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Near Surface Geoscience
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Ground-based archaeological prospection:
Case studies from Greece
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Nikos Papadopoulos1*, Gregory Tsokas2, Apostolos Sarris1, Panagiotis Tsourlos2 and George
Vargemezis2 assess the preservation of standing monuments and ancient water management
facilities.
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rchaeological prospection or archaeogeophysics
includes the diverse geophysical methods employed
either in planned excavations to guide the archaeological research in advance of and during the excavation
process or in salvage excavations to provide a rapid assessment during the development of infrastructure in urban or
rural environments. On a more general basis, these techniques
are also applicable to support regional archaeological surveys
by locating areas of archaeological interest and contributing
to the settlement pattern analysis (Sarris and Jones, 2000).
Unlike the destructive nature of the archaeological excavations, geophysical prospection techniques are non-invasive,
providing at the same time a rapid reconnaissance of a site
without disturbing the ground or the monuments themselves.
The success or the failure of these techniques strongly depends
on the contrasting physical properties that exist between the
archaeological buried targets and the hosting material.
The early efforts of geophysical prospection methods for
mapping concealed cultural remains, in terms of measuring the
subsurface earth resistance, date back to late 1930s and early
1940s in the US and Britain respectively (Linford, 2006). After a
period of experimentation, archaeological prospection presents
an abrupt increase during the 1960s and 1970s. This period,
known as the ‘Golden Period’ of archaeological prospection, is
closely connected to the design and development of specialized
field instrumentation sensitive to the relatively low-amplitude /
short-wavelengths archaeological signals and the introduction
of dedicated algorithms for the data treatment and image
processing (Scollar et al.,1986). However, this initial enthusiasm
was followed by an inactive period in the progress of archaeological prospection until the 1980s, when new, efficient and
cheaper instruments and data processing softwares were made
available to a growing community of specialized researchers
and practitioners able to follow the demands and challenges of
that period (Gaffney and Gater, 2003).
Following these international developments, the earliest
archaeological prospection efforts in Greece using magnetic and
electrical resistance techniques have been reported by Ralph
(1968) and Rudant and Thalmann (1976) in order to map
buried roads and buildings in Elis (Peloponnese) and Malia
(Crete). Within the next decade, the archaeological geophysical
research in Greece was mainly driven by non-Greek researchers
focusing in a relatively small number of isolated sites (e.g.,
El-Agamy and Hesse, 1984). After the mid-1980s a substantial
deviation is registered in this tendency with the pioneering work
of Papamarinopoulos et al., (1985) who managed to outline
the foundation walls of a buried building within a 20 x 20 m2
grid with a proton magnetometer. This was actually the turning
point towards the more systematic and professional implementation of archaeological geophysics in numerous archaeological
sites all over Greece within the next three decades.
However, the road to successful archaeological prospection
examples in Greece was not and still is not an easy task, mainly
due to the peculiarities of the Mediterranean landscape imposed
by the fragmentary picture of monuments and sites, the
continuous land-use of ancient landscape through time and the
spatial diversity that combines coastal, island and mountainous
environments (Sarris, 2005). Within this regime, Greek scientists and researchers were forced to adjust the methodologies to
meet this challenging environment developing at the same time
algorithmic workflows for the efficient processing, visualization
and interpretation of the geophysical data (e.g., Tsokas and
Papazachos, 1992; Tsokas and Tsourlos, 1997; Tsivouraki and
Tsokas, 2007; Tsibouraki et al., 2007; Spanoudakis and Vafidis,
2008; Milea et al., 2010; Papadopoulos, et al., 2011).
This work will try to illustrate the advances of groundbased archaeological prospection in Greece during the last
decade. The presented examples mainly come from the
long-term scientific experience of the authors and the research
work that has been carried out by their affiliated university
departments and research institutes. The different case studies
have been classified in specific categories that emphasize
the multi-dimensionality of the archaeological prospection
methods, keeping in mind that this short review can’t cover
the whole spectrum of the archaeological prospection developments and applications in Greece.
Laboratory of Geophysical-Satellite Remote Sensing and Archaeoenvironment, Institute for Mediterranean Studies,
Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas, Rethymno, Crete, Greece.
2
Department of Geophysics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece.
