions.
300 m
600 m
Continental Shelf
Continental Slope
Mid-ocean Ridge
900 m
Abyssal plain
Trench
The Layer of Light: The shallowest depths of the ocean, where sunlight levels are high, is
known as the photic, or sunlight zone. The depth of this layer averages 300 feet (91 m), but may
range anywhere from a few feet (1 m) to about 600 feet (182 m) in depth! The actual depth of
this layer varies depending on the time of year and part of the world being studied. Plants
receive enough sunlight to grow in this layer, and over 90% of all marine animals are found here,
as well. This layer has been studied in depth because of SCUBA technology and submersible
equipment.
A special part of the sunlight zone, known as the continental shelf, contains some of the most
nutrient-rich waters on earth. Nutrients are derived from the run off of fertilizers from near-by
land, decomposing plants and animals, and upwelling from deeper waters. Because of this,
continental shelves are among the most productive sections of the oceans, and harbor large
populations of marine plants and animals. Over half of the world’s commercial fish catch comes
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from the continental shelves, yet they cover only 8% of the earth! Continental shelves disappear
abruptly as you move towards the open ocean.
The Murky Middle: As you dive deeper into the ocean depths, light slowly disappears. Areas of
little to no light are known as aphotic zones. This murky middle part of the ocean begins at
about 600 feet (182 m) and extends down to about 3000 feet (915 m). Plants and algae cannot
survive here due to low light levels, but small animals are found in this transitional layer.
Because of the lack of primary productivity by plants and algae, animals in this middle zone rely
on predation and scavenging to get their food. Mid-water zooplankton and fish travel into the
sunlight zone each night to feast upon the abundance of food that layer provides. Some middle
zone fish survive by preying directly on other organisms that share this layer. Other organisms
feast on the decaying plant and animal material that sinks from the upper levels.
The Lowest Levels: The very bottom of the ocean, often called the abyss, remains a mystery to
humankind. This region, beginning at a depth of about 3,000 feet (915 m) and stretching to the
ocean floor, comprises over 75% of the world’s ocean. That’s about 250 million cubic miles of
water! Several expeditions have taken place to explore only the deepest reaches of the ocean
floor, primarily deep-water trenches and portions of the abyssal plain. Information received
from these journeys indicates a completely different way of life. Creatures in this region must
adapt to the high pressure (up to two tons per square inch!), freezing temperatures, and light-less
existence of their surrounding environment. This section of the ocean also gives us many clues
to the secrets of plate tectonics and sea floor spreading.
Because of the extreme depths and lack of light, plants are foreign to this zone, leaving it full of
strange and intriguing animals. Most animals in this zone are pure scavengers, devouring large
pieces of decaying animal matter such as whale carcasses. Hagfish, anglerfish, sleeper sharks
and other deep-sea fishes are common inhabitants of this zone. All abyssal animals are smaller
than those found in shallower regions of the ocean. A slower metabolic rate causes their growth
to be stunted. What they lack in size, however, they make up for in longevity. These smaller
animals tend to live for many years.
The floor of the abyssal plain is home to deep-water crabs, snails, sea cucumbers, sea pens, acorn
worms and sponges. They may scavenge pieces of food from the leftovers of larger animals or
scoop up and ingest the sediment in search of nutrients. For the most part, however, the flat
abyssal plain is an uninhabited, silty place. The ocean floor cannot support a wide base of
organisms because of the lack of food that reaches these depths.
Some portions of the abyssal plain drop off to greater depths, giving way to deep-sea trenches.
The trenches, often found at depths greater than 19,685 feet (6,004 m), have been well studied by
ROV’s (Remotely Operated Vehicles) such as the HMS Challenger. The deepest trench is the
Marianas Trench in the North Pacific. It reaches down 35,839 feet (10,931 m) from the surface
of the water; this is as far below sea level as jets fly above sea level!
While trenches account for only about 2% of the ocean floor, they are home to a unique
community of animals. Some of these trenches are centered around special hydrothermal vents,
or cracks in the crust of the earth that emit warm, mineral rich water. These areas are special
because they support a multitude of life forms. Since there are no plants to serve as the base of
the food chain in these vents, special bacteria use the chemicals (hydrogen sulfide) from this
water to make food through the process of chemosynthesis. Other animals then eat the bacteria
as food, or form symbiotic relationships with the bacteria in order to get food.
Special Areas Within the photic layer, there are a number of special areas that require our
attention and understanding. Much of the ocean is a desert, with little life able to live in nutrient
depleted areas, but these special areas provide oases where aquatic life abounds.
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Rocky Coasts The rocky coasts and intertidal areas are very dynamic and stressful places to
live. For organisms that make these areas their homes, life is a constant challenge. They must
deal with the tides that go in and out every day and the pounding surf. As tides recede, some
animals are left high and dry, while others are trapped in small pools that form in basins between
rocks. These tide pools are subject to variations in salinity and temperature, so organisms living
in these small pools of life must be able to deal with such extremes. Crashing waves are another
problem these organisms face. Without strong methods of attachment, they would easily be
washed away into the ocean.
Coral Reefs Known as the “rainforests of the sea,” coral reefs are among the most beautiful and
biologically diverse ecosystems in the world. They are home to thousands of species of animals
and plants, offering food, shelter and safety from the predators of the ocean. Over 700 species of
coral have been described throughout the world. They range from the cooler waters of the deep
sea to the tropical regions around the equator. Not all corals are reef-forming species, but most
of the corals we are familiar with contribute to the reef ecosystem. These areas cover less than
1% of the earth’s surface, but they are home to over one-fourth of all fish.
Reef forming corals require very specific conditions to grow. High salinity, wave action,
temperatures ranging from 68°-82°F (20°-28°C), and clear waters are among the most important
conditions that must be met in order for a reef ecosystem to develop. As a result, coral reefs are
primarily found in a 1,500-mile (2,414 km) band around the equator, generally between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
There are three main types of reefs that scientists acknowledge: fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and
atolls. Fringing reefs form borders around the shorelines of islands. The coral reefs surrounding
the Hawaiian Islands are fringing reefs. The second type of reef, the barrier reef, is separated
from the shore by a shallow lagoon. The most widely known barrier reef is the Great Barrier
Reef in Australia. It is actually the single largest biological feature on earth, with an estimated
340 coral species that contribute to the structure. It is so large that astronauts can see the Barrier
Reef from space! The entire reef runs along 1,240 miles (1,996km) of Australia’s northeastern
coast. The final type of reef is the atoll. Atolls are ring shaped reef formations that surround
shallow lagoons. The Pacific Ocean is full of atolls!
Tiny relatives of jellyfish and anemones are responsible for creating the hard structure of the
coral reef. The coral polyps have soft bodies but secrete hard skeletons of calcium carbonate, a
chalky substance. When you
hold a piece of coral, you are actually holding the skeletons that
remain after the coral have died. Coral reefs grow upward,
with new polyps settling on the old skeletons. The new polyps
lay down their own skeletons, thus adding to the reef structure.
Most species of coral have a special symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae (see chapter 5).
This relationship is very delicate and can be upset if the conditions are slightly off. Corals
function as indicators in the marine environment. Scientists know that if the coral do not have the
proper conditions to grow, the zooxanthellae will leave and the polyp eventually dies. This event
is known as coral bleaching. By monitoring the amount of coral bleaching on a reef, scientists
can tell when the ecosystem is not in balance.
Kelp forests Coral reefs may be called the “rainforests of the sea,” but there are other
underwater forests teeming with wildlife and lush vegetation. These areas are known as kelp
forests because of the large plant-like kelp that clings to rocks and other solid objects on the
bottom.
Kelp forests are found in the cool, nutrient rich coastal waters of the world. Large areas of kelp,
called stands, grow best in water where the temperature stays below 72° F (22.2°C). Kelp
28
forests of the Pacific range from Alaska to Baja, California, while the coasts of Chile, Peru,
Australia, and South Africa are some other areas where kelp forests thrive.
Kelp forests are home to hundreds of marine animals. They offer some of the most essential
components necessary to life: shelter and food. Seals, sea lions, and otters take advantage of the
buoyant surface and lush canopy of kelp fronds. The fronds also act as a cover for many fish and
invertebrates. Dense growth of kelp allows for smaller prey to out-maneuver larger predators
such as blue and mako sharks. However, these and other apex predators are not entirely
deterred. They often wait at the edge of the forest for the inhabitants to venture too far from the
safety of the kelp. Other species simply rely on the dim light to shield them from view.
The kelp fronds provide a source of food for many different organisms. Some feed on the fronds
of the living kelp, while others prefer to eat the drift kelp that has broken away or sunk to the
bottom.
29
FROM TOP TO BOTTOM
Activity: Grades K-5
Objective: To compare the depths of oceanic features with the heights of
terrestrial features.
Materials:
paper
markers
tape
pencils
ruler
scissors
Procedure:
1. Give each student 2 blank sheets of paper. On one side of one sheet of paper, ask students to
write their answers to the following questions: How high is the tallest mountain on land? How
tall is the highest mountain on earth? What is the average height of land? What is the average
depth of the sea? What is the greatest known depth in the ocean?
2. Have students give their responses to the class. Write the responses on the board.
3. Next to the students’ answers, write the actual answers for the questions.
Mountain Heights................................................Ocean Depths
Highest mountain on land:
Highest mountain on earth:
Mt. Everest
Mauna Kea, Hawaii
29,141 ft. (8,888 m)
33,476 ft. (10,210 m)
Average height of land:
Average depth of the ocean:
2,707 ft. (826 m) above sea level
13,124 ft. (4,003m) below sea level
Greatest known depth:
Marianas Trench, Pacific Ocean
35,839 ft. (10,931 m)
4. Locate each feature on a world map.
5. Have students turn their papers over. Tell them to hold the paper lengthwise and draw a
horizontal line across the middle of the paper. This represents sea level on the graph they will
create to plot the actual answers to the questions.
6. Have each student work independently to devise a scale to accurately represent the relative
sizes for each feature. Students should then create a bar graph to show the results. Land features
should be graphed above sea level, oceanic features below sea level. Markers can be used to
color each bar.
7. On the second sheet of paper, ask students to recreate the bars for all oceanic features.
8. Next, have students cut out the bars from
the second paper and place them on top of their
counterparts on the graph. Tape them at the sea level
mark on the graph. This allows the cut out bar
to be flipped up to easily show how it compares
to the size of the terrestrial feature.
How much larger are the ocean features?
30
Related Activity:
Take each student’s answer to the questions in procedure #1 and write it on the board. Have
students calculate the average answer for each question. Compare this average answer with the
actual answer. Students can calculate the percentage of error of their answers to the actual
answer using the following formula:
(actual answer - average answer)
actual answer
31
SOUND OFF!
Activity: Grades 6-8
Background:
The ocean floor topography is similar to the land portions of earth. Scientists have devised
various methods to map these ups and downs. Remote satellite sensing has provided us with one
way of learning the topography, but the technique of echo sounding is our main source of
information about the ocean floor. By emitting sound
signals from boats at the surface of the water, the
depth of a particular location can be determined
based on the length of time it takes for that sound
signal to return to the boat. Regular frequent pulses
are sent out from echo sounders as the ship moves
along the surface of the water. If the velocity at which
sound travels in water has been determined, the distance to the bottom is equal to the velocity of
times one-half the amount of time it takes for the signal to return to the receiver. (D = _ * V * T)
Objective: To explain methods of mapping the ocean floor.
Materials:
Ocean Depth Data worksheet
pencils
atlas or globe
tape
graph paper
Procedure:
1. Distribute a copy of the Ocean Depth Data worksheet to each student. This data was taken at
38°N latitude in the Atlantic Ocean. Explain how scientists gathered this data (see above).
2. Ask students to look at the atlas or globe and find 38°N latitude. What state in the United
States and which European country is found at this latitude? (Virginia and Portugal)
3. Have students create a graph that extends over three pieces of graph paper taped together
lengthwise. Tell them to graph the data from the worksheet. Each data point on the graph
should then be connected by a line to create a profile of the ocean floor at 38°N latitude.
Related Activities:
1. Label the features of the profile on the graph. Features such as continental shelf, continental
slope, continental rise, abyssal plain, and mid-oceanic ridge are easily seen on their ocean
profile. Have students define each of these terms.
2. Using a topographic map or globe, have students identify other areas of the world where a
similar ocean profile may be seen.
3. Ask students to point out the area where the mid-oceanic ridge is found. Explain that this is
part of a continuous mountain chain that is found in all oceans and circles the earth, much like
the seam of a baseball. Why is this important? (this is the site of new ocean crust formation)
Are there any islands that are the result of volcanic activity from this area? (Iceland, Azores,
Reunion, and the Galapagos) Have students locate these islands on a map or globe.
4. Have students input the worksheet data into a computer-graphing program.
32
OCEAN DEPTH DATA at 38° N latitude in the Atlantic Ocean
Taken from the Defense Mapping Agency, Hydrographic/ Topographic Center, Washington, DC
Distance from the U.S.
Depth
(nautical miles)
(feet)
10
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3350
3400
60
240
7500
9600
12000
14850
16278
14706
16650
16830
17160
17298
16830
17460
17310
17298
16698
16500
15978
12978
14790
9840
3798
5952
4620
6150
11940
14070
14658
16398
17172
14880
15858
15240
2430
1770
978
33
ECOTONES
Activity: Grades 9-12
Background:
An ecotone is an area where two very different habitats converge. Because of the variety of food
sources and shelter an ecotone offers, high species diversity is seen there. A beach is one
example, representing both land and sea. Aquatic animals are seen at the beach as well as
animals that can tolerate being out of the water for short periods of time. Hermit crabs run in and
out of the water. Mole crabs bury themselves in the sand. Horseshoe crabs come to shore to
mate and lay eggs. Land animals also come to the beach for food. Birds fly over the water in
search of a meal, then come back to shore for periods of rest.
Objective: To define an ecotone and describe its importance in the
environment.
Materials:
note pad
pencils
Procedure:
1. Define “ecotone” for the students. Describe diversity at the ecotone using a Venn diagram.
habitat 1
habitat 2
ecotone
2. List examples of ecotones on the board.
3. Visit an ecotone near the school. This may be a field/forest, the beach, or a pond/field. Use
the most convenient location for your school.
4. Tell students to write observations about the ecotone in their field notebooks. First, they
should identify the two converging habitats. Then have them list and describe plant and animal
species they find. Allow 20-30 minutes for these observations.
5. During the next class period, have each student write about one animal they found evidence
of during the observation session, and describe the different experiences that animal has in the
different habitats. Consider how that animal interacts with other biotic and abiotic components
of the habitats.
34
CHAPTER THREE
MARINE PRODUCERS
Within the ocean’s layer of light, marine primary producers thrive, ranging from microscopic
cyanobacteria to tree-sized kelp. Most primary production in the marine environment is carried
out by various species of algae and single or multi-cellular organisms. Plants account for very
little primary production in the ocean; sea grasses and flowering plants are found in very limited
areas of the marine environment.
Like all autotrophs (auto = self, tropho = nourishment), algae and marine plants have certain
requirements that must be met in order for them to live and grow. Sunlight is the first
requirement. Most marine producers are found in areas where sunlight can penetrate. These
producers use light energy from the sun in the process of photosynthesis. During photosynthesis,
they convert carbon dioxide, water and light energy into sugars (food) and oxygen gas.
