Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance Spectroscopy:
Tools for Structure Determination
Chung-Ming Sun
Department of Applied Chemistry
National Chiao Tung University
Hualien 300, Taiwan
Introduction
• NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) is the most
powerful tool available for organic structure
determination.
• It is used to study a wide variety of nuclei:
 1H
 13C
 15N
 19F
 31P
=>
Chapter 13
2
Nuclear Spin
• A nucleus with an odd atomic number or an odd
mass number has a nuclear spin.
• 1H has a spin quantum number I = 1/2 and has
allowed spin states of +1/2 or -1/2
• Other nuclei with I = 1/2 are 13C, 19F and 31P and
these also respond to an external magnetic field
• Nuclei with I = 0 do not have spin (12C and 16O) and
do not respond to an external magnetic field
Chapter 13
3
The spinning charged nucleus
generates a magnetic field.
Chapter 13
4
External Magnetic Field
When placed in an external field, spinning
protons act like bar magnets. The nuclei
of NMR-active nuclei behave like tiny bar
magnets
=>
Chapter 13
5
• alpha-spin state and beta-spin state
Chapter 13
6
Nuclear Spin: The Origin of the Signal
Chapter 13
7
In the absence of an external
magnetic field, proton magnetic
moments have random orientations.
Chapter 13
8
NMR absortion
The magnetic fields of
the spinning nuclei
will align either with
the external field, or
against the field.
A photon with the right
amount of energy
can be absorbed
and cause the
spinning proton to
flip.
Chapter 13
9
E and Magnet Strength
• Energy difference is proportional to the
magnetic field strength.
• E = h =  h B0
2
• Gyromagnetic ratio, , is a constant for
each nucleus (26,753 s-1gauss-1 for H).
• In a 14,092 gauss field, a photon of 60
MHz is required to flip a proton.
• Low energy, radio frequency.
=>
Chapter 13
10
NMR involves absorption of energy in the
radiofrequency rang p.510
Chapter 13
11
The stronger the external magnetic field,
the higher the radio frequency energy
required to flip the nuclear spin
Chapter 13
12
Magnetic Shielding
• If all protons absorbed the same
amount of energy in a given magnetic
field, not much information could be
obtained.
• But protons are surrounded by electrons
that shield them from the external field.
• Circulating electrons create an induced
magnetic field that opposes the external
magnetic field.
=>
Chapter 13
13
Shielded Protons
Magnetic field strength must be increased for a
shielded proton to flip at the same frequency.
Chapter 13
14
Protons in a Molecule
Depending on their chemical
environment, protons in a molecule are
shielded by different amounts.
=>
Chapter 13
15
NMR Signals
• The number of signals shows how many
different kinds of protons are present.
• The location of the signals shows how
shielded or deshielded the proton is.
• The intensity of the signal shows the
number of protons of that type.
• Signal splitting shows the number of
protons on adjacent atoms.
=>
Chapter 13
16
The NMR Spectrometer
Chapter 13
17
=>
Chapter 13
18
The NMR Graph
The absorptions of more shielded protons
appear upfield, toward the right of the spectrum
Chapter 13
19
=>
CH3
H3C
Si CH3
Tetramethylsilane
CH3
• TMS is added to the sample.
• Since silicon is less electronegative
than carbon, TMS protons are highly
shielded. Signal defined as zero.
• Organic protons absorb downfield (to
the left) of the TMS signal.
Chapter 13
20
Chemical Shift
• Measured in parts per million (ppm).
• Ratio of shift downfield from TMS (Hz) to
total spectrometer frequency (Hz).
• Same value for 60, 100, or 300 MHz NMR
machine.
• Called the delta (d) scale.
• Each d unit is 1 ppm difference from TMS:
60 Hz at 60 MHz and 300 Hz at 300 MHz
Chapter 13
21
• Table 13-1
• The chemical shift of the methyl protons
depends on the electronegativity of the
substituent.
• With more electronegative substituents
deshielding more and giving larger chemical
shifts.
• The effect of an electron-withdrawing substituent
decreases with increasing distance.
Chapter 13
22
Delta Scale
Chapter 13
23
=>
Location of Signals
• More electronegative
atoms deshield more and
give larger shift values.
