The Concept of “Earth” in Early Chinese Philosophy
HE Fan
School of Humanities and Social Sciences
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
([email protected])
Introduction
The concept of “heaven and humanity in oneness”(tianren heyi 天人合一) has been considered as
a most important and typical concept in Chinese philosophy. However, Liu Xiaogan has asserted
that the “heaven and humanity in oneness” does not contain any specific, thoughtful and
systematic contents; the historical background of using the phrase “heaven and humanity in
oneness” has been neglected by the previous studies, and hence the significance of this concept
has been exaggerated as a representative in Chinese philosophy (Liu2012:71-102). Li Chenyang
continues and deepens this argument by examining the Book of Change and asserting that the
thought of the “three essentials”三才- heaven, earth and humanity-is consistent in the Book of
Change and conducive to a Confucian environment philosophy. Li further argues that it is baseless
to attribute the origin of the concept of “heaven and humanity in oneness” to the Book of Change
or to consider this concept as a pivot in this classic (Li 2014). A key issue about this controversy is
how and why the concept of earth disappeared in the doctrine of “heaven and earth in oneness”.
In this essay, I will investigate the origins of the expressions and concepts of “heaven, earth and
humanity”(天地人) and “heaven and humanity”(天人), respectively, and clarify two senses both
concepts connote, i.e., the political sense and the individual ethical sense. I will further argue that
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both “heaven, earth and humanity” and “heaven and earth” in political sense were more discussed
than in individual ethical sense, and the concept of “heaven and earth in oneness” in contemporary
studies has been more discussed in individual ethical sense. This study also demonstrates that
“earth” in early China was always an essential concept not only in environment philosophy but
also in political and ethical philosophy.
Earth as a real entity and a philosophical concept
The word “earth” has multiple meanings. Two of these meanings are directly relevant to my study.
One is the earth as a real entity. Ancient people for their most everyday activities were involved
agriculture, such as irrigation, planting, harvesting, etc. For them, earth basically meant the land in
which they lived and labored. The second meaning is in philosophical sense. In this sense, “earth”
is usually used together with heaven, viz. “heaven and earth” (天地).
Let me first examine the first meaning. Plants, animals and various other life forms rely on earth
to exist. The early Chinese whose lives centered on agriculture exactly understood the pivotal role
that earth plays in human activities. The chapter “Commands by Seasons”(yueling 月令) in the
Book of Rites（Liji 禮記）depicts that qi 氣 in spring gradually falls from heaven and rises from
earth respectively; the two mix; consequently, heaven and earth are in harmony with each other
and everything becomes activated(天氣下降,地氣上騰,天地和同,草木萌動)(Sun1989:417). The
unifying of earth and heaven together is the origins of lives. Based on this understanding, it is
earth and heaven that provide essential elements to lives in the world. The writing of Guanzi 管子
that heaven generates four seasons and earth generates wealth to nourish ten thousand things(天生
四時,地生萬財,以養萬物) (Li 2004:1179)exactly support that recognition. Also, Chunqiu
fanlu(春秋繁露),penned by Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒, claims that filial piety and fraternal duty are
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generated from heaven; clothing and food are supplied from earth; and at last humans harmonize
ten thousand things by rituals(天地人,萬物之本也.天生之,地養之,人成之.天生之以孝悌,地養
之以衣食,人成之以禮樂)(Su1992:168). All these teachings advance the thesis that every
essential substance comes from heaven and earth. According to such view, heaven, earth and
humanity are the basis for ten thousand things for their existences. The evidence above
demonstrates that the thinkers in early China recognized that earth as a real entity plays important
roles in human activities.
Living between heaven and earth, humans’ everyday activities closely rely on them. Hence, it is
understandable and necessary for early Chinese to develop a sense of reverence and gratitude to
heaven and earth by performing sacrifice rituals. According to Chunqiu fanlu, the rituals for
emperors performing sacrifice to heaven and earth-the most important sacrifice in imperial
china-should be held at the beginning of the year(所聞古者天子之禮,莫重於郊. 郊常以正月上
辛者…祭天地)(Su1992:414). The book of rites also echoes this view by specifying emperors
should perform sacrifice to heaven and earth every year(天子祭天地…歲遍)(Sun1989:150).