Certain nutrients are also required for primary production. Nitrogen and phosphorus are among
the most important nutrients needed by plants and algae for growth. With reduced levels of
either of these nutrients, primary production cannot occur. Other producers require nutrients
such as silica and calcium for growth as well. These minerals are used in the formation of the
outer covering (frustule) of many phytoplankton. Without materials for their frustule, the
organisms are unable to grow and reproduce.
Phytoplankton Power! The base of the entire marine food chain rests on some of the smallest
organisms on earth¾the phytoplankton (phyto = plant, plankto = wandering). Members of the
phytoplankton are usually unicellular algae, such as diatoms. These organisms change inorganic
nutrients in the water to food and oxygen, through the process of photosynthesis. In fact,
scientists estimate that 75-85% of all organic matter and about 80% of all oxygen on earth is
produced by phytoplankton.
Diatoms, single-celled algae, have frustules (shells) made of silica, the same material found in
glass. These shells are made of two parts, much like a box.
The top portion overlaps the bottom portion of the frustule. Diatoms are drifters that come in all
shapes and sizes. They are probably the single most important food source in the ocean as many
zooplankton and suspension feeders consume them.
Other important members of the phytoplankton are dinoflagellates. Dino-flagellates are singlecelled organisms that propel themselves with two tail-like flagella found in grooves in their
body. They are second to the diatoms as far as primary production is concerned.
Dinoflagellates, particularly Gymnodinium and Gonyaulax, are also the cause of red tide, which
occurs when there is a significant bloom of these dinoflagellates. The water turns a reddish color
from the presence of so many organisms. In such large quantities, the metabolic processes of
these organisms have toxic effects on other creatures in the water. High mortality in fish and
marine invertebrates is common. Dinoflagellate toxins interfere with nerve functions, causing
paralysis, or irritate lung tissue of air breathing vertebrates, including humans.
Coccolithophores are unicellular members of the phytoplankton that are covered in small
calcareous plates. They thrive in areas of high light intensity and are found in warm waters
worldwide. One species, Emiliania huxleyi, seems to be responsible for most of the
photosynthesis in the Sargasso Sea.
The Scoop on Seaweed Marine algae, or seaweeds as they are often called, are very different
from plants, and have been around for a much longer time. Algae of some type or another have
been on earth for more than two billion years! Plants and algae are actually classified in two
different kingdoms! Marine algae lack many of the structures we associate with plants such as
roots, stems, leaves and flowers. Instead, algae have other structures that allow them to live and
grow successfully in water. Many seaweeds have a structure known as the blade. The blade is
35
similar to a leaf on a land plant; this is where photosynthesis primarily takes place. In some
species, a gas sac is attached to the blade. This sac, the pneumatocyst,
is filled with air and functions as a float, keeping
the blades of the algae close to the surface so it can
get the sunlight needed for photosynthesis. Blades are
attached to a flexible stem-like structure called the stipe,
which allows the kelp to bend easily with the waves and tides.
The base of the stipe broadens to become the holdfast.
People often compare the holdfast of algae to the roots of a
plant, but despite this resemblance, it does not perform the
same functions. Roots are responsible for transporting
nutrients and water from the soil to the rest of the plant.
Seaweeds, however, are surrounded by nutrient rich water; roots are not necessary. The holdfast
is simply the anchor for the algae, keeping it from being pulled away by the waves and currents.
Some species of algae are free floating organisms, but most grow attached to hard surfaces such
as rocks, corals, and shells. Many types of seaweed are found in the intertidal zone, subtidal
zone, and shallow waters of the ocean. Some species grow as deep as 130 feet (40 m) or even
deeper, provided that sunlight can reach them.
Algae are commonly divided into three categories: green, red, and brown. This classification is
derived from the pigment(s) that give each organism its color. All three types of algae contain
chlorophyll a, one of the pigments responsible for giving a green color to autotrophic organisms.
However, in brown and red algae, there are high concentrations of accessory pigments that cause
the algae to take on a brown, yellow, red or even a bluish hue.
Green algae: Chlorophyta Of the 7,000+ species of green algae, only 10% are marine species.
Others are found growing in freshwater habitats and in terrestrial environments. Because these
algae need lots of sunlight for photosynthesis, they are found growing near the surface of the
water. Green algae receive their green color from chlorophylls a and b, but they also contain
beta-carotene (red/orange) and various xanthophylls (yellows and browns). Some common
examples of this group are Ulva (sea lettuce), Codium, and Enteromorpha.
Brown algae: Phaeophyta Brown algae can live in deeper waters than green algae, often
preferring the cooler temperatures of those waters. Some species can be found growing as deep
as 200 feet (61 m)! Most of the 1,500 species of brown algae are marine. The brown color is a
result of the dominance of the pigment fucoxanthin, which masks the presence of other pigments
such as chlorophylls a and c and beta-carotene. Many intertidal algae such as rockweeds
(Fucus), along with kelps, are included in this group.
Giant kelp off the California coast forms a very unique community. The Macrocystis and
Nereocystis kelps can grow as rapidly as 1-2 feet a day! Each year, over 210,000 tons (190,470
metric tons) of kelp are harvested for food and industrial uses. Another unique community of
brown algae is found off the east coast of the United States. The Sargasso Sea, located just south
of Bermuda, contains over seven million tons (6,349,000 metric tons) of Sargassum, all of which
is a floating home to thousands of fish, crabs, shrimp and other marine organisms.
36
Red algae: Rhodophyta The last group of seaweeds, the red algae, contain more marine species
than the green and brown algae combined. Of the more than 4,000 members in this group, over
98% of the species are marine inhabitants. Red algae are most often found in deep waters where
the water is very calm. Because of this, red algae tend to be more delicate than other types of
algae. They can live at depths of almost 2,000 feet (610 m) because of the pigments found in
their cells. Phycoerithrin gives the organisms their red color. This pigment reflects red light and
absorbs blue light. Because blue light penetrates deeper than any other color in the spectrum, the
presence of phycoerithrin allows red algae to photosynthesize at greater depths than most algae.
Some rhodophytes are major players in the formation of coral reefs. In some Pacific atolls, the
reef building coralline algae have contributed far more to the reef structure than the coral polyps
have! The coralline algae secrete a hard shell of carbonate around themselves in much the same
way that corals do. Other species of red algae, such as Porphyra, Dulse, and purple laver are
economically important, maybe even more so than the brown algae!
Utterly Useful Many people are unaware of the number of products they consume on a daily
basis which contain seaweed in one form or another. Algae are full of nutrients, vitamins and
minerals, especially vitamin C. In many Asian countries, seaweeds are a staple food. While it is
true that seaweed can be eaten raw, many other products are derived from the processing of
algae, as well. Four main products are agar, alginin, carrageenan, and furcellaran.
If you are not sure whether you reap any benefits from algae, peruse the list below and see just
what algae derivatives are used in.
ice cream
milk shakes
pudding
yogurt
whipped cream
soft drinks
fruit juice
beer
wine
candies
baked goods
salad dressing
low-calorie jellies
baby foods
toothpaste
air freshener
lotion
shaving cream cough medicine
laxatives
dog food
milk of magnesia
cosmetics
shoe polish
photography
box mixes
salt
water-proof fabric
medical dressings
fabric dyes
paper processing
inks
The possibilities are endless. Some researchers are even treating some forms of cancer with
Laminaria and Sargassum!
Plants Even though it is rare to find vascular plants growing in the marine environment, there
are some species that have adapted to life in the ocean. Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV’s),
or sea grasses as they are often called, are present in some intertidal locations. These plants
dominate mudflats and exposed rocks, and in some cases, exclude algae completely from that
location! Sea grass beds create nurseries and breeding grounds for fishes and invertebrates.
They stabilize sediments and play a role in the cycling of nutrients and metals in the water
column. Eelgrass (Zostera marina) is common in quiet waters with sandy or muddy substrate.
Surfgrass, (Phyllospadix) can be found along exposed rocky shores.
Chemical Converters Not all primary production in the ocean is dependent upon the sun. A
small percentage of primary production relies not on photosynthesis, but chemosynthesis to
make food. Chemoautotrophs, as their name implies, use energy from chemical reactions to
create their own food. Deep-sea thermal vents are sites where large quantities of hydrogen
sulfide (H 2S) spew from inside the earth’s crust. Bacteria living at these thermal vents oxidize
the H2S. They are the base of the food chain in deep-sea communities, serving as food for dense
populations of clams and mussels.
37
WE NEED SOME LIGHT, PLEASE!
Activity: Grades K-5
Objective: To understand how lack of sunlight affects plant growth.
Materials:
a potted plant with many leaves
aluminum foil
a ledge with access to sunlight
Procedure:
1. Explain to students that most of the ocean doesn’t receive sunlight. Sunlight only reaches
down about 400 feet (122 m) from the surface, but the average ocean depth is 13,124 feet (4,003
m). That’s a lot of water that doesn’t get any sun! This means that plants don’t grow in over
95% of the water!
2. Show students the plant that is to be used in the experiment. Ask them what would happen if
the leaves received no sunlight. Tell them that they are going to do an experiment to find out.
3. Ask for a volunteer from the class. Have the volunteer take a piece of foil and gently wrap it
around one of the leaves of the plant. This simulates the dark areas of the ocean.
4. Place the plant on a sunlit ledge. Most of the leaves will receive sunlight, but the one that is
covered in aluminum foil will not.
5. Assign a student to be in charge of watering the plant each day. You don’t want lack of water
to be the factor that kills the plant!
6. After one week, take the plant to the center of the room. Point out the green leaves on the
plant. Remind students that these leaves received light.
7. Ask students what they think the covered leaf will look like when they remove the foil.
8. Remove the foil. The leaf should have shriveled up. It was not able to produce food and died
as a result. Explain to students that lack of light prevents most marine producers from living in
waters below 400 feet (122 m).
Related Activity:
Use several of the same type of plant. Cover a different number of leaves on each plant. After
one week, see how lack of light in different numbers of leaves has affected the overall health of
the plant.
38
ALGAE OR PLANT?
Activity: Grades 6-8
Objective: To identify functional differences between kelp and land plant
structures.
Materials:
Comparison of Kelp and True Plants Worksheet
pencil
chalkboard
chalk
Procedure:
1. Distribute one copy of the Comparison of Kelp and True Plants worksheet to each student.
2. Write the following words on the chalkboard:
root
leaf
stem
stipe
holdfast
air sac
blade
3. Ask students to answer the questions at the top of the page. When they are finished, they
should then label the diagrams of each organism with the appropriate words from the list on the
board.
4. On the back of the worksheet, have students write a short paragraph that describes how the
two types of organisms are different and how they are similar. Ask students to read their
statements to the class.
Kelp & true plant pages here
39
kelp and true plant answer key here
40
APPETIZING ALGAE
Activity: Grades 9-12
Background:
Believe it or not, algae are common ingredients in many foods that we eat on a daily basis! They
are used as preservatives, emulsifiers, or for flavor. Some foods, such as sushi, incorporate algae
as a main ingredient.
Despite the widespread use of algae in other parts of the world, many Westerners are hesitant to
experiment with adding algae to their diets. One of the best ways to introduce students to
information about algae is to feed it to them¾literally! This activity provides some information
about the various types of algae used in cooking as well as some recipes that you can try in the
classroom. Algae can be purchased at health food stores and international markets, but one of
the best places to find a large selection is:
Maine Coast Sea Vegetables
Franklin, Maine 04634
www.seaveg.com
Bon appetite!
Objective: To expose students to the nutritional value of seaweeds.
Materials:
recipes
cooking apparatus
(pots, pans, dishes, utensils, etc.)
ingredients necessary for each recipe
Procedure:
1. Teach students about the various kinds of algae (found in Chapter 3). As a class, list the
importance of algae in our everyday lives.
2. Divide students into several groups. Give each group a recipe, the cooking apparatus, and the
ingredients necessary for creating the item on their recipe card. Make sure the students
understand that there must be enough food for everyone in the class (they may need to double or
triple the recipe).
3. Supervise students during preparation of the food items, particularly at stoves, ovens, and
areas where knives are being used!
4. When the food is ready, have an algae taste-testing with the class.
Related Activities:
1. After the taste testing, ask students to write their own recipes that utilize algae in new and
different ways. Set aside another day to prepare and sample their recipe ideas.
2. Challenge students to prepare algae-enhanced food for their families at home. Have them
write a description of the experience.
3. Aside from food, algae have many other practical uses. Have students research and prepare
presentations about medicinal and commercial uses, as well as the benefits of adding seaweed to
their diets.
Appetizer: Alaria Chips and dip
12-18 inch Alaria, cut into bite-size pieces
1 lb. Velveeta cheese
1-2 Tbsp. sesame oil
salsa
Heat oil in a heavy skillet over medium heat. Press pieces of Alaria into hot oil until they turn
green and become crisp. Drain them on a paper towel and allow them to cool for a couple
41
minutes. While they are cooling, place cheese and salsa in a pot, and melt together over medium
heat. Serves 4.
Beverage: Dulse Tea
iced tea (fresh or from a mix)
Dulse
Break Dulse into small pieces. Sprinkle into the pitcher of iced tea and mix around with a
wooden spoon. Let it sit for 10 minutes. Pour into glasses and enjoy.
Side Dish: Alaria-Cucumber Salad
1 cucumber, sliced
2 Tbsp. lemon juice
_ tsp. sea salt
2_ tsp. soy sauce
12-16 inches soaked Alaria
1 tsp. water
Sprinkle sliced cucumber with sea salt, toss gently, and set aside. Drop soaked Alaria into
boiling water briefly, and then plunge into cold water to brighten and set bright green color.
Remove any tough midribs, and cut the Alaria into bite-size pieces. Gently squeeze any excess
water from the Alaria and add to the cucumbers. Add remaining ingredients to the cucumber
and algae. Eat as is or on a bed of lettuce. Serves 3-4.
Main Course: Kelp Lasagna
Sauce:
1 onion, sliced
3 cloves garlic, finely chopped
1 Tbsp. olive oil
2 cans chopped tomatoes
1 can tomato paste
Italian seasoning
Noodles and Filling:
12 oz. lasagna noodles
_ pound spinach
2 oz. kelp
_ cup tofu
_ cup ricotta cheese
2 Tbsp. parmesan cheese
_ cup cottage cheese
_ cup sliced mushrooms
To prepare sauce, sauté onions and garlic in olive oil. In a large pot, add tomatoes, tomato paste,
onions, garlic, and Italian seasoning to taste. Simmer on low heat until it reaches desired
thickness.
Pre-heat the oven to 350° F. In a large bowl, combine tofu, ricotta cheese, parmesan cheese,
cottage cheese, and mushrooms. Mix thoroughly. In a 9x13 inch pan, place enough noodles to
cover the bottom. Layer the pan with spinach, kelp, the cheese mixture and more noodles.
Continue with this pattern until you run out of ingredients, but make sure the top layer is
noodles! Place _ of the sauce on top of the lasagna and bake for 40 minutes.
Cut into 2-inch squares and serve with more sauce, if desired. Serves 8.
Dessert: Strawberry Bread with Seaweed
20 ounces frozen strawberries, thawed
1 sheet nori, torn in small pieces
4 eggs
1_ cups salad oil
3 cups flour
2 cups sugar
3 tsp. cinnamon
1 tsp. baking soda
1 tsp. salt
1 cup chopped nuts (optional)
Preheat oven to 350° F. Grease and flour two 9x5 inch loaf pans. Set aside. In a medium bowl,
stir the thawed strawberries, nori, eggs and oil. In a large bowl, combine flour, sugar, cinnamon,
baking soda, salt and nuts. Add the strawberry mixture to the dry ingredients, mixing until just
42
blended. Pour into pans. Bake one hour or until toothpick inserted in the center comes out
clean. Makes 2 loaves.