*
Corresponding author, E-mail: [email protected]
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When the full deployment of ground surface ERT is not
possible cross-hole ERT modes (Figure 2a) can offer alternatives in imaging the subsurface in an urban environment.
Tsokas et al., (2011) applied such a tomographic approach to
assess the depth of the Roman and Byzantine wall foundations
in Thessaloniki. This was achieved with the drilling of two
boreholes (Figure 2b) at 7 m intervals and maximum depth
of 15 m. Each borehole was equipped with 24 electrodes that
were attached on the outer part of a plastic pipe at 0.5 m
intervals with an aluminum tape. A custom-made multi-clone
cable was used to connect the borehole electrodes with the
instrument (Figure 2a). The high-resistivity area at the central
part of the cross section depicts the wall’s foundations. In
the particular case shown here, the Roman (constructed by
Constantine the Great) and the Byzantine (constructed by the
emperor Theodosius the Great) walls coincide. The foundations of the wall seem to extend to the depth of approximately
5 m below the ground level (Figure 2c).
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Modern Greek urban centres exhibit an evident long historical and archaeological background spanning from ancient to
modern times. Apart from the visible monuments and sites,
an even larger portion of concealed antiquities still remain
hidden under the surface of urbanized areas. The discipline of
‘urban archaeological geophysics’ has been rapidly evolved for
the efficient investigation of archaeologically sensitive regions
within an urbanized environment (Papadopoulos et al., 2009).
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and ground penetrating
radar (GPR) are the most suitable methods to account for the
difficulties and challenges arising in an urban territory (e.g.,
heterogeneity of subsurface material, ambient noise caused by
electrical currents and electromagnetic radiation etc.).
A high-resolution 3D surface ERT and GPR survey was
completed in a central square (~2000 m2) of Rethymno (Crete,
Greece) in advance of a major reconstruction and restoration
programme. The ERT data were collected along multiple
parallel profiles one metre apart, where the metal stakes were
fixed in small holes (at 1 m intervals) and were opened in
the asphalt using a drill. A 250 MHz antennal was used to
collect the GPR signals along profiles at 0.5 m intervals. A 3D
subsurface resistivity model was reconstructed from the inversion of the ERT profiles while the GPR data were subject to
signal enhancement through specific filters (AGC Dewow and
DCshift, tace-to-trace averaging). The combined interpretation
of the horizontal depth slices that were extracted from the 3D
ERT and GPR models outline towards the south a rectangular
complex of rooms with inner compartments that are related
to the facilities of the monastery of Augustian monks that is
located to the east. Subsequent excavation works to the north
of the surveyed area verified the geophysical results in terms
of archaeological structures and a modern drainage ditch that
runs diagonally the area (Figure 1).
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Urban archaeological geophysics
Imaging the integrity of standing monuments
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Geophysical investigations in standing monuments comprise
a non-conventional operation with specific challenges arising
mainly from the need of extracting the maximum subsurface
information without disturbing the monument itself. Ground
Penetrating Radar is the most obvious method to meet these
specific requirements since it is fully invasive and can map the
ground beneath the flat floor of the monuments without any
specific demands. Successful implementation of this technique
has been reported by Tsokas et al. (2007), Papadopoulos and
Sarris (2011) and Tsokas et al. (2013) in the investigation of
the churches of Protaton in Mount Athos (northern Greece),
Saint Andreas in Loutraki (central Greece) and Hamza bey
monument in Thessaloniki respectively. GPR yielded successful results in estimating the thickness of the ancient lining of
Figure 1 a) Depth slice of Z=0.6 m extracted from the 3D resistivity inversion model where the warm colours indicate high-resistivity values (range 10-1000 Ohm‑m).
b) GPR depth slice. c) Integrated diagrammatic interpretation of high resistivity and high GPR amplitude anomalies. d) Excavated archaeological structure related
with the geophysical anomaly T10 at the north of the site. e) Modern drainage ditch related with the geophysical anomaly T1.
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Figure 2 a) Deployment of electrodes for cross-hole ERT survey. A custom-built multicore cable is used to establish the electrical connections to the instrument.
b) Location of the two boreholes used to conduct the cross-hole ERT experiment in Thessaloniki. c) Inverted resistivity cross section of the area between the boreholes.