Notably, only emperors were qualified to carry out sacrifice to heaven and earth. It would be a
severe transgression for others -like vassals-to perform the same (天子祭天地,諸侯祭社稷,大夫
祭五祀)(Sun1989:347). This sacrifice ritual placed exclusively in the hands of emperors shows
that earth enjoys extremely high reverence from politics and society at that time.
In the meantime, earth gradually transcended the meaning as a real entity, and possessed a sense
of sacredness and transcendence as a philosophical concept. “Earth” as a philosophical concept
has been usually used together with heaven, i.e. “heaven and earth”(天地). In the Book of Rites,
there are numerous examples about this usage. Humans have been considered as, for example, the
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virtue of “heaven and earth”(人者,其天地之德)(Sun1989:608); the great music and rituals could
be in chord with “heaven and earth” (大樂與天地同和,大禮與天地同節)(Sun1989:988).
Obviously, earth in such cases has transcended the meaning as a real entity and represented as an
abstract concept with a degree of sacredness.
In Xunzi, a work of late Warring States, there are also abundant cases for “earth” used in
abstract sense. Xunzi writes the Way 道 is not of heaven, not of earth, but is the principle that
humans should follow in their lives(道者,非天之道,非地之道,人之所以道也,君子之所道
也)(Liang1974:82). In another place, Xunzi claims that there are three origins for rituals, i.e.
heaven and earth, human ancestry, mentors of emperors (天地者,生之本也;先祖者,類之本也;君
師者,治之本也)(Liang1974:256). For Xunzi, earth is sacred and possesses its own Way. At this
point, earth has a significance transcending the physical world.
From discussion above, earth as a real entity provides various kinds of essentials for humans’
existence. Early Chinese believed that earth is extremely important for their lives; they had
benefited greatly from it; and hence they rendered reverences and gratitude to earth through rituals.
Because of its greatness and sacredness, earth was considered as possessing its own Way and an
essential for all lives. In this regard, “earth” acquires a philosophical meaning.
Paralleling between heaven, earth and humanity 天地人相參
As Li argues, the concept of “three essentials”- heaven, earth and humanity-is a core thesis and
consistent in the Book of Change (Li2014). Thus, besides Book of Change, how the
expression-“heaven, earth and humanity”-has been discussed in other classics?
First, for Zuozhuan 左传 and Guoyu 国语, both completed in Chunqiu era 春秋, heaven and
earth involve certain principles, such as rule 经 ,rightness 义 ( 夫禮 , 天之經也 , 地之義
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也)(Yang1981:1457), force 武 and letter 文 (天事武,地事文)(Xu2002:520). Rites in Zuozhuan are
considered as rules from heaven and rightness from earth, and in another place, rites should be
employed to govern states and coordinate with heaven and earth(禮之可以為國也久矣，與天地
並)(Yang1981:1480). In this respect, rites are analogue with heaven and earth.
In Yizhoushu 逸周書, there is a similar expression, stating that the principle of heaven is
auspicious 祥; the principle of earth is rightness; the principle of humanity is rites(天道曰祥,地道
曰義,人道曰禮)(Huang, Zhang, Tian 2007:310). In this expression, heaven, earth and humanity
are paralleled together. Also, in Guoyu, there is an explanation of “three affairs”三事, i.e. the
affairs of heaven are “force”武; the affairs of earth are“letter”文; and the affairs of people are
“loyalty and trust”忠信(天事武,地事文,民事忠信)( Xu2002:520). For this discussion, heaven,
earth and people are coordinate.
From the evidence of classics above, which all were completed before the Book of Change,
though rites 礼, humanity 人 and people 民 are different words, these words all relate to humanity
or activities of humanity. In other words, though heaven, earth and humanity are not apparently of
equal footing, the expression of “heaven, earth and humanity” had formed since then. In fact,
other evidence from Guoyu even could strengthen this view. Fan li 范蠡 admonishes to his king
that only do humans’ activities follow heaven and earth, success might be achieved(夫人事必將
與天地相參,然後乃可以成功)(Xu2002:582). Thus, it is safe to say that the paralleling between
“heaven, earth and humanity” appeared before the Book of Change.