43
CHAPTER FOUR
THE OCEAN’S INHABITANTS
According to scientists, the first life forms appeared in the oceans over one billion years ago. By
500 million years ago, most major groups of marine organisms had made their appearance,
protected by a blanket of seawater that shielded the cells from harmful ultraviolet radiation of the
sun. If we look at the oceans today, we will find more than 500,000 described species of protists,
algae, sponges, worms, fish, whales and other forms of marine life.
The Drifters When thinking about the animal life in the ocean, it is easy to only think about the
larger creatures that we see in the movies, on TV, or at the beach. But there is a whole world of
microscopic marine creatures known as zooplankton (zoo = animal, plankto = wandering).
These are the animals that drift with the currents and tides; they lack the size and power to propel
themselves up and down the water column and in or out of currents. They form the second level
of the food chain, grazing on phytoplankton or hunting other zooplankton. In turn, higher
organisms in the ocean eat them. Not all members of the zooplankton are true animals. Some
are protists, single-celled relatives of marine algae, but a vast majority are developing stages of
other marine animals, such as crustaceans (crabs, shrimp, barnacles) and mollusks (clams,
oysters).
Zooplankton are further divided into two categories based on what percentage of their lives they
spend as drifters. The meroplankton (meros = part) consists of animals that spend only a portion
of their lives drifting in the ocean. While animals that spend their whole lives drifting are known
as holoplankton (holo = whole).
Meroplankton includes the developing embryos of various marine creatures. Thousands of
marine animals can be classified as meroplankton during their developmental stages. On the
other hand, more than 5,000 species of organisms can be labeled as holoplankton. This includes
jellyfish, Portuguese man-of-war, comb jellies, and tunicates.
Some of the crustaceans that are considered holoplankton are among the most ecologically
important animals in the ocean. Copepods, for example, make up over 50% of the zooplankton
community! Without their existence, the marine food chain could crash.
The Swimmers Larger animals that are able swim in and out of currents are commonly referred
to as nekton. Most nekton (necto = swimming) are vertebrates, such as fish and marine
mammals. However, invertebrates such as squid, octopuses, and some crustaceans are large
enough and powerful enough to swim and move through the currents. In fact, the largest
invertebrate in the world is found in this category. The giant squid, Architeuthis, is found in very
deep waters and can reach lengths of more than 100 feet (30 m)!
Animals in this group are generally large in size (compared to zooplankton), are effective
swimmers, and have a variety of well-developed senses that enable them to hunt, escape, hide,
and navigate through their environment. Some nekton accomplish great feats of migration to
locate food or improve their chances for successful reproduction.
With over _ of the ocean left unexplored, there are many marine animals that scientists know
very little about. Areas that are easily accessed with dive equipment and the deep ocean have
been studied extensively and the biology of the animals found there is what is commonly used
when describing the nekton of the ocean.
The Bottom Dwellers Over 90% of the animal species in the ocean and nearly all of the larger
marine plants live in close association with the sea bottom. These organisms form the benthos.
Benthic animals range anywhere from the high intertidal zones along the coasts to the deep-sea
trenches more than 33,000 feet (10,065 m) deep. The characteristics of the sea floor and
overlying water, exchange of substances between these two areas, and conditions established by
44
other benthic organisms are all important factors in determining whether an animal can survive
in that benthic community.
Benthic organisms may be motile, with the ability to crawl, walk, or glide on the ocean floor.
However, a majority of the benthic community is sedentary and many species remain in a single
location their entire lives. Some animals live in and amongst the sediments, digging burrows and
constructing tubes of sediment if the sea floor is soft. Hard bottoms, such as rocks, require that
animals attach themselves in some way, to resist the pulling of waves and tides. Sediments,
either soft or hard, play an important role in the life of a benthic organism.
Coloration An animal’s coloration is very important in determining what role it plays in the
ecosystem and how it is able to survive. Colors and patterns may be used to draw attention to the
animal, help it find a mate, or allow it to hide from potential predators. Some animals are even
able to change their color depending on the time of day, the situation, or even their mood! Here
are a few popular forms of coloration that are used by a variety of marine animals.
Camouflage is one of the most important defense strategies used in the animal kingdom. This
type of coloration allows an animal to blend in with its surroundings. Octopuses are masters of
camouflage, changing the color and even the texture of their skin to match their backgrounds.
Stonefish, venomous reef fish in the Pacific Ocean, look just like rocks in the reef. Unsuspecting
animals that swim too close to the stonefish end up as the fish’s dinner!
Many species of open ocean animals use a form of camouflage known as countershading. This
protective coloration is where the animal has a dark back and a light stomach. If viewed from
below, the light stomach blends in with the sunlit surface of the water. When seen from above,
the dark back blends in with the deep, dark ocean waters. Penguins, sharks, and dolphins exhibit
countershading.
Disruptive coloration is used to break up the shape of a fish’s body and conceal the fish against
its background. Many reef fishes have spots and stripes that enable them to hide from predators
in this fashion. Clown triggerfish and sergeant majors use disruptive coloration.
False eyespots are used to distract predators’ attention from the head of an organism. Eyespots
are located close to the tail of a fish, while the real eye is often hidden in a band of color.
Predators cue in and attack the eyespots and thus attack the rear end of the fish, thinking that end
is the head. The fish is then able to swim away from the predator, in the opposite direction. One
animal that uses eyespots as a form of protection is the four-eyed butterflyfish.
In order to advertise a special service or attract a mate, some animals are brightly colored. This
is known as advertising coloration. Cleaner fishes use their bright colors to attract “clients” for
cleaning sessions. Many predators recognize the bright coloration and patterns of the cleaner
fishes and do not harm these fishes because of the valuable service they perform.
Animals that are poisonous or dangerous in some way communicate this information to other
animals through warning coloration. Their bodies are colored so they stand out to other
creatures and warn them to stay away. Lionfish are examples of this; they have brightly striped
bodies and venomous spines that let would-be attackers know lionfish are dangerous animals.
Coloration can also be used to deceive. Some animals take on a similar appearance to other
animals in order to receive similar benefits. This is known as mimicry. One popular example of
mimicry is the similarity between the cleaning wrasse and the mimic wrasse. The cleaning
wrasse provides an important service by cleaning parasites and dead tissue from the bodies of
other fish. Its coloration and patterns are recognized by other reef fish, allowing the wrasse to
get close and perform its job. The mimic wrasse has a similar appearance to the cleaning wrasse
and uses this appearance to its advantage. When other reef fishes see the mimic wrasse, they
anticipate a cleaning, and allow the mimic to get close. The mimic wrasse, instead of removing
parasites, swims up and takes a chunk out of the other fish. It then swims away with its meal.
45
Shape Marine animals are found in all shapes and sizes. In fact, the shape of an animal’s body
tells a lot about where it lives and how it moves in its environment.
Many fast swimming animals have a torpedo-shaped, or fusiform, body that allows them to swim
very quickly by offering little resistance from the surrounding water. Tuna, seals, and dolphins
all have this fusiform shape.
Rod-shaped bodies are seen in many animals that are ambush predators, such as barracuda. This
body shape allows them to float motionless until a small fish swims by, then lunge out with
lightening speed to capture their victim.
Animals that are flat like pancakes are said to have depressed bodies. Their bodies allow them to
lie on the bottom of the ocean and use camouflage, rather than speed, for protection. They are
able to escape predation by burrowing in the sand or simply by blending in with their
surroundings. Stingrays and flounders have flat bodies that are perfect for their benthic
lifestyles.
Some animals have unusual or sphere-shaped bodies. Typically, these animals are slow movers,
and rely on unique methods of defense. Porcupinefishes are able to inflate their bodies with
water or air when threatened. This causes spines on their skin to stick straight out, making the
porcupinefish too big and too dangerous to swallow.
Snake-like animals, such as wolf eels, sea snakes, and pipefishes, are slow swimmers, but move
through cracks, crevices, sea grasses, and small openings with grace and ease. Their bodies are
ribbon-shaped.
Animals, like lookdowns, that are flattened side to side are said to have compressed body shapes.
If you look at them head on, they almost seem to disappear. Compressed bodies allow for quick,
sharp turns, and are perfect for darting in and out of hiding places.
BODY SHAPES (Side view unless otherwise specified):
Fusiform
Sphere
Rod
Ribbon
Depressed
(viewed from the front)
Compressed
(viewed from the
front)
Locomotion Marine animals move using a wide array of appendages and methods. Some
nekton, such as squid and octopuses, use a method called jet propulsion to move from one place
to another. This movement involves taking water into the body, then squeezing it back out of the
body through an excurrent siphon. The animal is propelled in the opposite direction. Jellyfish
use a variation of this type of movement. Water underneath their bell is pushed out by the
contraction of muscles around the bell. The jellyfish is then pushed in the opposite direction.
Other nekton swim using fins. Most fishes use their caudal (tail) fin to propel themselves. They
move the fin back and forth, from side to side. Some fishes, particularly reef fishes, do not rely
on their caudal fin for their power stroke. Wrasses, parrotfishes and surgeonfishes swim using
their pectoral (side) fins, while triggerfishes and filefishes undulate their dorsal and anal fins in
order to swim. Marine mammals use a variety of limbs when swimming. Dolphins and whales
typically use their tail flukes, in an up and down motion, as the power strokes in swimming.
Seals rely on their hind flippers for propulsion, while sea lions and fur seals swim with their front
flippers.
In the benthic environment, animals have developed other methods of movement. Many
creatures living on the bottom have legs of some form or another that allow them to walk around.
46
Sea urchins use their spines to walk, and sea stars have tube feet that are used to step from place
to place. Sea snails, like whelks and conchs, use their muscular foot and a trail of slime to glide
across the sea floor. When octopuses are on the sea floor, they use their tentacles to walk across
the sand.
Defensive Structures In addition to special coloration, many marine animals have specialized
structures for defense. Triggerfishes are able to lock their dorsal “trigger” in an upright position
to wedge themselves into a reef crevice or so they appear too big to swallow. Slow-moving
animals, such as sea stars and sea urchins, often have sharp spines that serve as an effective
barrier to predation. Sometimes, an animal’s spines are venomous. Stonefishes, lionfishes, and
scorpionfishes all have venomous spines along their dorsal (back) surface. There is enough
venom in one stonefish to kill 36,000 mice! Stingrays also have venomous barbs that are used
for protection.
Some animals rely on stinging cells for defense. All jellyfishes, anemones, and corals have the
ability to sting any animal that comes in contact with their tentacles. Nudibranchs (sea slugs)
also have stinging cells, but they get these in a most unusual way. Sea slugs eat corals and
anemones, consuming the stinging cells. By a process unknown to scientists, the stinging cells
remain unfired as they pass through the digestive system of the nudibranch, but are reactivated
when they emerge on the feather like gills. The nudibranch relies on the stinging cells to protect
its soft, exposed body.
Other animals rely on claws, or pinchers for defense. Crustaceans, like lobsters and crabs, use
these appendages to ward off predators, defend territory, and attract mates.
Squid and octopuses are able to confuse their predators by emitting a black cloud of ink when
threatened. This temporary diversion provides not only a visual curtain, but also a chemical
screen that gives the squid or octopus the opportunity to get away. The ink is very dark and
filled with chemical odors to mask the scent of the escaping animal.
Behaviors and Special Adaptations In order to compete and survive in the ocean, many
animals combine behaviors and special body features.
Many deep-sea fishes are well adapted for the dark world they live in; they have their own builtin light system! This production of visible light by living organisms is called bioluminescence.
Special organs on the animal contain bacteria that glow in the dark. Some animals, such as the
flashlight fish, cover and uncover that light-producing organ. This blinking of the “flashlight”
acts as a signal to other animals, locates and attracts food, and may confuse predators.
Many fish that make a living feeding on the bottom are equipped with whisker-like organs called
barbels. Barbels are feeling and tasting organs that help animals such as goatfishes and nurse
sharks detect the presence of crustaceans, snails, clams, and other food on the sea floor.
Some very slow swimming bottom dwellers have a unique way of attracting food. The dorsal fin
of anglerfishes is modified into a “fishing lure” which is used to attract prey. When smaller
fishes come in for a closer look, the anglerfishes snatch them up.
Not all animals are active during daylight. Nocturnal creatures spend the daytime hiding in
caves and avoiding predators that might eat them for lunch. However, when the sun sets, they
are very active, using their large eyes to see in the dark waters. Many nocturnal animals are red
in color. This helps them hide from other animals in the ocean because red light is filtered from
the water at very shallow depths, causing them to appear dark in color. This is especially
effective in the dark waters.
Some diurnal fish (active during the day) have special ways of hiding their presence overnight.
Parrotfishes surround themselves with a mucous cocoon at night to veil their scent from hungry
eels. This cocoon takes about 30 minutes to create and only a second to pop!
47
ANIMAL INSULATION
Activity: Grades K-5
Background:
Maintaining a constant body temperature is a serious issue for marine animals that are
endothermic (create their own body heat). All marine mammals and some marine birds face this
problem year round. In addition to thick coats of fur or dense coats of waterproof feathers, many
of these animals rely on a thick layer of fat, known as blubber, to keep them warm. Without the
blubber, these animals would quickly lose their body heat to the surrounding air and water and
their source of nourishment for times when food is hard to find.
Objective: To discover how blubber functions as an insulator.
Materials:
2 Ziploc storage bags
vegetable shortening
2 buckets
2 thermometers
ice cubes
water
timing device
Procedure:
1. Fill one bag halfway with vegetable shortening. Turn the other bag inside out and place it in
the shortening-filled bag. Press the locking strips of the two bags together so that the “blubber”
remains in the bags.
2. Fill both buckets with cold water. Place ice cubes in the buckets for extra measure. Place one
thermometer in the water for several minutes. Leave the other thermometer on a desk to measure
air temperature.
3. Have student volunteers read the thermometers and write their findings on the board. Which
is colder¾the air or water? What is the difference between the two temperatures?
4. Choose two students from the class for the demonstration. Give each student a bucket of
water. Place the “blubber glove” on the hand of one person. The other person has no extra
insulation on their hand.
5. Explain that on the count of three, they are to place one hand in the water in their bucket and
hold it there as long as possible. This represents animals with blubber versus animals without
blubber.
6. Time the students to see how long each can hold their hand in the water. How much longer
could the “blubber gloved” student keep his/her hand in the cold water? How effective is this
extra layer of fat?
Related Activity:
Experiment with other coverings on the blubber gloves. Does lining the glove with an outer
covering help an animal withstand cool temperatures for longer periods of time? Try covering
the gloves with materials such as fake fur, cotton balls, and feathers. For each covering, graph
the time that the person can keep their hand in the water. Which covering is the most effective at
retaining body heat?
48
BALANCING ACT
Activity: Grades 6-8
Objective: To learn how each level of the food chain supports the levels above
it.
Materials:
strong ruler
string
2 paper cups
beads
modeling clay
Procedure:
1. Draw a pyramid-shaped diagram of the food chain for the
students. Explain that the bottom level represents the
producers, or the organisms that make their own food.
There are many of them because they are very small
and need to support all other life in the sea.
top
predators
second
level consumers
zooplankton
producers
2. Make a second level on the diagram. This represents the zooplankton. They eat the
producers. As you progress up the food chain, there are fewer organisms at each level. This
happens because there is a balance between the food of the level below and the number of
organisms that can be supported by that food. At the top of the food chain, there are only a few
predators because there is not enough food to support many of them. The entire food chain is in
balance.