Figure 3 a) GPR survey to estimate the thickness of the Eupalinus tunnel in Samos island. b) Sample GPR section of the processed data where the red line marks
the reflection between the lining and the backfill material.
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the Eupalinus tunnel in the island of Samos (Aggistalis et al.,
2014). The operator dragging the 800 MHz GPR antenna
every 5 cm along a specific profile against the face of the
ancient lining is shown in Figure 3a. Data was subjected to
dewow, spatial and temporal band pass filtering and normalmove-out correction. The reflection interpreted as coming from
the backside of the lining is marked by a red line (Figure 3b).
Recently, the introduction of alternative ways of transmitting the electrical current into the floor or walls through
‘flat base’ electrodes (Athanasiou et al., 2007) or sponges
impregnated by salty water (Karastathis et al., 2002) or
bentonite mud (Tsourlos and Tsokas, 2011) have rendered
Electrical Resistivity Tomography a powerful and fully nondestructive tool for applications inside existing monuments.
These developments allowed the design and implementation of
a fully non-destructive largescale ERT survey at the south wall
of Athens Acropolis (Tsourlos and Tsokas, 2011). In this case,
the cable was attached to the wall with the help of two experienced climbers (Figure 4a). Wet bentonite in a pliable form was
placed on the wall and acted as an electrode while the cable
was firmly tag-taped on to the wall to avoid any movement
due to the wind. The wall-to-surface electrode lay out was also
© 2014 EAGE www.firstbreak.org
used, i.e., by placing electrodes both on the wall and on the
extension of this line on the ground’s surface on top of the hill.
A sample of the ERTs carried out in various configurations on
the south wall of Akropolis is shown in Figure 4b. The inverted
Wenner-Schlumberger resistivity image shows a low resistivity
area which is attributed to higher moisture content pointing to
a preferential water drainage way.
Tumuli investigation
Tumuli are artificially erected hills that cover monumental
tombs and their architectural significance is comparable to the
archaeological importance of their content. These structures
are monuments of past human activity, offering opportunities
to reconstruct important information about life and customs
during their building period. Their research by means of
regular archaeological excavation is time consuming, costly and
destructive. As a response to the above-mentioned challenges,
the application of archaeological prospection methods provide
the necessary tools for effective and non-invasive investigation
of tumuli. The complex subsurface property distribution, the
size of the buried targets and the uneven topographical terrain
brings all the geophysical techniques to their limits. Early efforts
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Figure 4 a) A climber places the bentonite electrodes on the south wall of the Akropolis. b) Wallto-surface ERT inverted image along a specific
profile laid out on the wall of Akropolis.
by Tsokas et al. (1995) and Vafidis et al. (1995) involved seismic
refraction shooting to detect the ancient corridor (dromos) and
thus indirectly locate the concealed tomb under the embankment. Polymenakos et al. (2004) employed seismic tomography
to investigate the internal structure of a ‘Macedonian’ tumulus
in northern Greece yielding seismic velocity depth slices that outlined some features possibly attributed to man-made structures.
Following the advances of electrical resistivity tomography
Papadopoulos et al. (2010) showed the superiority of the
3D resistivity surveying of tumuli by employing a grid of
parallel 2D ERT profiles. Further, the relative merits and
disadvantages of radial and rectangular measuring modes were
studied by Tsourlos et al. (2014). Figure 5 shows an example
of the resistivity distribution on a slice at a constant elevation
obtained from the 3D ERT model of a tumulus in the region of
Thrace (northern Greece). The high-resistivity anomaly at the
northern part of the construction may indicate the signature of
a concealed tomb.
architectural attributes. A suite of different geophysical techniques such as ERT, GPR, Electromagnetic techniques, magnetic and electrical resistance mapping, has been applied in a
number of ancient monuments from various parts of Greece
(e.g., Dodoni, Sikyon, Ierapetra, Gortyna, Demetriada, etc.)
aiming to retrieve information concerning their preservation
(Sarris et al., 2014). In a few situations, it was even possible
to compare the geophysical survey results with plans made by
historical travellers (Papadopoulos et al., 2012).