Further, we also should note that heaven, earth and humanity hold respective principles, and
“humanity” that parallel with heaven and earth represents some kinds of moral principles. For
example, in Yizhoushu, “humanity” refers to rites; in Guoyu, “humanity”refers to loyalty and trust;
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in Xiaojing 孝经，“ humanity ” refers to filial acts( 夫孝 , 天之經也 , 地之義也 , 民之行
也)(Jin2009:28). In addition, the meaning of “humanity” in coordinating with heaven and earth is
in abstract sense, rather than points to specific kinds of persons.
However, there were two trends regarding the specific people paralleling with heaven and earth
since middle Warring states. One is regarding the sages or emperors or kings; the other is
regarding the ordinary people. In the Book of Rites, sages and emperors are considered to parallel
with heaven and earth(“ 聖人參於天地 ”; “ 天子者 , 與天地參 ”)(Sun1989:604;1255).
Guanzi-completed in late Warring States-mentions that because of their virtues influencing
everything equally, the sages coordinate with heaven and earth, and that the wise emperors are the
ones coordinate with heaven and earth(“是以德之流潤澤均,加於萬物.故曰聖人參於天地”; “明
主配天地者也”)(Li2004:227;1179). Obviously, sages and emperors are considered by Guanzi as
paralleling with heaven and earth. Dong Zhongshu in Chunqiu fanlu asserts that the great
emperors are paralleling with heaven and earth(王者參天地矣)(Su1992:468). It is worth noting
that Dong further states that the king is the one who can connect heaven, earth and humanity(取天
地與人之中以為貫而參通之 , 非王者孰能當是 )(Su1992:329). This viewpoint is also
reverberated by Xu Shen 许慎 of the later Han in Suowen Jiezhi 说文解字. Xu explicates that the
meaning of the word“three”(san 三) is the Way for “heaven, earth and human”(三,天地人也)
(Duan 1964:9), and in another place, cites Dong’s saying that “three” is “heaven, earth and
humanity” and those who connect them are kings(三者，天、地、人也，而參通之者王
也)(Duan1964:9). In this phrase, kings seem not coordinate with heaven and earth, but further,
transcend to connect heaven, earth and humanity. Thus, kings not only parallel with heaven and
earth, but also connect with heaven, earth and humanity. Apparently, this trend of kings paralleling
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with heaven and earth is in political sense.
By contrast, the second trend is in individual ethical sense. This trend could be evidenced in
some writings of late Warring States. Quyuan 屈原 in Chuchi 楚辭 wrote that holding selflessly
onto virtues will parallel with heaven and earth(秉德無私,參天地兮)(Huang2009:868). Liu Xiang
劉向 in the same book dreams of as longevity as heaven and earth ( 欲與天地參壽
兮)(Huang2009:1499). This suggests the individuals through their arduous cultivations could
ultimately parallel with heaven and earth. Xunzi also reinforces this trend. Xunzi claims those who
concentrate on one thing and do not distract to other could connect with gods and parallel with
heaven and earth(並一而不二,則通於神明,參於天地矣)(Liang1974:95). In another place, Xunzi
even suggests anyone on the street could connect with gods and coordinate with heaven and earth,
only if he/she determines to learn, concentrates on one thing, refelcts and investigates deep, and
persists on it incessantly(今使塗之人伏術為學,專心一志,思索孰察,加日縣久,積善而不息,則通
於神明,參於天地矣)(Liang1974:334). This means a person could parallel with heaven and earth
by continuing efforts. This ethical trend-which inspires ordinary individuals to achieve their
perfectness by self-efforts-also echoes the historical background that shi 士 from the lower
stratums, since later Warring states, had begun taking pivotal positions in politics and played key
roles in education.
The two trends in ethics and politics suggest everyone has their own ways to parallel with
heaven and earth. The qualification to coordinate with heaven and earth does not exclusively
belong to a certain kinds of people, such as kings or sages. In this regard, the meaning of
“humanity” coordinating with heaven and earth denotes the “humanity” in universal sense; Book
of Change has most systematically expressed this universal sense of “humanity”. As Li claims,
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humanity are the important existence between heaven and earth; humanity and their paralleling
with heaven and earth contain the meaning of undertaking the great mission of judging and
assisting heaven and earth(Li 2014). For this interpretation, the “humanity” in a universal sense, in
the Book of Change, positively partake the process of interactions between heaven and earth. The
expression of “heaven, earth and humanity” also can be seen in several other writings- completed
after the Book of Change, such as Chunqiu fanlu, Baihutong 白虎通, Shuoernjiezi. Chunqiu fanlu,
for example, suggests that “heaven, earth and humanity” are the origins of ten thousand things(天
地人,萬物之本也)(Su1992:168), in which the word “humanity” likewise possesses an abstract
meaning.