3. Tie a piece of string around the middle of the ruler. Hang the ruler somewhere in the
classroom where everyone can see it. This represents the balanced food chain.
4. Tie one piece of string to one of the cups. Tie the other end of the string to one side of the
ruler. Do the same with the other cup. The string used for each end of the ruler needs to be the
same length.
Ruler l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l’’’’l
5. Make a small representation of a fish with the clay. Place it in one cup. What happens to the
ruler? (It tips in the direction of the fish.) To balance it out, the fish has to eat some smaller
organisms.
6. Ask students how many beads the fish has to eat before the ruler is level. Begin adding beads
until the “food chain” ruler is level again.
Related Activity:
Create a food chain mobile in the classroom. Use the idea from this activity that many smaller
organisms balance out one larger one.
49
BEWILDERING BEASTS
Activity: Grades 9-12
Background:
The giant squid, Architeuthis, is one of the mysteries of the sea. It is the largest invertebrate on
earth, reaching lengths of over 100 feet (30 m)! It lives in deep water, and its main predator is
the sperm whale. All of what we know about giant squid comes from dead squid that are caught
in fishing nets, pieces of squid that wash up on shore, and squid sucker marks on sperm whales.
No one has ever seen a live giant squid, so it makes it tough to picture just how big they are.
But, with a little math and a good imagination, we can demonstrate their incredible size!
Objective: To calculate the scale needed to create an accurate representation of
a giant squid.
Materials:
pink tights/knee highs
needle
pink thread
polyester stuffing
20 mm wiggly eyes
_ inch pink ribbon
pink puffy paint
glue
scissors
measuring tape/meter stick
Procedure:
1. Distribute a labeled diagram of a giant squid.
2. Have students use a conversion scale of 1 foot of the real squid= 1 cm of the model to
calculate proportions for each part of the squid model.
A real giant squid is about 60 feet long. The mantle of the squid accounts for half that length and
the head is about 1/20 the total length. The rest is made up of arms and tentacles! (Correct
model measurements: 60 cm= total length, 30 cm= mantle, 3 cm= head).
3. Give students one knee high each and have them fill it with the polyester filling until it is
about 33 cm long to form the head and mantel of the squid.
4. Tell them to tie the open end in a knot. The knot represents the beak and should be about _ cm
long.
fin
5. Give each student a needle and some thread.
Have students pull and shape the fins at the end
opposite the knot, then stitch them into place with the needle and
thread.
6. Have students cut the ribbon into 10 pieces. Two pieces represent the tentacles and should be
about 27 cm long. The eight arms are shorter¾about
18 cm each.
7. Have students use the puffy paint to create the appearance of suction cups on the ribbon, then
allow them to dry.
8. Direct students to stitch the arms and tentacles around the mouth of the squid.
9. Tell students to glue wiggly eyes on either side of the mantle.
10. Have students paint dots on the mantle to represent chromatophores.
11. As a class, analyze and describe the role giant squid play in the deep-sea environment.
Write responses on the board. Consider their food sources, predators, adaptations to living in the
deep water, etc. How do scientists come to these conclusions? What would happen if the squid
were removed from the deep-sea?
50
51
CHAPTER FIVE
RELATIONSHIPS IN THE OCEAN
Similar to other ecosystems, the ocean is full of special relationships that help many animals,
plants, and other organisms grow and survive in the marine environment. Any relationship that
takes place between two living organisms, where at least one party receives a benefit is known as
symbiosis.
The two parties involved in any symbiotic relationship can be identified as either the host or the
symbiont. The host is the organism that the symbiont lives in or near, and may or may not
receive benefits from the relationship. On the other hand, the symbiont is always the beneficiary
in the relationship.
There are several types of symbiotic relationships scientists use in ecological discussions. They
are mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
HOSTS
Benefit
Range of interaction
Harm
SYMBIONTS
MUTUALISM
COMMENSALISM
PARASITISM
Probably the most well known type of symbiotic relationship is where both parties benefit; this is
known as mutualism. The two organisms in this relationship, the host and the symbiont, work
together and help each other survive. In some mutualistic relationships, the parties can survive
on their own, but this is not true in all cases. Relationships where parties cannot survive on their
own are thought to be more advanced relationships, where the two species have, over time,
developed in such a way that they are dependent upon each other for survival.
The next type of symbiotic relationship is commensalism. In this type of relationship, the
symbiont receives benefits from the host, but there is a small or poorly known effect on the host.
In parasitism, the symbiont is benefited at the expense of the host. A parasite lives in or on the
host and obtains food benefits from this host. Parasites do not usually kill their hosts, but they
make their presence known by reducing the host’s food reserves, resistance to disease, and
energy. The infected host often becomes the casualty of infection, starvation, or predation, but
does not die directly from the actions of the parasite.
Because of the high diversity of organisms in the ocean, there are many symbiotic relationships
that have developed over time. These relationships can be found from shallow waters to deepsea trenches, involving all types of organisms.
Mutualism
Cleaning symbiosis: There are many forms of cleaning associations that are well known by
scientists and divers alike. In these mutualistic relationships, the symbiont picks external
parasites and damaged tissue from the host. The cleaner gets parasites to eat and the host has an
irritation removed from its body. Some cleaner fish and shrimp not only clean the outer tissues
of the host, but also pick parasites from inside the mouth and gills as well. There are about a half
dozen species of shrimp and dozens of small fish species that act as cleaners. They are well
designed for their job, with bright markings to advertise their services and pincher-like snouts for
52
those hard to reach areas on the host fish. Cleaner animals generally establish a “cleaning
station” on a rock outcropping or a coral head. Host fish know where to go for a clean up, and
queue up, waiting for their turn to be cleaned.
Pistol shrimp and goby: This unique association enables both partners to have a safe place to
live. The host, the pistol shrimp, spends much of its time digging out a burrow to live in.
However, the shrimp has very poor eyesight and relies on the goby to warn of impending danger.
The goby, a fish, lives close to the shrimp’s burrow, and flicks its tail to communicate to the
shrimp when a predator is nearby. The fish then dives into the burrow, followed closely by the
shrimp. Without this watchdog living close by, the shrimp might fall prey to other animals.
Reef building corals and zooxanthellae: Coral polyps are animals that are related to jellyfish
and sea anemones. They are able to capture some of their food by using harpoon-like stinging
cells located on their tentacles, and then bringing the food to the mouth to be ingested. But,
corals cannot capture enough food to supply all of their nutritional needs. To supplement their
diet of plankton, corals rely on symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae (z_-zan-th_l’-_) that live
inside the tissues of the polyps. These zooxanthellae use light, carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous
waste from the coral polyp to make food through the process of photosynthesis. During
photosynthesis, oxygen gas (O2) is released as a waste product. The coral thus receives not only
food from the zooxanthellae, but oxygen for respiration as well. Without the zooxanthellae, the
reef building corals are unable to survive for more than a few days.
Commensalism
Shrimpfish and sea urchin: In this relationship, the shrimpfish is the symbiont that is protected
by the sea urchin. Shrimpfishes are small, have elongated bodies, and a stripe down the length of
their bodies. When they swim head down among the urchin’s sharp spines, as they often do,
they are well protected by the formidable spines, without altering the behavior of the urchins.
Portuguese man-of-war and the man-of-war fish: This is another example of a relationship
where the host provides protection for the symbiont. The man-of-war fish is a very small animal
that swims in and around the tentacles of the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia). The long,
venomous tentacles of Physalia provide a protective retreat for the small fish. For some reason
unknown to scientists at this time, the fish is immune to the stinging cells in the man-of-war
tentacles.
Parasitism
Pearl fish and sea cucumber: Viruses, bacteria, worms, and small crustaceans are some of the
most common parasites in the ocean. There are very few fish that become parasites, but the pearl
fish is one exception to this general rule. The pearl fish lives in the digestive tract of a sea
cucumber, feeding on the sea cucumber’s respiratory structures and gonads. This relationship is
very stressful on the sea cucumber, sometimes causing it to eviscerate, or eject its digestive and
respiratory organs in an attempt to rid itself of the unwanted symbiont.
53
WANTED!
Activity: Grades K-5
Objective: To identify participants and purposes of several symbiotic
relationships in the ocean.
Materials:
paper
pencils
Want Ads worksheet
Procedure:
1. Make copies of the Want Ads worksheet. Distribute one to each student.
2. Have students try to identify which animal might have placed each ad and which animal
would respond to each ad. To do this, they should match up the box numbers for each ad.
Related Activity:
Make up your own advertisements for a marine newspaper want ads section, or have students
create their own. As a class, determine what organism wrote each ad. Match up the box
numbers for each ad.
ANSWERS:
Box 1 (hermit crab)
Box 3 (sea anemone)
Box 2 (clownfish)
Box 5 (sea anemone)
Box 4 (pistol shrimp)
Box 6 (goby)
Box 7 (zooxanthellae)
Box 8 (coral polyp)
54
WANT ADS
Seeking extra protection and disguise.
Willing to take on hitchhikers. Write: Box
1
Looking for a home with extra defense?
Are you able to keep unwanted guests
away? Write if you can stand my
“stinging” personality.
Box 5
Underground-dwelling individual
searching for a pre-constructed hideout.
Willing to serve as a lookout. Write: Box 6
Thick-skinned animal looking for a
bodyguard and a good home. Willing to
help protect the home from danger.
Respond: Box 2
Need an extra hand (or tentacle) in creating
a disguise? Will trade camouflage services
for rides around the reef! Write to Box 3
Tiny plant-like organism looking for a
good home, preferably in tropical waters.
Able to make enough food for both of us.
Interested? Respond to Box 7
Tiny polyp with secure home looking for a
roommate. Must be able to help with food
situation. Box 8
Experienced construction digger with large
burrow looking for an experienced
watchdog. Box 4
BOX
____
and
BOX
____
BOX
____
and
BOX
____
BOX
____
and
BOX
____
BOX
____
and
BOX
____
55
WEB OF LIFE
Activity: Grades 6-8
Objective: To demonstrate the importance of all components in the marine
ecosystem.
Materials:
ball of yarn
chalkboard
chalk
Procedure:
1. Choose one student to act as the recorder for this activity. Give them the chalk.
2. Ask students to think of the many components that make up the marine environment. Have
students stand up around the classroom. They are going to represent these components.
3. Begin by stating one component. Hold one end of the end of the yarn and gently toss the ball
of yarn to a student in the classroom.
4. Ask that student to name one component of the ocean, either biotic or abiotic. The recorder
should write all responses on the chalkboard. Next, tell the student to hold onto the yarn with
one hand and gently toss the ball of yarn to another student who has not yet responded. Repeat
this process until all students have named a component. The order of tosses should be
completely random and criss-cross the room as much as possible.
5. Point out the interconnectedness of the class through the yarn.
6. Tell the recorder to erase one component on the board. Instruct every person who is greatly
affected by the loss of that component to drop his or her piece of yarn. What happens to the
“ecosystem” that is represented by the yarn? Have several students who dropped their section of
yarn explain why they did so.
7. Have students pick up the yarn again. Ask the recorder to erase several more components
from the board and see how it affects the yarn ecosystem. Which components seem to be the
most important in the marine environment?
56
QUICK SKITS
Activity: Grades 9-12
Objective: To understand meanings of and use new vocabulary words.
Materials:
word lists
dictionaries
pencils
paper
Procedure:
1. Divide students into groups of four. Distribute one word list to each group. You may use the
word lists provided or create your own based on current studies in the class.
2. Give students 15 minutes to create a skit that uses as many words from the list as possible.
Each word must be used in the correct context and give an idea to its meaning. Provide
dictionaries for reference.
3. Have students perform their skits in front of the class. The other groups should listen to
determine whether the words are used correctly. If a word is not used correctly in the skit,
students need to write down the word and use it in a sentence correctly.
4. Points are awarded based on the number of words used correctly.
Related Activity:
Have students make their own word lists based on assigned reading. Take all the words from
students and make four new lists. Keep this as an on-going competition throughout the semester.
Provide the winning team with a free homework pass or an award of your choice.
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List 1
ecology
biodiversity
adaptation
residence time
slick
biodegradation
bioaccumulation
hydrocarbon
List 2
limiting nutrients
aphotic zone
ecotone
thermocline
tsunami
El Niño
nekton
upwelling
List 3
bioluminescence
red tide
hydrothermal
streamlined
viviparous
chemoautotrophic
electroreception
interstitial
List 4
zooxanthellae
hermatipic
lichen
brackish
bleaching
camouflage
mutualism
estuary
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CHAPTER SIX
THE SEAFARING TRADITION
For centuries, civilizations around the world have utilized the sea and its resources for various
reasons. Many cultures harvested the food, others looked to the sea for trade routes and
communication lines, while some sought adventure and used the oceans as a means to explore
the world.
Age of Exploration Humankind probably first viewed the ocean as a source of food. Entire
communities were, and still are, supported by harvesting the fish and shellfish of the sea. After a
time, vessels were built to move upon the ocean’s surface, thereby making it a means of
transportation and communication. The Phoenicians, as early as 2000 B.C., were the first in the
western world to investigate other lands. They sailed the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and
the Indian Ocean.
Shortly after the Phoenicians began their journeys, both the Greeks and Romans took to the
water (approximately 300 B.C.). The Greek philosopher, Herodotus, created the first maps of the
Mediterranean. They showed a very limited view of the world, with the Mediterranean
surrounded by three continents (Europe, Asia and Libya), which were, in turn, surrounded by
continuous seas. In 150 A.D., Ptolemy developed a world map that went a bit further. Based on
Roman knowledge at that time, he incorporated latitude and longitude lines and included Europe,
Asia, and Africa. These continents were surrounded by bodies of water, which were then
surrounded by unknown landmasses.
Roman domination of the Mediterranean ended with the fall of the Roman Empire, and Moslem
Arabs became the navigators of this region. They learned about the seasonal wind changes
across the Indian Ocean, and took advantage of these monsoons to conduct trading across this
body of water.
Vikings are often considered the first and most aggressive of the explorers to the North
American continent. Trapped in the North Atlantic region known as Scandinavia, the Vikings
took advantage of a change in climate that freed the North Atlantic of ice. This break-up of the
ice allowed them to expand their territory to the west, eventually leading them across the
Atlantic. They sailed westward to Iceland and Greenland, and in 995 A.D. traveled all the way to
Vinland, now known as Newfoundland. Under the guidance of their leader, Eric the Red, they
established a colony and wintered in Vinland. The end of Viking expansion occurred at the
beginning of the 13th century, when another change in climate brought about a cooling of the
North Atlantic. Icy waters isolated the Viking settlement and made it difficult for further travel
and exploration.
Ever since the early fourteenth century, when Marco Polo and other adventurers returned from
Asia bearing exotic goods (spices, cloths, dyes) and even more exotic tales, Europeans yearned
to find more efficient trading paths. Long, arduous, over-land journeys to Asian countries
limited the supply and increased the cost of goods from that region. Europeans thus took to the
sea to search for various trade routes. Many sailed east, around the coast of Africa, as a first
attempt at establishing shipping routes. However, some explorers sailed west from Europe.
Most notably was Christopher Columbus, who believed that he could sail directly from Europe,
cross the Atlantic in a brief voyage, and encounter Asia. The thought that other lands lay
between Europe and Asia never crossed his mind.