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Preservation assessment of ‘viewing and
hearing venues’
A recent trend in Greece emphasizes the promotion and
restoration of ancient theatres, amphitheatres, stadiums,
odeons, and other venues for spectators and listeners
(http://www.diazoma.gr), as they can host a number of modern performances that can attract the public’s attention and
enhance the cultural activity of a region. On the other hand,
the usage of these monuments for such purposes needs to
be approached with particular attention, depending on their
preservation stage. Geophysical prospection techniques can
contribute to the preservation assessment for such monuments
although they constitute a difficult survey target, mainly due
to their topographical settings, terrain characteristics and
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Figure 5 a) Resistivity slice extracted from the 3D ERT model of a tumulus
in Thrace (northern Greece). The topographic relief is depicted by the black
contours.
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Figure 6 a) View of the Roman theatre in Gortyna (southern Crete) from the east. b) EM survey in the theatre of Gortyna. c) Rectification of the in-phase EM map
on the satellite image of the theatre of Gortyna. d) The diagrammatic interpretation of the geophysical anomalies (EM, GPR, magnetic, ERT) outlined in the theatre
of Gortyna have been superimposed on the satellite image and the theatre’s plan made by Onorio Belli.
For example, in southern Crete 5000 m2 was surveyed in
the area of the large Roman theatre of Gortyna. Measurements
indicated a good preservation of the seats (for at least 10 m
above the upper diazoma) that are carved on the rocky hill
that looks towards the Odeum. In addition, GPR and ERT
data provided evidence of the road that passes through the
curved section beside the river Lithaios in accordance with
Belli’s descriptions of a historical traveller in Crete during the
16th century (Figure 6).
Geoarchaeological applications
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Geophysical methods can have an integrated role within wider
geoarchaeological projects aiming to outline the extent of settlements or to explore the wider limits of the habitation in a
region (Sarris et al., 2014). Seismic refraction and ERT techniques have been used in modelling the vertical stratigraphy
and mapping the bedrock of an area in an ultimate effort to
study possible locations of ancient ports (Vafidis et al., 2005)
or reconstruct geomorphological characteristics and their significance for human occupation (Siart et al., 2009).
Figure 7a shows an example from the coastal region of
Istron in eastern Crete where a dense grid of seismic refraction
profiles was laid out close to the coast covering an area of
800 m by 400 m (Shahrukh et al., 2012). Seismic energy was
created by striking a metal ground plate with a sledgehammer.
For most of the seismic lines, seven shots were applied: three
in the middle, two close to the edges of the lines and two far
offset shots. The signals were recorded by geophones deployed
at 10m intervals along the refraction profiles. The first arrivals
were picked and a 3D seismic tomography algorithm was
used to invert the travel times. The 3D velocity model of the
area showed that the alluvial deltaic deposits (sand, gravel,
silt, organic mud, clay) appear with an average velocity of
0.5 km/s. A saturated terrace deposit is registered with velocity
of about 1.3-2.0 km/s and a layer composed of sandstone,
mudstone and conglomerate is detected with velocities rang-
© 2014 EAGE www.firstbreak.org
ing from 2.0-2.7 km/s. The weather/fractured limestone and
cohesive conglomerates are reconstructed with velocities
ranging from 2.7-3.6 km/s while the cohesive limestone lies
about 25-30 m below the surface (Figure 7b).
Imaging ancient water management facilities
Water resources management relies on the construction of
efficient storing (e.g., cisterns, wells) and transportation (e.g.,
tunnels, Qanats, aqueducts) hydraulic construction works.
Archaeological and historical records reveal the significance
of the past water management techniques, which are also met
in modern scientific branches of water resources. Extensive
study of these ancient water management practices, especially
within a regime of intense environmental and climatological
challenges (e.g., droughts, floods), is extremely important in
enriching the modern knowledge for the efficient management
of the limited water resources. Such structures can be imaged
through geophysical prospection methods testing at the same
archaeological hypotheses of the past that have remained
completely unexplored for years (e.g., Tsokas et al., 2001;
Gorokhovich et al., 2014). Spanoudakis et al. (2011) used the
GPR to map the locations of a small cistern and a well within
the archaeological site of Aptera in western Crete (Figure 8).
Conclusions and discussion
In the past decade, Greek universities and research foundations have invested financial and human resources to enhance
existing infrastructures with new instrumentation and educate
young researchers specialized in archaeological prospection.