Overall, the things coordinating with heaven and earth before the Book of Change was related to
humans’ virtues, such as rites, the Way of humanity, loyalty and trust, or related to humans’ acts.
Thenceforth, there were two senses regarding humanity paralleling with heaven and earth. One is
in political sense, in which kings or sages were usually considered qualified to parallel. The other
is in ethical sense; the individuals through arduous self-cultivation also could be eligible to
parallel. This implies that the people who can be qualified to parallel with heaven and earth do not
exclusively belong to any particular groups or individuals. The universal meaning of “humanity”
paralleling with heaven and earth was systematically discussed in Book of Change and the
writings thenceforth. As a result, the expression of “heaven, earth and humanity” has become a
philosophical concept since later Warring States.
However, compared to the concept of “heaven and earth in oneness”, which has been hotly
discussed over recent years, “heaven, earth and humanity” has been seldom examined. Thus, why
has the later been eclipsed by the former?
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“Heaven and humanity” in political and ethical sense
Like “heaven, earth and humanity”, there are also two senses regarding “heaven and humanity”,
i.e. political sense and ethical sense. The expression of “heaven and humanity”天人 primitively
and directly appeared in Xunzi and Zhuangz; both respectively represent the two trends.
For Xunzi, the Way of heaven operates constantly; if people face with a comfortable climate but
suffer from disasters, it is because of the Way and should not complain about heaven; so those
who comprehend the differences between “heaven and humanity” could be considered as “perfect
persons”至人(天行有常…受時與治世同,而殃禍與治世異,不可以怨天,其道然也.故明於天人
之分,則可謂至人矣)(Liang1974:221). In this discourse, the expression of “heaven and humanity”
relates to ruling. As such, this expression is in political sense. Wenzi 文子-generally considered
completed in early former Han-repeats Laozi’ s saying that any learners who can understand the
differences between “heaven and humanity”, the principles of stability and instability, could be
considered as the wise(老子曰,凡學者,能明於天人之分,通於治亂之本,澄心清意以存之,見其終
始,反其虛無,可謂達矣)(Wang2000:463). The expression of “heaven and humanity” here involves
learning; this learning could be applied to ruling, which means the expression of“heaven and
humanity” possesses a political sense; and on the other, the learning also could be applied to
self-cultivation in minds, which suggests “heaven and humanity” has an ethical sense.
It is until Dong Zhongshu the expression of “heaven and humanity” was systematically
discussed. Dong suggests that heaven has qi 氣 with happiness and anger, and has heart with joy
and sorrow, which matches with humanity; hence, “heaven and humanity” are considered as “in
oneness”合一(天亦有喜怒之氣,哀樂之心，與人相副。以類合之，天人一也…與天同者大治,
與天異者大亂)(Su1992:341). In this understanding, emperors should follow heaven to rule.
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Further, if they do not abide by the Way of heaven, their acts would be considered as injustice(不
順天道,謂之不義)(Su1992:472). Hence, Dong warns that everything should be in concord with
heaven; and “heaven and humanity are in oneness”天人之際合一(事各順於名,名各順於天.天人
之際,合而為一)(Su1992:288). In this respect, the political sense of “heaven and humanity” has
been fully presented. The concept of “heaven and humanity” since Dong has greatly shaped the
discourse of political philosophy afterwards.