Under the sponsorship of the Spanish Queen Isabella, Columbus set forth from Spain in 1492 to
search for a faster trade route to India. Ten weeks later, he landed on an island in the Bahamas,
and then sailed on to what is now Cuba. He thought he had reached Asia. Sailing back to Spain,
he brought with him several natives, which he called “Indians” because he thought they were
from India. Columbus made several subsequent voyages to the “New World.” It wasn’t until his
third trip where he reached the Orinoco River in Venezuela that he realized he was not in Asia,
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but had instead “found” a new continent. While Columbus didn’t find a new and faster way to
India, he did open up a whole new world for European sailors to explore and colonize over the
next several hundred years.
After discovering the treasures of the new lands, many other cultures traveled the sea in search of
riches other places had to offer. Spain became very enthusiastic and excited about Columbus’
success, and sponsored other explorers to travel back to the new world. Other countries such as
Portugal and England quickly followed suit. Many of the settlements in Central and South
America stemmed from the desires of kings and queens to acquire more riches. Once gold was
discovered in Central and South America, there was no turning back. The conquistadors
exploited native populations, forcing them into slavery. Arable land in the tropics was cultivated
into large sugarcane plantations.
The vast riches, both in precious metals and crops, ushered in a new age of exploration, shipping,
and mercantilism, but also led to the development of piracy. Merchants and shippers often
feared pirates, the highway robbers of the sea. These highly trained seamen looked for
opportunities to take control of heavily laden ships. Lone ships on the horizon or straggling
ships in convoys were often the targets of pirates who attacked ships with the intent of taking all
goods on board and making prisoners out of the surviving seamen. Governments hated pirates,
but often hired them to attack ships of rival countries. Pirates played an important role in wars at
sea.
Ocean Cultures Various cultures have survived by looking to the sea for all their needs. North
American Eskimos that live along the coasts have become dependent upon the sea over the
course of time. Eskimos harvest food in the form of fish, seals and whales. But, food is not the
only benefit they receive from the ocean. Whales provide oil for lamps and lubricants. Blubber
is burned for heat. Seal fur is used for clothing, shoes, and blankets. Bones are used as tools and
structural supports. Since Eskimos have always been dependent upon the ocean for their
existence, and because they utilize their resources responsibly, they are the only group of people
in the United States that is allowed to hunt marine mammals.
Surrounding waters have also influenced Polynesian cultures in the Pacific Ocean. Island
lifestyles isolated each culture in this region, allowing the people of each island to develop their
own unique traditions. Ocean waters provided food, where the people could fish or harvest
mussels and clams from the shallow sea floor. Transportation and trading with other islands was
all done by sea. Dugout canoes were a very popular form of transportation between islands.
Many tales and religious figures also came from the sea. In one Polynesian culture, legends tell
of a goddess that lives in a cave. She is said to have married the shark god and is the link
between sharks and people.
A Whale of a Tale! Whaling has served a vital function in many Scandinavian and Asian
countries. For hundreds of years, whalers have gone to sea in search of their catch. Different
cultures prized different species of whales. Norsemen have hunted the minke whale
(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) since the Middle Ages. Norwegian whalers regularly hunted the
fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) for meats and oils after the invention of the harpoon gun in
the 1860’s.
Right whales (Eubalaena and Balaena species) were hunted en mass until the early twentieth
century because they were the “right whale” to kill. Slower and less active than sperm whales
and other baleen whales, they often came closer to land. High amounts of oil in their bodies
caused them to be less likely to sink after they were killed. Right whale oil was used for
lubricants, fuel, and the manufacture of paint and soap. Baleen was another valuable product
taken from right whales. Umbrella ribs, carriage springs, whips, hoop skirts, and fishing poles
were all manufactured from this baleen.
Sperm whales (Physeter catodon) have been hunted regularly since 1712 for their teeth
(scrimshaw art work) and ambergris, a waxy substance that was used as a fixative. But the most
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valuable substance gained from the sperm whale was spermaceti oil. In 1750, hunting for sperm
whales was at its peak due to the invention of the spermaceti candle. Americans dominated this
industry for almost 100 years!
Sailing the Ocean Blue For actual ocean travelers, the sea has provided adventure, excitement,
and thrills. But, for the families of fishermen and explorers, the sea was something to be feared
and respected. With the sailing of a loved one came the fear of losing them to the watery depths.
Many ships sank due to rough weather. Diseases on board ship were common. Families lived for
months and even years before hearing what happened to their husbands, fathers or sons. An old
saying claims “the sea is a very fickle mistress, loving you one day and leaving you helpless the
next.” She certainly has proved this over and over throughout history.
Few women took to the sea until it became a more popular form of travel. Early ship captains
were very superstitious and refused to carry a female on board because it was considered bad
luck. During the 15th century, females were taken as passengers when traveling to distant places.
Widespread women’s rights movements of the 20th century have inspired women to take to the
sea as sailors, historically “male roles.”
Underwater Exploration With the expanse of the oceans’ surfaces traveled by people of all
cultures, modern day explorers turned to unlocking the mysteries of the oceans’ depths. The
invention of the “aqualung” in 1943 allowed divers to carry their own air supply underwater.
We now know this portable air supply as SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus). Whether for research, recreation, or work, SCUBA has provided people with a way
to catch a glimpse of life beneath the waves. There are limitations with SCUBA, though. At
shallow depths, SCUBA allows divers to remain underwater for long periods of time. However,
at greater depths, bottom time becomes less and less to prevent divers from contracting
decompression sickness. Depths greater than 200 feet are rarely explored by divers.
As technology became more sophisticated, researchers developed underwater laboratories that
aquanauts could live in for weeks at a time. Other engineers focused their energies on
developing manned and unmanned submersible vehicles that oceanographers could lower to
great depths. Unmanned submersibles have allowed scientists to explore ocean depths while
remaining at the surface, controlling the vehicles movements remotely. Data from submersibles
has given the scientific community information that might otherwise never be attained. With the
ability to dive to the deepest sections of the ocean, today’s scientists are able to explore the last
frontier on earth.
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BUILD AN IGLOO
Activity: Grades K-5
Objective: To learn about Eskimo culture.
Materials:
aluminum foil
1 can white frosting
computers with internet
sugar crystal tablets
1 piece of cardboard
Procedure:
1. Have students research Eskimo culture. Ask them to find information about where they live,
what their housing is like, what they eat, what their clothes are made from, what they do for a
living, etc. Each fact that they can tell the teacher about the Eskimo people and lifestyle will
earn the students one “ice block” to build an igloo.
2. Cover the cardboard with aluminum foil and spread some frosting in a circle on the foil.
3. Begin the game by going around the room and having each student give a fact about Eskimo
culture. Each student that gives a new (and correct!) fact may come to the front of the room to
place a sugar cube on the foundation.
4. The igloo is built by first laying a ring of approximately 12 blocks on the frosting circle.
Make sure to lean the sugar slabs slightly inward so the blocks will eventually create a dome.
After each layer is complete,
spread a layer of frosting with your fingers to start
the next layer. Each layer should be placed off-center
from the layer below it (see diagram). Continue going around the room until the igloo is
complete. If a student can’t think of a fact when it is their turn, they can pass to the next person.
Total up the number of facts the students know about Eskimos by counting the blocks in the
igloo.
5. After the igloo is complete, fill any cracks with frosting. The top may be left open (for a
chimney) and a slab from the first layer can be removed to make a door.
Related Activity:
Challenge another class to an igloo-building contest. The class with the most facts wins!
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MYTHICAL MONSTERS
Activity: Grades 6-8
Background:
Fear of the unknown has been a major influence in the tales and myths passed down from
generation to generation within a culture. Many myths have originated to provide an explanation
for something mysterious. For years, and still today, the ocean provides us with enough mystery
that many tales of sea creatures, dangerous beings, and “black holes” of the ocean have been
created. Some mysteries have been solved through modern technology, but there are still some
questions about the ocean that science has yet to answer.
Objective: To learn how folklore of the sea often has its origins in fact.
Materials:
books about folklore
9x12 colored construction paper
scissors
ribbons
wiggly eyes
glue sticks
markers
feathers
miscellaneous craft supplies
Creature Feature worksheet
Procedure:
1. Read tales of mythical sea monsters and locations with the students. Some possible myths
that may be investigated by the class include: the Loch Ness Monster, mermaids, the Bermuda
Triangle, and the lost city of Atlantis.
2. As a class, list other mysteries of the ocean that have been written about. Discuss where each
myth originated, why it came about, and what the basis for the myth may be. For example,
mermaids were “seen” by sailors who had been at sea for many months. Now, people feel that
mermaids were really manatees, and it was because the sailors were so desperate to see a
beautiful woman that they imagined the manatees were really mermaids.
3. Have students create their own mythical monsters using features from real sea creatures.
Distribute the “Creature Feature” worksheet to all students. Have them fill it out to decide how
they would like to build their creatures.
4. Allow time for them to make their monsters from the materials provided.
5. Have each student present his/her creature to the class.
6. Hang the creations around the room.
CREATURE FEATURE
Name of creature:___________________________________________
Where does it live? (depth, location, etc.)__________________________
What type of creature is it? ___________________________________
What does it eat?___________________________________________
What color is it? ____________________________________________
What is its skin covered with? __________________________________
Who first saw it? ___________________________________________
Does this creature have any unusual behaviors? What? _______________
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How does it move around? _____________________________________
What is the story behind this creature? __________________________
What creature could it be in real life? ____________________________
Draw a rough sketch of the creature:
A DAY IN THE LIFE
Activity: Grades 9-12
Objective: To learn about the day-to-day activities of another culture.
Materials:
internet access
books and reference materials
paper
pen
Procedure:
1. Make a list of cultures that have been influenced by the sea. Assign one culture to each
student in the class. Each culture may be assigned to more than one student.
2. Allow one week for students to research their cultures and create a diary for what one person
from that culture might have experienced. Students may choose to portray a day in the life of
any member of that society. They may choose to write about the daily routine of a woman,
child, man, member of the upper class, fisherman, explorer, etc.
3. Ask students to outline what aspects of their person’s life are influenced by the ocean and
how.
Related Activities:
1. After students create their diary entries, have them act out the experiences in front of their
classmates. If the same culture has been assigned to more than one person, allow students with
the same culture to collaborate. They can produce a group skit.
2. Choose one culture that has been influenced by the sea. Assign one aspect of the culture’s
lifestyle to each student as a research project. Use the information collected by the students to
turn the classroom into a representation of that culture.
64
CHAPTER SEVEN
IMPORTANCE OF THE OCEANS
Humans receive many things from the oceans, whether they live near them or not. The sheer
magnitude of the current human population creates enormous demands for food, fibers, minerals,
and other commodities. Today, many of the ocean’s resources and processes are utilized for
recreation, transportation, exploration, medicine, food, and fuel.
Mixture of Marine Life Life in the ocean is more diverse in the warmer waters where
conditions are relatively stable. Animals that have adjusted to one set of conditions have
diversified and new species have arisen. Scientists have found that the more dynamic the
conditions or the more extreme the environment, the lower the species diversity we encounter.
For example, deep-sea trenches are inhabited by less than 400 species of animals worldwide.
Much of the food we get from the ocean and some items that we use everyday are available to us
because there are so many different kinds of organisms in the ocean. The concept of biodiversity
is important because with greater variety, there is greater potential to use the different plants,
animals and resources of the oceans. Much of the ocean has yet to be explored, and many
compounds created by plants, animals, and other organisms have yet to be evaluated for their
potential use in medicines, food, and industry.
An Escape from Everyday Since 67% of the world’s population lives within easy access to
coastal waters, oceans are a popular form of recreation. Each year, over 100 million Americans
participate in marine recreational activities, such as boating, diving, swimming and fishing,
spending $150 billion annually. Warm weather draws people to coastal regions for vacations.
Divers flock to some of the most beautiful and mysterious underwater habitats to catch glimpses
of the animals that live there. For many communities, marine recreation is a main source of
income, sustaining the region during tourist seasons and providing jobs for thousands of people.
The ocean draws people to its shores and, in the future, will continue to excite some and relax
many others.
Watery Wisdom Every habitat on earth gives us the opportunity to learn new information.
With the exploration of the oceans and the studies of aquatic organisms, we are learning more
about the patterns and cycles that make the world go around. Tracking studies of both individual
animals and populations let us know where animals spend their time and how what we do may
affect them. It is important to know this particularly when dealing with commercially harvested
animals. Those animals that spend time in several areas of the ocean may need the cooperation
of and stricter regulations in all areas they migrate through.
We can learn about global processes through oceanic studies as well. Effects of global warming
and ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere can been seen in a variety of changes that are
taking place in the oceans.
Learning about the effects of land-based pollution on the aquatic environment may increase
public awareness of the interconnectedness of land and sea, and help to modify harmful
activities. From this, humans may develop more environmentally friendly methods of doing
things, thereby protecting and preserving other resources and habitats as well.
Floating Along Without the open expanse of the seas, many products would not make it from
one region of the world to another…at least not without major difficulty. The oceans provide a
medium through which goods and people can be transported. This is especially useful for large,
cumbersome, fluid, or hazardous products. Vehicles, machinery, and petroleum are just a few
products that are often shipped by water rather than air.
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Off-shore Oil Oil is the most important source of fossil fuel energy worldwide. It remains
relatively cheap, is easily transported and can be put to a variety of uses. Refined oil is turned
into gasoline, heating oil, jet fuel, tar for roads and roofs, motor oil and innumerable other
substances.
Since March of 1976, the United States has imported more petroleum than it produced. This
marked the beginning of more aggressive exploration and drilling projects in offshore waters. In
the United States, large oil reserves have been found in the Gulf of Mexico and in Alaska. In an
effort to increase domestic oil production, attempts have been made to explore regions off the
east and west coasts of the United States, but have met with little success. The United States
does, however, extract an average of three billion barrels of oil from the sea annually.
Foreign oil extraction and production are at an all time high. The discovery of high amounts of
oil and natural gas in the North Sea (1950’s) led to an increase in the oil fields in the oceans. Oil
from foreign sources is generally cheaper than oil from sources within the United States.
Foreign reserves tend to be more accessible and of lower quality.
Weather Watchers Most weather processes are driven by two things: the sun and the ocean.
Oceans are major players in many weather phenomenon, both short term and extended
conditions. These bodies of water remain at fairly constant temperatures, keeping coastal
regions warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer. Fluctuation of high and low
temperatures on land is much greater because land is not as efficient as water at retaining heat.
The global water cycle is highly dependent upon the presence of the oceans. Many land areas do
not have much water and rely on the natural evaporation of water from the oceans. This water
journeys through the atmosphere and is redistributed to other regions as precipitation.
Hurricanes (also known as typhoons in the Pacific) are tropical storms that form when there is a
very warm, moist mass of air over the open ocean. The high-speed winds, large amounts of
precipitation and broad range of these storms make them very destructive as they travel over
water and sometimes onto land.
Another weather phenomenon, known as El Niño/Southern Oscillation, occurs only every so
often. It was first identified and named in the 1920’s by G.T. Walker, but was known about for
years by Peruvian fishermen who knew that every few years, an influx of warm water reduced
their typical harvest. The entire event, known as the Southern Oscillation, consists of two parts:
El Niño and La Niña.
El Niño is characterized by a prominent warming of the equatorial waters of the Pacific Ocean.
It occurs irregularly every couple of years, usually beginning around Christmas time, hence the
name “El Niño” (the Child). Each occurrence lasts from several months to over a year, and is
triggered by a relation in pressure differences across the tropical Pacific. At this time, both the
surface winds and ocean currents stop their normal westward flow, or even reverse themselves,
and flow eastward. Eventually, the warm waters of the Pacific begin to flow westward, and El
Niño conditions are replaced by La Niña features. These include cooler surface temperatures of
the eastern tropical Pacific, decreased rainfall, and well-developed coastal upwelling along the
west coast of South America.