The relevant research work meets the high international standards and in many cases exhibits innovative ideas that lead to
specific archaeological methodological prospection sections
(e.g., Papadopoulos et al., 2006).
Within the next decade archaeological prospection in
Greece will continue to face similar challenges arising from
the accelerating pace of construction works and the increasing
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Figure 7 a) Layout of the geophysical grids, ERT lines and seismic refraction transects that have been completed during the geoarchaeological project in Istron at
the easernt part of Crete. b) Velocity depth slices for the depths 10 m and 50 m below the ground surface. The cross-sectional velocity distribution along the dotted
lines A and B is also presented (Shahrukh et al., 2012).
Figure 8 a) Google Earth satellite image of the archaeological site of Aptera (eastern Crete). b) GPR section shows two main reflections at 10 and 14 m. c) The shape
and the size of the high amplitude GPR anomaly is attributed to a cistern with diameter of 4 m (Image by Spanoudakis et al., 2011).
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need to protect and promote cultural heritage. Despite the
fact that most of the archaeological sites expand within
environmental settings that impose specific difficulties for
extensive geophysical surveying, the introduction of new
generation multi-sensor geophysical instruments will provide
a tool for the rapid assessment of agricultural regions that
may host architectural relics. Novel multi-channel GPR
array systems can result in high-resolution 3D subsurface
images (Trinks et al., 2010). Specialized cart systems able
to host a series of magnetic gradiometers that are pushed or
towed behind a motorized vehicle can definitely change the
perspective of landscape archaeology (Gaffney et al., 2012).
Effort is also needed towards data processing and interpretation through the implementation of specialized algorithms
for an automatic or semi-automatic recognition of structures
based on specific predefined criteria. Fusion techniques can
contribute to extracting the maximum information from
multi-dimensional data sets captured from the same region
(Karamitrou, 2012). In parallel to the above, the knowledge
for offshore geophysical investigations can be modified and
adjusted accordingly for imaging the coastal antiquities
in shallow marine environments (Apostolopoulos, 2013;
Tsourlos et al., 2013).
The integration of geophysical prospection methods with
satellite/aerial remote sensing and cultural databases within a
78
Geographical Information System platform will continue to
play a substantial role not only in the detection of sites but
also in the preservation, conservation and cultural resources
management (CRM). The question that is raised is at what
level the above will contribute to the construction of a sustainable management context which will incorporate policies in
both cultural heritage conservation and regional economic
growth. Whatever the case, it is certain that they will contribute to broadening and strengthening the cultural policy
frameworks investing in this way for the archaeology of the
future or to the future of archaeology (Sarris, 2005).
Acknowledgements
This review paper was compiled as part of the POLITEIA
research project, Action KRIPIS, project No MIS-448300
(2013SE01380035) that was funded by the General
Secretariat for Research and Technology, Ministry of
Education, Greece and the European Regional Development
Fund (Sectoral Operational Programme: Competitiveness
and Entrepreneurship, NSRF 2007-2013)/ European
Commission.
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First EAGE Workshop on Well Injectivity
& Productivity in Carbonates (WIPIC)
Stay Connected with your Reservoirs!
30 March - 2 April 2015 – Doha, Qatar
G
Injectivity and productivity in carbonates have their unique set of challenges that are
often fundamentally different from those in sandstones due, in particular, to complex rock
characteristics, thermodynamic and geomechanical behaviours, chemistry of fluids and
potential rock-fluid interactions.
www.eage.org
This first edition of this EAGE Workshop on Well Injectivity and Productivity in Carbonates
(WIPIC) will bring together people from academia, applied R&D centres, service companies
as well as national and international oil and gas companies to discuss the latest ideas and
innovations relating to well performance in carbonates and field applications.
The technical committee invites abstracts to be submitted under the following topics:
1. Formation Damage Prevention and Control
2. Condensate Banking
3. Matrix and Fracture Stimulation
4. Conformance
5. Water Injection
6. CO2/Acid Gas Injection
7. Connection to the Reservoir
Call for Papers deadline 1 October 2014
WIPC15-V2H.indd 1
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10-07-14 14:05
www.firstbreak.org © 2014 EAGE