“Heaven and humanity” remained prevalent in political discourse in later Han. Heshang gong
河上公 on his commentaries on Laozi asserts that the Way of heaven is the same as the Way of
humanity; “heaven and humanity” connect with each other; the conditions of weather are closely
related with emperors(天道與人道同,天人相通,精氣相貫.人君清淨,天氣自正,人君多欲,天氣煩
濁)(Wang1993:184). This concept of “heaven and humanity” is apparently associated with Dong’s
view. Baihu tong -an orthodox classic exclusively interpreting Confucian thoughts sanctioned by
emperor Zhang 章帝 of the later Han- suggests that emperors are those exploring the hearts of
“heaven and humanity”, and investigating the meeting of yin and yang(天子所以有靈台者何?所
以考天人之心,察陰陽之會)(Chen1994:263). The expression of “heaven and humanity” here is
also related to emperors in political sense. Further, the investigation meeting of yin and yang for
emperors suggests this discourse was also traced from Dong’s yinyang philosophy. Even in the
late of the later Han, Wang Fu 王符 also echoes Dong’s philosophy by describing that when
“heaven and humanity” are joyful and wellbeing due to good ruling, there are many auspicious
signs(天人悅喜,符瑞並臻)(Wang1985:207). Hence, the political sense of “heaven and humanity”
had dominated political discourses all the way through former Han to later Han.
By contrast, the ethical sense of “heaven and humanity” was not discussed as frequently as the
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political sense. The ethical expression primarily appeared in Zhuangz. Zhuangzi suggests there are
distinctions between the external and internal; heaven is the internal and humanity is external; the
virtue 德 is in heaven; knowing the acts of “heaven and humanity” is based on heaven and
positioned on virtue(天在內,人在外,德在乎天.知天人之行,本乎天,位乎得)(Chen2004:445).
This expression of “heaven and humanity” is closely related to the individuals’ acts and virtues.
The bamboo slips of Guodian writes that there is heaven, and there is man, and each(“heaven and
humanity) has its separate lot. Once one has examined the division between heaven and
man(huamnity), one will know how to act. With the right person, but without the right age, even
though he be worthy he will be unable to act(有天有人,天人有分.察天人之分.而知所行矣.有其
人,無其世,雖賢弗行矣)(Scott Cook 2013: 453-454). “Heaven and humanity” here also possess an
individual ethical sense. Besides the two sources, it is hardly to find other evidence regarding the
ethical sense of “heaven and earth”. Thus, the expression of “heaven and humanity” was usually
mentioned in political sense; the ethical sense was not usually expressed.
The concept of “heaven and humanity” in political sense had been prevalent through Han
dynasty. Yet this does not mean the concept of “earth” was not important since Han. For example,
Dong Zhongshu asserts that “heaven, earth and humanity” are the basis of ten thousand things, i.e.
heaven nurtures; earth raises; humanity accomplish; hence “heaven, earth and humanity” cannot
be separated from each other (天地人,萬物之本也.天生之,地養之,人成之…三者…不可一無
也)(Su1992:168). In another place, Dong claims only are heaven, earth and humanity considered
together, the virtue would be achieved(天地與人,三而成德)(Su1992:216). Clearly, earth in both
the sense of real entity and philosophical sense, for Dong, is as essential as heaven and humanity.
Baihu tong also stresses the importance of earth in political philosophy. It suggests political
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activities should refer to the three of “heaven, earth and humanity”: setting up “three prime
ministers” 三公, “three armies”三军 and “three taching”三教(王者受命,為天,地,人之職,故分職
以置三公; 三軍者何法？法天,地,人也;教所以三何?法天,地,人)(Su1992:130-131;199;371).
Therefore, though “earth” was excluded from the expression of “heaven and humanity”, it had
always been considered as an essential both in the sense of real entity and in philosophical sense
to the thoughts of early China.
Contemporary reflections
As discussed above, the expression of “heaven and humanity” in political sense was more
prevalent than in ethical sense. Thus, why has the expression of “heaven and humanity in oneness”
been so prevalent in philosophical discussions over recent years?
The most prominent scholar who promotes the concept of “heaven and humanity in oneness” is
Quan Mu 钱穆. Qian suggests that the concept of Taoism focuses on emptiness and being
emptiness could be in oneness with heaven; Confucian tend to pursue internally and heaven is in
the internal of mind-hearts(道家觀念重於虛，虛而後能合天.儒家則反身內求,天即在人之
中)(Qian1988:84).
Obviously, the concept of “heaven and humanity in oneness” for Qian is in individual ethical
sense. Heaven is an abstract concept and the highest principle. Earth is not significant and hence
has been neglected in the discussion of “heaven and humanity in oneness”.