Effects of El Niño are global, and occasionally severe. In 1982-1983, effects included heavy
flooding of the west coast of the United States, intensification of the sub-Saharan drought,
increased hurricane activity in the Pacific, and sea surface temperatures that were 46°F (8°C)
higher than normal!
Food, Glorious Food! Fishing is a multi-billion dollar global industry. Some of the yearly
catch is used for cattle fodder, pet foods, and the manufacturing of industrial products. But, most
of the fish and shellfish are sold for human consumption. In fact, about 1% of the world’s food
supply comes directly from the sea. However, despite the wide variety of fish in the sea (over
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20,000 species), a relatively small number of species make up the bulk of the world’s fish
harvest.
A number of species of bony and cartilaginous fish are harvested on a large scale, but other
marine organisms also account for a portion of the world’s catch. Many species of mollusks
(clams, oysters), crustaceans (crabs, lobsters), marine algae, and other aquatic animals
(everything from worms to whales) are taken from the oceans on a commercial level. When all
is said and done, over 61 million metric tons of food come to us from the ocean.
Marine Medicinals Because of the difficulty in exploring the marine environment, we have yet
to thoroughly analyze the potential of marine life in the field of medicine. Even so, scientists
have tested some important products from the sea for medicinal use. Animals in the intertidal
zones, such as mussels and barnacles, naturally produce substances to provide semi-permanent or
even permanent adhesion to the rocks. The dental industry is looking very closely at replicating
these adhesives for use in denture adhesives, fillings, and other dental procedures.
Chitin, the material that makes up the hard, outer skeleton of crustaceans, is currently used in
bone grafts and sutures. This natural material dissolves in the human body, becoming part of the
make-up of the bone or skin.
Much of what we know about human vision has come from studies of several aquatic animals.
For over fifty years, horseshoe crabs have been used in eye research. Rudimentary studies of the
compound eyes of horseshoe crabs have shown the molecular sequence of events that occurs
when an animal “sees” something. The large optic nerve that runs from the eye of the horseshoe
crab to its brain gives a larger-scale model of the nerve firing process than the human optic
nerve. Additional studies of color vision have been conducted on octopus eyes. The welldeveloped eyes of octopuses are very similar to vertebrate eyes in that they contain a cornea, a
lens, and a retina.
Plants in mangrove communities are under scrutiny as well. Ash and bark from the trees can be
used to treat skin disorders and sores. Various products derived from mangrove trees are
effective in the treatment of headaches, rheumatism, snakebites, boils, ulcers and bleeding.
Even coral reefs have provided some pharmaceutically important compounds. Since the pores of
coral skeletons are similar to those of human bones, coral skeletons have been used as bone
substitutes in some surgical techniques.
Other organisms in the ocean may provide the answers for cancer cures and organ transplants. A
compound derived from sponges is currently being tested against prostate cancer cells. Jellyfish
and coral skeletons are being used as anti-cancer agents, and horseshoe crab blood may prove to
be the most effective method of testing for bacterial toxins. The possibilities for using marine
organisms in medicine are endless! The medical community is very hopeful and anxious to learn
more about what we can gain from marine inhabitants.
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OCEANS ALIVE IN YOUR CLASSROOM!
Activity: Grades K-5
Objective: To understand the diversity of aquatic organisms.
Materials:
blue butcher paper
blue cellophane
string
tape and glue
scissors
paper plates
crayons and markers
various craft items
Procedure:
1. Affix blue paper to walls in one corner of the classroom. If there is a window in the area that
is being turned into the marine environment, cover it with blue cellophane (rather than blue
paper).
2. Explain to students that they are going to turn the classroom into a marine habitat. As the
teacher, you may decide to portray a certain habitat such as a coral reef, kelp forest, or the open
ocean.
3. As a class, list some of the animals and features that are found in that habitat. For example, in
a kelp forest, students may want to make representations of kelp, sea urchins, fish, sea otters, and
sea stars. Coral reefs may include coral polyps, rocks, sea fans, fish, sharks, and sunlight.
4. Allow each student to choose one animal or feature of the habitat they will work on creating
during the class period. Give students 5-10 minutes to plan what they are making, what
materials they might need, and how they are going to place it in the ocean scene (hang it from the
ceiling, tape it to the wall, affix it to the floor, etc.). If the class is small, assign two or more
animals/features to each student.
5. Show them the materials and give students the remainder of the class period to work on their
assignment. You may need to allow one or two more class periods for students to finish their
creations.
6. When everyone has finished their creations, have each student show his/her contribution to
the marine scene to the rest of the class and explain why it is important. When students have
finished their presentations, place the animals/ features in the appropriate places to make the
ocean come alive¾in your classroom!
Some ideas on how to make 3D objects for the classroom…
v
paper mache
1. Choose a support that is the shape needed for the activity. For example,
blown-up balloons work very well in paper mache projects requiring something
round.
2. Mix glue and water in equal parts.
3. Tear newspaper into strips.
4. Soak newspaper in glue and water mixture. Lay on balloon in a random
fashion until several layers of paper cover the entire balloon.
5. Let the paper dry completely, then pop the balloon with a needle.
6. Paint over the top of the paper!
v
“stuffed” animals
1. Cut out two copies of the animal to be stuffed.
2. Tape or glue around the three edges of the animal, leaving an
opening for stuffing.
3. Stuff with balled-up newspapers.
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4. Finish taping or gluing the remaining side of the animal.
v
projections
1. Add toothpicks to sea urchin bodies, streamers to paper plate jellyfish, and
pipe cleaners to brittle stars
2. The bodies of some animals can be molded out of clay or clay-like materials.
3. Add paper “blades” to the kelp stipes.
4. Use paper strips that are folded accordion-style to create legs for animals such
as crabs.
5. Fringed paper is excellent for making baleen or even to substitute for a
feathery or furry appearance.
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ON THE RIGHT TRACK
Activity: Grades 6-8
Background:
Because many animals in the world are migratory, scientists have developed a variety of
methods to track physical movements of both individual animals and entire populations. They
do this to learn about their feeding, mating, habitat use, and migration patterns throughout the
world. Radio tagging and satellite tracking are two of the most common methods of recording
data about the location of specific animals.
Various organizations also use tracking as a way of learning about the decline of some animal
populations, such as that of the blue fin tuna. Many species of sharks are also tagged, released,
and later recaptured to learn more about what can be done to help preserve their populations.
The data received from such tracking studies has not only given scientists an insight into how
people can help the animals survive, but has also provided us with amazing information. Blue
fin tuna have been found to migrate clear across the Atlantic Ocean, from New England all the
way to Norway! A blue shark study had one female tagged in New England. She was later
recaptured in Brazil, a journey of over 3,300 miles!
Objective: To understand how tracking is useful in studying migratory
populations.
Materials:
bulletin board
map of the school
pencil
safety pin
bright colored ribbon
Procedure:
1. Construct a large map of the school that can be placed on a bulletin board. This map will be
used to post tracking information received from the study.
2. Ask one student or teacher to volunteer to be tracked for one day. Explain that they need to
keep a detailed log of their activities and locations for the entire day. Pin a bright colored ribbon
on the trackee’s book bag to make them easy to spot. Ideally, the identity of the volunteer should
be kept a secret.
3. Designate a day when the study will take place. During the course of the day, have all
students in the class keep a record of the sightings of the tagged individual. They need to keep a
log of the time, location, and the duration of each sighting.
4. During the next class period, have students compile all sightings on the school map.
5. Compare the sightings of the class members with the log kept by the tagged individual.
Related Activities:
1. Research migration patterns for various migratory animals. Animals that can be included in
this project are humpback whales, blue fin tuna, American eels, Baltimore orioles, and blue
sharks.
2. Determine the accuracy of a tracking study. Pin a ribbon on three different students. Have all
the students, the fish, move around the room in a random fashion. The teacher is the fisherperson. After 20 seconds, call “freeze.” Students should stop. Whoever is within a 3-foot radius
of the teacher is “caught.” Record the number of students caught and whether any of them were
the tagged individuals. Repeat this procedure 10 times. How many times were tagged students
caught? Did this give an accurate look at the population?
70
JUST AN OCEAN A DAY…
Activity: Grades 9-12
Objective: To discover how many different ways we use the oceans in our everyday
lives.
Materials:
logbook
pencils or pens
chalk
chalkboard
Procedure:
1. Ask students to name all the ways that the oceans affect their lives and list responses on the
board. Designate one student to copy this list to paper and hang it on the chalkboard for later
reference.
2. Tell students to create a log section in their notebooks where they will record the things they
do, use or experience that are dependent upon the marine environment. Draw a sample log page
on the chalkboard (see next page).
3. For the next school week, have students maintain a journal of how they use the ocean. Tell
them to be creative with their entries and do research on products or occurrences to determine if
they are ocean related.
4. Once students have finished their journal for the 5-day period, discuss, as a class, the findings
of their experience. Designate one student to write responses on the board. Compare these
responses with those of the previous session (before they began their journal).
5. Categorize the responses (recreation, weather, food, information, products, etc.) and total all
the responses in each category. Ask if there are any more ways that we use the oceans that were
not listed.
Some possible answers to this activity (see chapters 3, 4, and 7 for more information):
fish, lipstick, toothpaste, hurricanes, rain, shampoo, baking products, audio speakers (wires),
sushi, gasoline, motor oil, sutures, medicines, research on vision, roe, fishing, water skiing, gluelike substances, SCUBA diving, bacteria medium, ice cream, shrimp, sunbathing, Coast Guard,
shipping of manufactured goods and raw materials (cars, cloth, food, toys, electronics, etc.),
swimming, El Niño, breezes, travel, wine, photography, milkshakes, candy, paper, yogurt, air
fresheners, shoe polish, water-proof fabric, ink, fabric dye, dog food, cough syrup
71
HOW THE OCEAN AFFECTS MY LIFE
LOG SHEET
DATE: ____________
Item or Experience
Category
(recreation, medicine, etc.)
72
73
CHAPTER 8
PROTECTING AND PRESERVING OUR OCEANS
Throughout the course of history, people have reaped the benefits of the oceans’ resources. We
have always thought that the ocean’s resources were limitless, but with recent technological
advances, our methods of utilizing these resources have become faster, more efficient, and
essentially more destructive. Scientists all agree that with such aggressive practices of food
capture, dumping, and mining, the ocean’s resources will not last for much longer.
Pollution Problems Pollution of the ocean is a reality. But to understand pollution, we all must
realize what defines it. Nature has a great capacity to take in foreign substances and, over time,
convert them to non-threatening materials. This is known as the assimilative capacity.
However, when the quantity of substances results in harm to living resources or humans that use
these resources, we call it pollution.
There are many different types of aquatic pollution. Sedimentation, nutrient enrichment,
hydrocarbon pollution, and marine debris are just a few. Once we learn how these different
types of pollution affect the aquatic environment, we can determine the best course of action to
take in cleaning up and eliminating them.
Increased input of sediments from land has the greatest affect on coastal waters around the
world. Rainwater washes sediments into estuaries, continental shelves, and coral reefs, creating
murky water. Suspended particles in the water prevent sunlight from reaching the bottom,
causing a decrease in the primary productivity in that region. As the sediments settle out and lie
on the bottom, they cover, and may even smother, sedentary and slow-moving organisms. Coral
reefs are particularly affected by this problem. As sediment settles on sedentary corals, the
polyps smother and die. The reef begins to slowly die. This equates to habitat loss for the
thousands of organisms that make the reef their home. Without the shelter and food the reef
once provided, the animals may die.
Nutrient enrichment, or eutrophication, is linked with sedimentation. Run-off from farmlands
and private lawns is full of nitrogen and phosphorus because of the high amounts of fertilizer that
are added in order to make crops and grasses grow. When nitrogen and phosphorus enter the
marine environment, the producers are able to reproduce rapidly, increasing their populations.
Initially, this creates a high level of oxygen that is beneficial to the other organisms in the
vicinity. But, as the producers begin to die off, the process of decomposition consumes a
tremendous amount of oxygen, thus lowering the oxygen level. Animals requiring high oxygen
levels may suffocate as a result of eutrophication.
When most people think about hydrocarbon pollution, they think of oil spills. Large oil spills
into the ocean are rare, but they are widely publicized events. Such a large input of oil into the
environment certainly merits our concern and massive clean-up efforts. These spills are
responsible for suffocating benthic organisms by clogging their gills. Marine birds and
mammals suffer heavily because their feathers and fur become oil-soaked and matted, causing
them to lose insulation and buoyancy.
In spite of the spectacular nature of major oil spills such as the Exxon Valdez (1989), Amoco
Cadiz (1978), and Torrey Canyon (1967), in an average year, more oil actually enters the marine
environment as run-off from urban streets, parking lots, leaking underground storage tanks, and
improperly dumped waste oil. Large spills are much easier to contain and manage when
compared to this slower input from land.
Until recently, marine debris was not considered a major issue when compared to other
pollutants. However, the problems resulting from debris have a much greater impact on the
living organisms in the ocean than some better-known pollutants, including oil. Currently, over
14 billion pounds of trash is dumped into the oceans each year. Marine debris is defined as any
manufactured object that is discarded in the marine environment. When dumped, it may sink to
74
the bottom, remain suspended in the water column, or float on the surface. Floating debris is
often carried by winds and waves and makes its way to the shore.
Types of Marine Debris Reported From Coastal Cleanups: 1999
RUBBER
WOOD
2%
2%
PAPER
9%
GLASS
9%
PLASTICS
METAL
68%
10%
Of all marine debris, plastics concern scientists the most. The use of plastics has increased
dramatically since 1970. With the “throw away” lifestyle most people have developed, the
generation and disposal of plastic wastes has strained the capacity of land-based disposal.
Direct dumping of plastics, careless disposal of wastes by commercial and recreational vessels,
and accidental spilling of plastics at loading terminals have all contributed to the problem. And
what is the result? Some aquatic animals eat the plastic. Marine turtles sometimes confuse
plastic bags with their favorite food, jellyfish. When they eat the plastic, it blocks their digestive
system, making them feel full. Since they are “full,” they don’t eat, and eventually starve to
death. Marine birds, mammals, fish and sharks sometimes get tangled in plastic nets and other
trash, an act that often results in death for the animals. Over 30,000 northern fur seals die every
year after becoming entangled in plastics! And plastics may stay around for hundreds of years,
thus having an impact on many animals worldwide. But there is a bright spot. It is now illegal
to dump plastics in U.S. coastal or open waters.
Overharvesting Overharvesting of fish, marine mammals, and birds has led to greatly reduced
populations or even the extinction of some species. Better and more efficient methods of
harvesting initially increased the catch of fish. The potential for more harvesting led to the
addition of more ships to fishing fleets, thus causing an explosion in the amount of fish caught.
The ocean, while full of fish, cannot support fisheries that deplete fish populations faster than
they can reproduce and replenish themselves. Eventually the harvest runs out. Smaller schools
make it harder to locate and catch the desired fish. Harvesting itself is not a bad thing, but when
we take more animals than can be replaced in a certain period of time, we risk losing those
populations forever.