• Effect decreases with
distance (< four bonds).
• Additional electronegative
atoms cause increase in
chemical shift about 2-3
ppm each time.
Chapter 13
24
Typical Values
Chapter 13
25
=>
Aromatic Protons, d7-8 ppm
=>
Chapter 13
26
Chapter 13
27
Vinyl Protons, d5-6 ppm
Chapter 13
28
=>
Acetylenic Protons, d2.5
Chapter 13
29
=>
Aldehyde Proton, d9-d10
Electronegative
oxygen atom
=>
Chapter 13
30
O-H and N-H Signals
• Chemical shift depends on concentration.
• Hydrogen bonding in concentrated
solutions deshield the protons, so signal is
around d 3.5 for N-H and d 4.5 for O-H.
• Proton exchanges between the molecules
broaden the peak.
Chapter 13
31
Carboxylic Acid
Proton, d10+
Chapter 13
32
=>
Number of Signals
Equivalent hydrogens have the same
chemical shift.
Chapter 13
33
=>
Intensity of Signals
• The area under each peak is
proportional to the number of protons.
• Shown by integral trace.
Chapter 13
34
=>
How Many Hydrogens?
When the molecular formula is known,
each integral rise can be assigned to a
particular number of hydrogens (p.575).
Chapter 13
35
Spin-Spin Splitting
• Nonequivalent protons on adjacent carbons
have magnetic fields that may align with or
oppose the external field.
• This magnetic coupling causes the proton
to absorb slightly downfield when the
external field is reinforced and slightly
upfield when the external field is opposed.
• All possibilities exist, so signal is split.
Chapter 13
36
1,1,2-Tribromoethane
Nonequivalent protons on adjacent carbons.
Chapter 13
37
=>
Doublet: 1 Adjacent Proton
=>
Chapter 13
38
Triplet: 2 Adjacent Protons
=>
Chapter 13
39
The N + 1 Rule
If a signal is split by N equivalent protons,
it is split into N + 1 peaks.
=>
Chapter 13
40
Range of Magnetic
Coupling (p.579)
• Equivalent protons do not split each other.
• Protons bonded to the same carbon will
split each other only if they are not
equivalent- 2J(geminal coupling)
• Protons on adjacent carbons normally will
couple- 3J(vicinal coupling)
• Protons separated by four or more bonds
will not couple( 距離太遠)- 4J~0
=>
Chapter 13
41
Chapter 13
42
Splitting for Ethyl Groups
p.579
=>
Chapter 13
43
Roof effect
• A multiplet often lean upward toward the
protons that are causing the splitting
Chapter 13
44
Splitting for
Isopropyl Groups (p.581)
=>
Chapter 13
45
Coupling Constants (J)
• Distance between the peaks of multiplet
• Measured in Hz
• Not dependent on strength of the external
field
• Multiplets with the same coupling constants
may come from adjacent groups of protons
that split each other (p.581).
Chapter 13
46
Values for
Coupling Constants
=>
Chapter 13
47
Para, ortho and meta isomers of
nitrotoluene
Chapter 13
48
• Cis coupling constant of two vinyl
protons is J = 9 Hz.
Chapter 13
49
• trans coupling constant of two vinyl
protons is J = 15 Hz. (p.584)
Chapter 13
50
H
a
H
C C
c
Hb
Complex Splitting
• Signals may be split by adjacent
protons, different from each other, with
different coupling constants.
• Example: Ha of styrene which is split by
an adjacent H trans to it (J = 17 Hz) and
an adjacent H cis to it (J = 11 Hz).
=>
Chapter 13
51
H
a
H
C
C
c
Splitting Tree
Hb
=>
Chapter 13
52
Spectrum for Styrene
=>
Chapter 13
53
Stereochemical Nonequivalence
• Usually, two protons on the same C are
equivalent and do not split each other.
• If the replacement of each of the protons of
a -CH2 group with an imaginary “Z” gives
stereoisomers, then the protons are nonequivalent and will split each other.