Yu Yingshi follows Qian’s interpretation but explicates more deeply and systematically. For Yu,
the concept of “heaven and humanity in oneness” relates to the tradition of witches and rituals,
more specifically, to the concept of “separation between heaven and earth”(juedi tiantong 絕地天
通). Yu suggests because of the “axis breakthrough”軸心突破 during Chunqiu era, the concept of
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“heaven and humanity in oneness” as a “spirit movement” was displayed from various schools of
pre-Qin. Yu further claims that for Mengzi’s “heaven and humanity in oneness” is “ten thousands
things are embodied in self（萬物皆備於我)”; for Zhuangzi is “heaven and earth are existing with
me; ten thousands things and me are oneness(天地與我並存，而萬物與我為一)”; for Huishi is
“love ten thousands things, and heaven and earth are oneness(汎愛萬物，天地一體) ”. Yu briefs
that though Mengzi and Huishi’s “heaven and humanity in oneness” emphasizes on ethical virtues
and Zhuangzi’s oneness is more in political and social dimensions, all of them as individuals seek
a state of “heaven and humanity in oneness” in minds. Yu insightfully asserts that those thinkers
care not only to achieve the Dao for individuals, but also to set up an ideal political and social
system through the self-cultivation of “heaven and humanity in oneness”(Yu2014:171-188).
For both Qian and Yu, they do not distinguish the concept of “heaven and earth” in political
sense and in individual ethical sense. Regarding their interpretations, the meaning of “heaven and
earth” leans to be in ethical sense. Their main concern is for the individuals how to achieve the
state of being in oneness with heaven through self-cultivation. They have powerfully
demonstrated that “heaven and humanity in oneness” in ethical sense appeared, developed and
formed as a core concept in Chinese tradition (Qian1988:65-100; Yu2014:171-218).
However, regarding their arguments for the “heaven and earth in oneness”, they neglect the
concept of earth. For example, for Yu’s interpretation, Mengzi, Zhuangzi and Huishi’s “heaven
and humanity in oneness” is based on “oneness with heaven and earth, with ten thousand
things”(與天地一體 or 與萬物一體); for this expression, “humanity, earth and heaven” are in
oneness; but “earth” is neglected in Yu’s interpretation of “heaven and humanity in oneness”.
Earth is equally important as heaven and humanity. Also, it is not persuasive for me to treat
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“oneness with ten thousand things” as a kind of “oneness with heaven and humanity”. “Ten
thousand things” is not equivalent with “heaven”. Therefore, “earth” should not be skipped from
the discussion of “heaven and humanity”, since the concept of three essentials-heaven, earth,
humanity-as I have discussed, was always important for thinkers in early China. In addition, the
concept of “heaven and humanity” until late Han was more directly and frequently mentioned in
and referred to political sense, and in individual ethical sense was not so significant. Qian and Yu
pay more attentions on the individual ethical sense, but the “heaven and humanity in oneness” of
early China in political sense deserves more discussions.
Concerning the environment philosophy in traditional China, Li Chenyang insightfully claims
that “earth” has played a cardinal role. As opposed to the holistic environment philosophy such as
land ethics and deep ecology, Li argues that heaven, earth and humanity form together as a great
community of harmony, in which the three undertake their respective and suitable roles to
contribute to a holistic harmony in universe. Further, Li suggests Confucian not only consider
everything in the world as things that merely satisfy humanity’s desires, but also endow ethical
values to the non-human. As a result of including “earth”, the community of heaven, earth and
humanity is more balanced and stable. Furthermore, Li traces the concept of heaven, earth and
humanity back to the Book of Change, from which Li suggests “heaven, earth and humanity” are
“three essentials” and cannot be overlapped or replaced by each other (Li2014).
Examining the evolution of the concept of “earth” above, I suggest that the environment
philosophy- in which earth is a pivot -can be not only traced back to the concept of “heaven, earth
and humanity” in the Book of Change, but also based on the intellectual, political and social
history in early China. Simply put, there is abundant evidence supporting the environment
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philosophy of “heaven, earth and humanity” in early China. Further, “earth” as both a real entity
and a philosophical concept paralleling with heaven and humanity, this paper suggests, contributes
not only to an environment philosophy, but also to the early Chinese political and ethical
philosophy.
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