Legislative Efforts In 1899, the United States government took an interest in the legal
protection of the marine environment. This is the year the first Rivers and Harbors Act was
passed into legislation, prohibiting the dumping of any kind of refuse in the navigable waters of
the United States. In the 20th century, the Clean Water Act (1948) and its amendments targeted
the regulation of point sources of municipal and industrial waste and spills of oil and hazardous
materials. Later, the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (1972) established
regulations and controls for dumping wastes at sea, research of marine processes, and marine
sanctuaries.
The United States also regulates interactions with marine animals. One of the most widely
publicized and well known of these laws is the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. With
the implementation of this legislation, the hunting and killing of any marine mammal is strictly
prohibited, and marine mammals in captivity are also protected. Fish catch laws are also heavily
75
enforced. This guarantees that fishermen use the most practical and sustainable methods of
harvesting to ensure that the fisheries will be around and thriving for future generations.
International legislation has enabled different countries to work together, pool their resources
and establish laws that are the best for all parties concerned. Beginning with the Action Plan for
the Human Environment established by the United Nations in 1972, a comprehensive plan for
international environmental protection has evolved. It includes procedures for assessing problem
areas and monitoring activities that are potential sources of pollution. Participation in
international legislation is voluntary, so it is hard to regulate, and success of the programs
depend on a dedicated and aware scientific community. Other international treaties have since
been established promoting sustainable fisheries and safe practices. Since the oceans are very
dynamic, always changing and moving, and since many animals migrate from one region to the
next, worldwide cooperation with regulations benefits everyone.
People Power! Legislation against dumping has prevented thousands of pieces of waste from
entering the oceans, and has imposed harsh punishments on violators of the laws, but it is not
enough. In fact, it is probably less effective than public outcry and support for clean waters.
Many non-profit organizations promote conservation, utilizing members and membership dollars
to lobby for stronger laws, expand research efforts, provide educational programs for local
communities, and offer direct clean-up of wastes. Drain stenciling began as a public outreach of
the Center for Marine Conservation, but has taken off as a grass roots effort to protect local
waters. By simply painting “Don’t Dump,” or some variant above storm drains, concerned
citizens let others know that what goes down the sewer drain may work its way into the public
water supply.
Some organizations take a more drastic approach to conservation, directly attacking fishing boats
or whaling ships. These efforts, while unorthodox, bring public attention to some very important
issues. Without these passionate displays of concern for the environment, many forms of
legislation would not be of high priority and awareness of environmental conditions would be
much lower.
Scientific Solutions Another measure taken to ensure the survival of the marine environment is
the science of mariculture, or growing marine organisms in a captive environment. This may be
done for a number of reasons. Some mariculturists provide animals for fish stores or large-scale
educational facilities, promoting awareness of aquatic resources. Others grow organisms for
food that is sold to the public, rather than harvesting those animals from the wild. Scientists also
raise young animals and plants in captivity, and then place them in the ocean to help restock
populations. Mariculture has many purposes and promises to be an up-and-coming field in
oceanography.
Moody Gardens The Aquarium at Moody Gardens is an excellent place to learn about various
aquatic habitats and animals. The exhibits take guests around the oceans of the world beginning
with the rocky coast of the North Pacific. Two coral reef tanks highlight reefs from the Coral
Sea in the South Pacific and the Caribbean Sea of the Atlantic Ocean. Another large exhibit
focuses on the chilly waters of the South Atlantic and the edge of the Antarctic, where several
species of penguins make their home. A variety of jewel tanks in between each exhibit give
guests an up-close look at smaller or more dangerous animals of the sea. Several touch tanks
located in the building allow guests to touch organisms such as sea stars, crabs, lobsters,
stingrays, and horseshoe crabs. Other hands-on activities promote learning, understanding, and
linking far away habitats and animals to our everyday lives. Trained naturalists and volunteers
are stationed throughout the building to answer questions. The Education Department at Moody
Gardens offers programs for all grade levels. Please see our Education Programs brochure for an
explanation of our offerings.
What can I do? Knowledge is a powerful tool. Every day, more people are made aware of the
problems our aquatic resources face. When the problems and their effects are known, it is then
that people stop contributing to the problems and instead become part of the solutions.
76
Here are a few ways that you can make a difference in the protection and preservation of our
aquatic resources:
v reduce, reuse, recycle¾this conserves our energy resources, many of which are taken
from the ocean
v cut plastic six pack rings apart so animals can’t get caught in the rings
v support sustainable fisheries
v visit a local aquarium to learn about aquatic animals and habitats
v support organizations that work to protect and preserve the marine environment
v participate in river and beach clean-ups
v recycle old oil instead of dumping it¾we don’t want to increase the amount of oil that
makes its way into the water
v reduce run-off from your lawn¾leave your grass at least 1 _ inches long
v fix leaky faucets¾a steady drip can waste 20 gallons of water a day!
v refuse to buy products that come from animals that have reduced populations
v stay informed on the issues and support government officials who promise to work on
protecting the ocean
The Future Where will we be in the 21st century? No one really knows. But there is one thing
that scientists feel rather certain of¾that the sea will play an even bigger role in our day-to-day
lives. Increased mariculture practices and fish farms may provide a more significant amount of
food, while our homes and buildings may run off the energy harnessed from the tides or surf.
Medicines and technology will benefit greatly from advances originating in the sea.
It is up to each individual to make a personal commitment to learn about the problems facing the
world’s oceans and make informed decisions about what we can do to protect and preserve the
aquatic environment.
“Whatever happens to the beasts soon happens to man. All things are connected.”
-Chief Seattle
77
CONSERVATION POND
Activity: Grades K-5
Objective: To identify ways to practice conservation.
Materials:
scissors
pencils
black markers
tape
light blue, black and white
construction paper (9x12)
Procedure:
1. Before class cut out a faucet shape from the black construction paper. Tape the faucet to the
wall of the classroom. Using the white construction paper, make a sign that reads, ”Our
Conservation Pond.” Tape this above the faucet.
2. Discuss the importance of conservation with the class.
3. Distribute a piece of blue construction paper to each student. Have each student draw a water
drop on the construction paper then cut it out. Or you may copy and distribute a copy of the
water drop on the following page.
4. On the water drop, ask each student to use a black marker to write one way that they will
conserve water or help marine life in the future.
Here are a few examples:
¨
Turn off water when I brush my teeth.
¨
Recycle my aluminum cans.
¨
Cut six-pack rings so birds, turtles and seals can’t get caught in them.
5. Tape each completed drop near the faucet, as if it is dripping from the faucet.
6. Read all of the statements to the class. Create a chart for students to track how well they
follow their pledges.
78
79
THE PROBLEM WITH PLASTICS
Activity: Grades 6-8
Background:
Despite the increasing problem of plastics in the sea, scientists are devising new ways to use
plastics to help rather than harm the wildlife in an aquatic environment. Even though most
plastic items are non-biodegradable, meaning they don’t break down, a photodegradable plastic
is working its way into the plastics market. Exposure to sunlight causes this photodegradable
material to break down within several months. Larger pieces of plastic are being used to provide
habitat and anchoring sites for aquatic organisms in marshes and ponds. Even old 2-litre bottles
and milk jugs act as microhabitats for juvenile fish. The possibilities are endless!
Objective: Identify types of plastic waste and how they may affect wildlife.
Materials:
plastic waste from home
markers
posterboard
rubber gloves
Procedure:
1. Have students save every piece of plastic trash that is generated in their homes over a threeday period. Ask them to bring this to school on the fourth day. If the amount is too great, ask
them to log their collection and bring in a sample of the entire collection. Remind them to wash
all plastics before they are brought in.
2. Ask students to list possible ways to categorize the plastics that were brought in. Encourage
them to pay particular attention to how the trash may be perceived by marine animals. Is each
item very likely, somewhat likely or not likely to be perceived as food? How likely is it for an
animal to become entangled in that piece of trash? Have students write a spectrum diagram for
each category (shown below), then mark where each item falls on the spectrum.
I--------------------------------------------------------------I
Very
likely
Somewhat
likely
Not
likely
3. Have students develop hypotheses as to how these materials may affect marine animals, then
go to the library to research their hypotheses. How do their ideas stand up to published
literature?
4. Assign one student to record the types of plastic items brought in by the students and the
quantities for each item (bottles, six-pack rings, plastic bags, etc.). Have students look on the
containers to find the number for the type of plastic. The number is found inside the recycle
symbol.
These numbers are used for recycling purposes. Plastics with the numbers one
or two are the most recyclable. Graph the percentages of each type of plastic in the activity.
5. Take a class trip around the school or community to do a plastics survey. Ask students to
look for litter and record the types of litter found. Have students wear rubber gloves to pick up
and throw away any litter that is found. Ask students to think about how this litter affects local
wildlife.
6. In the classroom, determine what plastic debris may be harmful to the animals in the
community. Design a way to promote awareness of the effects plastic litter may have on the
environment. This may range from a school-wide campaign to a community awareness program,
for example, setting up a highway clean up or a recycling collection site.
7. Put the plan into effect!
80
TOXIN MULTIPLICATION
Activity: Grades 9-12
Background:
Most pollutants are found in small quantities in the ocean, and are presumed not to adversely
affect aquatic animals in that region. However, if too much of the toxin is ingested by a
particular animal, that animal could get very sick and die. Bioconcentration or biomagnification
is a process by which those toxins are accumulated in the tissues of the living organisms as we
go up the food chain. The animals at the top of the food chain are dying because a little bit of
toxin from the bottom of the chain has become concentrated in their food.
Objective: To understand the process of bioconcentration.
Materials:
40 tennis balls
black marker
Procedure:
1. Label 25 balls with a “1.” These represent the krill in the ocean (bottom of the food chain).
Label 10 balls with a “2.” These 2’s represent anchovies.
Label 4 balls with a “3.” These are the tuna in the ocean. And the remaining ball should be
labeled “4.” The lone #4 is the shark, one of the ocean’s top predators.
2. Give each student a ball.
3. Have all the #1’s stand up. Explain their position in the ocean. Tell them that their ball
represents a little bit of toxin that they have ingested. Ask if this little bit would kill them (no).
3. Have #2’s stand up. Tell them what their position is in the ocean. Explain that they eat all
the krill (#1’s). Have each #1 give their ball to a #2. See how many pieces of “toxin” each #2
has at this point; it is a little bit more, but it probably won’t kill the animal.
4. Have the #3’s stand up. Explain their position in the ocean. They eat the small fish (#2’s).
Have each #2 give their balls to a #3. Now the #3’s have ingested a little bit more toxin by
eating the #2’s. This is probably going to make them a little bit sick. (It should be getting pretty
hard for the students to hold the balls.)
5. Finally, have the #4 stand up. This is the shark, the animal at the top of this food chain,
which feasts on all the tuna. Have all the #3’s give their “toxins” to the #4. The #4 probably
cannot handle all the tennis balls. This represents how, through the process of biomagnification,
the top predators get more toxins than they can handle. It is at this point that they die.
81
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Each of the following terms appears in italicized print within the curriculum text. Most of these
words are explained within the context of the chapter in which they appear. This glossary is
provided as a supplemental resource to the text.
abiotic¾non-living portion of an ecosystem
abyssal plain¾flat, sediment covered areas in the ocean basin, usually
3,000 - 5,000 m (9,836 – 19,393 ft.) deep
advertising coloration¾specific patterns and/or colors that are used to promote a service or
attract a mate
algae¾one-celled or many-celled protists that have no root, stem or leaf systems
aphotic¾without light; the portion of the ocean where light does not reach
aquanaut¾a person who lives in an underwater laboratory and conducts research
assimilative capacity¾the ability of the oceans to transform a harmful substance into something
benign
atoll¾a ring-shaped chain of coral reefs from which a few low islands project above the sea
surface
autotroph¾any organism that synthesizes its nutrition from inorganic materials
barbels¾sensory organs that project from the mouth region of an animal
barrier reef¾a coral reef separated from shore by a lagoon
benthic¾pertaining to the sea bottom and the organisms that live there
biodiversity¾variety of life forms
bioluminescence¾production of visible light by living organisms
biotic¾the living portion of an ecosystem
blade¾leaf-like portion of kelp
brackish¾a mixture of fresh and salt water
camouflage¾a type of concealment in which something resembles its natural surroundings
chemoautotroph¾an organism that converts chemical energy into nutrition
chemosynthesis¾process of creating nutrition from inorganic substances using chemical energy
chitin¾a flexible material found in exoskeletons of arthropods
commensalism¾a symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont benefits without seriously
affecting the host
compressed¾flattened side to side
consumer¾an organism that consumes and digests other organisms to satisfy its energy needs
82
continental drift¾the gradual movement of continents in response to sea floor spreading
continental shelf¾the relatively smooth underwater extension of the edge of a continent that
slopes seaward to a depth of about 200 m (656 ft.).
coral bleaching¾the process by which symbiotic algae leave the tissues of coral polyps, resulting
in eventual death for the corals
Coriolis Effect¾the apparent change in direction of a moving object due to the rotation of the
earth
countershading¾coloration pattern where the upper surface is darkly colored and the lower
surface is lightly colored
decomposer¾an organism that breaks down dead organic matter
density¾ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume
depressed¾flattened dorso-ventrally (top to bottom)
dinoflagellate¾single-celled microscopic organism belonging to the phylum Dinophyta
disruptive coloration¾a form of camouflage where bands of color break up the animal’s body
shape
diurnal¾active during the daytime
ecotone¾the overlapping area between two dissimilar habitats
El Niño¾a southerly-flowing warm current that generally develops off the coast of Ecuador
shortly after Christmas which often results in widespread death of plankton and fish
eutrophication¾addition of an abundance of nutrients
fringing reef¾a large coral reef formation that closely borders the shore
frustule¾the silica shell of a diatom; consists of two halves
fusiform¾torpedo-shaped
holdfast¾a structure that attaches seaweeds to substrates
holoplankton¾animals that spend their whole lives as members of the plankton
host¾one member of a symbiotic relationship
hurricane¾a tropical cyclone in which winds reach velocities of greater than 73 miles per hour
(117 km/h)
hydrocarbon¾an organic compound consisting solely of hydrogen and carbon
hydrothermal vent¾an area on the ocean floor that spews warm water
intertidal zone¾area of the shoreline between high and low tide lines
invertebrate¾an animal that does not have a backbone
83
jet propulsion¾form of locomotion where water is drawn into the body and forcibly expelled to
move the animal in a forward motion
La Niña¾an event where the surface temperature in the waters of the eastern South Pacific falls
below average values; usually occurs at the end of an El Niño event
meroplankton¾animals that spend only a portion of their lives as plankton
mimicry¾coloration pattern that enables one organism to resemble another
mutualism¾symbiotic relationship where both parties receive benefit
nekton¾large, actively swimming animals
nocturnal¾active at night
ocean¾a large body of salt water
parasite¾an organism that receives benefits at the expense of another
parasitism¾symbiotic relationship where the symbiont lives in or on the host and benefits at the
host’s expense
parts per thousand¾measure of salinity; the number of particle A for every 1000 particles in the
solution
pH¾a numerical scale from 1-14 that is used to represent the concentration of hydrogen ions in a
solution; -log[H+] in solution
photic layer¾the portion of the ocean where light intensity is sufficient enough to accommodate
plant growth
photosynthesis¾biological synthesis of organic materials using light energy
phytoplankton¾microscopic photosynthetic organisms
pneumatocyst¾air-filled sac on kelp that functions as a float
pollution¾introduction of substances or energy into the marine environment that results in harm
to the living resources or humans who use those resources
predation¾the feeding on other animals
primary producers¾organisms that synthesize organic materials through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis
primary productivity¾synthesis of organic material from inorganic molecules
producer¾organism that contributes to the primary production of an area
protists¾first cells; organisms including algae, dinoflagellates, and diatoms
resource¾a source of raw materials used by society
salinity¾measure of total amount of dissolved particles in water
scavenging¾feeding on the dead remains of other animals and plants
84
SCUBA¾Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus used by divers to remain underwater
for short periods of time
sedimentation¾settling out of suspended particles from a body of water
stipe¾stem-like portion of kelp
submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)¾marine plants restricted to subtidal environments
subtidal zone¾a shallow area of the marine environment that is constantly submerged
symbiont¾the beneficiary in a symbiotic relationship
symbiosis¾an intimate and prolonged association between two or more organisms where at least
one partner receives benefit from the relationship
thermocline¾the layer marked by a sharp change in temperature
tidal range¾vertical distance between high and low tides
tide¾a long period wave noticeable as a periodic rise and fall of the sea surface along coastlines
trench¾deep area in the ocean floor, usually deeper than 6000m (19,672ft.)
upwelling¾the process that carries nutrient-rich subsurface water upward to the photic zone
vertebrate¾an animal that has a backbone
warning coloration¾bright and obvious markings that act as a signal of danger
wave¾a periodic, traveling undulation of the sea surface
zooplankton¾animal members of the plankton
zooxanthellae¾symbiotic, unicellular algae found in corals, anemones, mollusks, and several
other types of marine animals
85
APPENDIX 1: OCEAN CONSERVATION
ORGANIZATIONS
The following organizations are noted for their involvement with protection and
preservation of the world’s oceans. This is by no means a comprehensive list. Rather, it
is a representation of various organizations to contact for further information. In
addition, this listing in no way implies support by or from Moody Gardens and its
employees.