=>
Chapter 13
54
Some Nonequivalent
Protons
H
a
H
C
C
c
H OHa
c
dH
Hb
Hb
CH3
H
Cl
Hb
aH
=>
Cl
Chapter 13
55
Chapter 13
56
Chapter 13
57
Chapter 13
58
Hc (He) are diastereotopic to Hd (Hf) and two sets
of protons absorb at different magnetic field and
are capable of splitting each other
Chapter 13
59
The two protons on the –CH2Cl
group are diastereotopic
Chapter 13
60
Diastereotopic protons in 1,2dichloropropane
Chapter 13
61
Time Dependence
• Molecules are tumbling relative to the
magnetic field, so NMR is an averaged
spectrum of all the orientations.
• Axial and equatorial protons on
cyclohexane interconvert so rapidly that
they give a single signal.(p.591)
• Proton transfers for OH and NH may occur
so quickly that the proton is not split by
adjacent protons in the molecule.
=>
Chapter 13
62
Chapter 13
63
Hydroxyl Proton
• Ultrapure samples
of ethanol show
splitting.
• Ethanol with a small
amount of acidic or
basic impurities will
not show splitting.
Chapter 13
64
=>
N-H Proton
• Moderate rate of exchange.
• Peak may be broad.
=>
Chapter 13
65
Identifying the O-H
or N-H Peak
• Chemical shift will depend on
concentration and solvent.
• To verify that a particular peak is due to
O-H or N-H, shake the sample with D2O
• Deuterium will exchange with the O-H
or N-H protons.
• On a second NMR spectrum the peak
will be absent, or much less intense.
Chapter 13
66
Common chemical shifts in the
1H NMR spectrum(p-594)
Chapter 13
67
Carbon-13
•
•
12C
has no magnetic spin.
13C has a magnetic spin, but is only 1% of
the carbon in a sample.
• The gyromagnetic ratio of 13C is onefourth of that of 1H.
• Signals are weak, getting lost in noise.
• Hundreds of spectra are taken, averaged.
=>
Chapter 13
68
Fourier Transform NMR
• Nuclei in a magnetic field are given a
radio-frequency pulse close to their
resonance frequency.
• The nuclei absorb energy and precess
(spin) like little tops.
• A complex signal is produced, then
decays as the nuclei lose energy.
• Free induction decay is converted to
spectrum.
=>
Chapter 13
69
Hydrogen and Carbon
Chemical Shifts
Chapter 13
70
=>
13C
Combined
and 1H Spectra
Chapter 13
71
=>
Differences in
13C Technique
• Resonance frequency is ~ one-fourth,
15.1 MHz instead of 60 MHz.
• Peak areas are not proportional to
number of carbons.
• Carbon atoms with more hydrogens
absorb more strongly.
=>
Chapter 13
72
Spin-Spin Splitting
• It is unlikely that a 13C would be
adjacent to another 13C, so splitting by
carbon is negligible.
• 13C will magnetically couple with
attached protons and adjacent protons.
• These complex splitting patterns are
difficult to interpret.
=>
Chapter 13
73
Proton Spin Decoupling
• To simplify the spectrum, protons are
continuously irradiated with “noise,” so
they are rapidly flipping.
• The carbon nuclei see an average of all
the possible proton spin states.
• Thus, each different kind of carbon
gives a single, unsplit peak.
=>
Chapter 13
74
Off-Resonance Decoupling
•
13C
nuclei are split only by the protons
attached directly to them.
• The N + 1 rule applies: a carbon with N
number of protons gives a signal with
N + 1 peaks.
=>
Chapter 13
75
Interpreting 13C NMR
• The number of different signals indicates
the number of different kinds of carbon.
• The location (chemical shift) indicates the
type of functional group.
• The peak area indicates the numbers of
carbons (if integrated).
• The splitting pattern of off-resonance
decoupled spectrum indicates the number
of protons attached to the carbon. =>
Chapter 13
76
Two 13C NMR Spectra
=>
Chapter 13
77
Chapter 13
78
MRI
• Magnetic resonance imaging, noninvasive
• “Nuclear” is omitted because of public’s
fear that it would be radioactive.
• Only protons in one plane can be in
resonance at one time.
• Computer puts together “slices” to get 3D.
• Tumors readily detected.
=>
Chapter 13
79