AMERICAN OCEANS CAMPAIGN
600 Pennsylvania Avenue, SW, Suite 210
Washington, DC 20003
Telephone: 202.544.3526
Fax: 202.544.5625
www.americanoceans.org
CENTER FOR MARINE CONSERVATION
1725 DeSales Street, NW, Suite 600
Washington, DC 20036
Telephone: 202.429.5609
Fax: 202.872.0619
www.cmc-ocean.org
CORAL REEF RESEARCH FOUNDATION
PO Box 1765
Koror, Palau PW 96940
Fax: 680.488.5513
www.underwatercolors.com/crrf.html
EARTH ISLAND INSTITUTE
300 Broadway, Suite 28
San Francisco, CA 94133-3312
Telephone: 415.788.3666
Fax: 415. 788.7324
www.earthisland.org
ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND
257 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10010
Telephone: 212. 505.2100
Fax: 212. 505.2375
www.edf.org
MARINE FISH CONSERVATION NETWORK
600 Pennsylvania Avenue, SE, Suite 210
Washington, DC 20003
Telephone: 202.543.5509
Fax: 202.543.5774
www.conservefish.org
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION (NOAA)
NOAA Public & Constituent Affairs, Room 6013
86
14th Street & Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20230
Telephone: 202.482.6090
Fax: 202.482.3154
www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov
THE NATURE CONSERVANCY
4245 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 100
Arlington, VA 22203-1606
Telephone: 800.628.6860
Fax: 703.841.4100
www.tnc.org
WORLD WILDLIFE FUND
1250 24th Street, NW
P.O. Box 97180
Washington, DC 20090-7180
Telephone: 800.CALL.WWF
Fax: 202.293.9211
www.worldwildlife.org
87
APPENDIX 2: HELPFUL WEB SITES
www.moodygardens.org
Learn about educational programs that are
offered at our facility.
www.aqua.org
Lots of information about the marine
environment.
www.jasonproject.org
Website for the popular research project.
www.beachcombers.org
Site dedicated to the “treasures” washed up
on beaches around the world.
www.webshot.com
Get some great photos of marine life from
the net!
www.geocities.com/RainForest/2298/
Lots of great information about fish.
They even do a fish of the week!
www.actwin.com/fish/species/fish.msql On-line pictures of marine fish and
invertebrates for identification.
www.marinelab.sarasota.fl.us/
Mote Marine Laboratory’s site great
information and interactives.
www.yoto98.noaa.gov
NOAA’s International Year of the Ocean
homepage.
www.mdsg.umd.edu/#SG
Site for a list of Sea Grant curriculum
materials.
www.epa.gov/surf/locate.html
Information on getting involved with your
local watershed.
www.tropicalfish.com/html/primer/html
www.saa.noaa.gov/
Interesting site for tropical
fish.
All about remote sensing.
88
APPENDIX 3: TEXAS ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
AND SKILLS
*
11D
11B
11A
10B
10A
9C
9B
8B
7B
*
*
*
12B
*
*
*
12A
*
7A
*
6B
*
4
3A
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation
Pond
1B
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
Grade K
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation
Pond
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
89
11A
10B
9B
8C
8B
8A
*
*
*
*
7B
6B
4B
3A
1D
Grade 1
*
*
*
11C
11B
*
11A
10B
10A
9C
9B
*
5B
*
3B
2B
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation
Pond
2A
1
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
Grade 2
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
14C
14B
14A
13
12B
12A
11A
*
5B
2C
*
3B
2B
*
3A
2A
Fill ‘Em
Up!
From
Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some
Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans
Alive
1B
1A
Grade 3
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
90
*
*
*
*
13C
*
13A
12
*
7
*
3B
2C
*
3A
2B
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
1B
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
Grade 4
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an Igloo
Oceans Alive
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
91
13C
12B
12A
11A
4B
3E
3A
1B
1A
Grade 5
Density
Deductions
Sound Off
Algae vs. Plant
On the Right
Track
The Problem
with Plastics
*
10D
10C
*
*
*
8B
7
5
4A
3B
3A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
Grade 6
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
12B
11B
11A
*
9
*
7A
3B
*
4B
2G
Density
Deductions
Sound Off
Balancing Act
The Problem
with Plastics
2D
Grade 7
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
13A
12C
12B
11C
4
3B
2D
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Math
Grade 8
92
Density
Deductions
Sound Off
On the Right
Track
The Problem
with Plastics
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
8A
9A
*
*
*
*
*
*
9B
7A
*
6E
*
6D
*
6B
*
5A
*
4B
*
4A
*
3C
*
3B
*
3A
*
*
2E
2D
2A
2C
*
2B
Fill ‘Em Up!
Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
1B
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Grade K
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
93
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Igloo
Oceans
Alive
Conservation
Pond
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
9B
4C
4A
3C
3B
3A
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
9B
*
9A
*
6C
*
2E
2D
2C
2B
2A
*
9A
*
*
*
*
*
8A
*
*
6B
*
*
*
5B
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation
Pond
1B
1A
Grade 1
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
94
*
10B
*
*
6D
*
*
*
6C
*
*
6A
*
4B
*
4A
*
3C
*
3B
*
3A
*
*
2E
2A
2D
*
2C
*
2B
Fill ‘Em Up!
Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
1B
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Grade 2
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Conservation
Pond
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
*
*
*
11A
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
11C
11B
8A
5B
5A
4A
3D
3C
3A
2E
2C
2B
2A
1B
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Grade 4
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation
9B
*
9A
*
8D
8C
8A
7A
4A
3D
3C
3A
2E
2C
2B
2A
8B
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation
Pond
1B
1A
Grade 3
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
95
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Pond
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Wanted!
Build an
Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation
Pond
12C
10B
9C
9B
9A
4A
3D
3C
3A
2E
2C
2B
2A
1B
1A
Grade 5
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
12B
8C
8B
5A
4B
4A
3E
3D
3C
3B
*
*
*
*
*
*
10B
*
3A
*
2E
2C
*
2D
2B
*
10A
Sound
Off
Algae vs.
Plant
Balancing
Act
Web of
Life
*
2A
Density
Deductions
1B
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Grade 6
*
96
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Mythical
Monsters
On the
Right
Track
The
Problem
with
Plastics
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
The
Problem
with
Plastics
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
11B
8B
5A
4B
4A
3E
3D
3C
3B
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
12C
*
12B
*
3A
*
2E
2C
*
2D
2B
*
12A
Sound
Off
Balancing
Act
Web of
Life
Mythical
Monsters
On the
Right
Track
*
2A
Density
Deductions
1B
1A
Grade 7
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Sound
Off
Balancing
Act
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
97
*
*
12C
12B
10B
9D
6C
5A
4B
4A
3E
3D
3C
3B
*
3A
*
2E
2C
*
2D
2B
*
2A
Density
Deductions
1B
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Grade 8
Web of
Life
*
Mythical
Monsters
On the
Right
Track
The
Problem
with
Plastics
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Message in a
Bottle
Ecotones
Appetizing
Algae
Bewildering
Beasts
Quick Skits
A Day in the
Life
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
12E
12B
12A
11B
2D
*
3F
2C
*
3E
2B
2A
1A
Biology
High School
*
*
*
*
*
*
8C
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
*
*
8B
*
*
Toxin
Multiplication
Ecotones
Appetizing
Algae
Bewildering
Beasts
Quick Skits
A Day in the
Life
Just an
Ocean a Day
8A
*
*
*
*
7D
*
*
Just an Ocean
a Day
7B
6B
5D
5C
5B
5A
4B
4A
3C
3B
3A
2E
2D
2B
2A
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Aquatic Science
High School
*
*
98
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Bewildering
Beasts
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Quick Skits
A Day in the
Life
*
*
*
*
Just an Ocean
a Day
Toxin
Multiplication
6B
5C
5B
5A
4E
4D
4C
4B
4A
3C
3B
3A
2D
2C
2B
5F
*
5E
Ecotones
Appetizing
Algae
*
5D
Message in a
Bottle
2A
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Environmental Science
High School
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Message in a
Bottle
Ecotones
Appetizing
Algae
*
*
*
*
*
*
6C
6B
5F
5E
5D
5B
5A
*
*
*
*
*
Bewildering
Beasts
*
*
Quick Skits
*
*
A Day in
the Life
Just an
Ocean a Day
4E
4D
4C
4B
4A
3E
3C
3B
2D
2C
2B
2A
1A
Environmental Systems
High School
*
*
*
Toxin
Multiplication
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Oceanography
99
*
*
*
*
*
13A
13C
*
*
*
12C
11B
Quick Skits
Just an Ocean a
Day
9A
High School
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
4D
Bewildering Beasts
4C
Principles of Technology I & II
High School
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
8C
*
8B
*
8A
6D
*
7A
4B
3C
3B
2D
2C
2B
*
4A
Message in
a Bottle
Ecotones
Appetizing
Algae
Bewildering
Beasts
2A
1A
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Science
Scientific Research and Design
High School
*
*
*
100
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade K
Use
vocabulary
relating to
time
Fill ‘Em Up!
From Top to
Bottom
We Need
Some Light
Animal
Insulation
Build an
Igloo
Conservation
Pond
Identify
characteristics
of landforms,
water, natural
resources
Identify
human
needs
and
how
they
are met
Identify
jobs in
school
Identify
similarities/differences
of people
Obtain
information
Express
ideas;
create
visuals
*
*
Identify
problems;
design
solutions
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade 1
Create
a
timeline
From Top to
Bottom
Animal
Insulation
Build an Igloo
Conservation
Pond
Identify
characteristics
of the
environment
Describe
ways
humans
meet their
needs
Describe
importance
of beliefs,
customs,
traditions
Obtain
information
from
variety of
sources
Express ideas
in
written/visual
forms
Identify
problems;
evaluate
solutions;
take action
*
*
*
*
*
101
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade 2
Describe
Identify
Explain how
Identify how
Identify
significance the order of landforms humans depend humans change
events
on environment environment and the
of
consequences
celebration
From Top to Bottom
Animal Insulation
Build an Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation Pond
Describe how
science and
technology
affect life
Obtain info
from varie
sources;
interpret
informatio
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade 3
Identify how Use
communities vocabulary
related to
meet their
time
needs
From Top to Bottom
Animal Insulation
Build an Igloo
Conservation Pond
Describe how people
adapt to and modify
the environment
Identify how
individuals/groups
can change their
communities
Obtain
information
from a variety of
sources
*
*
*
*
102
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade 4
Identify ways people
adapt to and modify
Texas environment
From Top to Bottom
Build an Igloo
Conservation Pond
Identify customs,
traditions and
celebrations of
groups
*
Analyze and
interpret
information
Express ideas orall
through creative m
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade 5
Describe reasons
and ways people
adapt to and
modify the
environment;
explain
consequences
From Top to Bottom
Build an Igloo
Oceans Alive
Conservation Pond
Describe customs,
traditions, and
celebrations of ethnic
groups
*
*
Analyze and
interpret
information
Communicate idea
orally; create visua
materials
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade 6
Describe
influence of
history on
present
Sound Off
Web of Life
Mythical Monsters
Create maps
to answer
questions
Analyze effects
of environment
on humans
*
Importance
of civic
participation
Examples of scientific
discoveries, effects on
resources
*
Analyze and
interpret
information
*
*
*
*
103
On the Right Track
The Problem with Plastics
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade 7
Analyze how Texans impact
the environment; list benefits
and drawbacks
Mythical Monsters
The Problem with Plastics
Analyze and interpret
information
Communicate information ora
and in written form
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Grade 8
Use
geographic
tools to
interpret data
Sound Off
Web of Life
Mythical Monsters
On the Right Track
The Problem with Plastics
Analyze impacts of
human adaptations
and modifications f
the environment
Explain effects of
technology and
scientists on
economics
*
How discoveries
and innovations
impact life
Analyze and
interpret
information
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Economics & Psychology
High School
Economics
Psychology
104
Communicat
information
oral, written
visual form
Analyze how societal
values influence
economies
Appetizing Algae
A Day in the Life
Evaluate outcomes of
actions
Explain adaptat
cultural perspec
of people in a g
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
Sociology & U.S. History
High School
Sociology
U.S. History
Compare how
cultural values
vary in different
regions
Appetizing Algae
A Day in the Life
Just an Ocean a Day
Toxin Multiplication
*
*
Describe roles of
individuals, groups,
and communities
Analyze how norms
and behaviors change
because of science
and technology
*
*
Identify effects of
population growth on
the environment
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
World Geography
High School
Explain factors
that influence
climate
Message in a Bottle
Ecotones
A Day in the Life
*
Just an Ocean a Day
*
Analyze economic,
social, and cultural
features of a place
Describe impact and
reaction of environment
to hazardous conditions
*
*
Compare life in
different places
*
Toxin Multiplication
*
105
Describe
patterns of
culture
Evaluate impact of
science on the
environment
*
*
*
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies
World History
High School
Analyze art that
reflects the history
of a culture
A Day in the Life
Analyze the influence of
women and children in a
culture
*
REFERENCES
Aquatic Pollution
Edward A. Laws
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1993
Aquatic Project WILD
Western Regional Environmental Education Council, Inc., 1992
Biology of Fishes
Carl E. Bond
HarcourtBrace College Publishers, Austin, 1996
Biology of the Invertebrates
Jan A. Pechenik
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Boston, 1996
The Encyclopedia of Aquatic Life
Dr. Keith Banister and Dr. Andrew Campbell
Facts on File, Inc., New York, 1988
Environmental Science: Systems and Solutions
Michael L. McKinney and Robert M. Schoch
West Publishing Company, New York, 1996
Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life
James L. Sumich
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Boston, 1996
Introductory Oceanography
Harold V. Thurman
106
*
Describe roles citizens and noncitizens took in a culture
*
Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1994
Mammals of the World Volume II
Ronald M. Nowak
Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1991
107