1. education
2. homework and study tips

How to Study
A Two-Part
Refresher for
In-flight
Training Success!
abusby
Page 1
How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Part One: Helpful
Hints
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Preparing to Study: A Good Study Place
Taking Notes in Class
Your Preferred Learning Style
A Strategy for Reading Textbooks
Good Listening In Class
Test Anxiety
Using Abbreviations To Write Notes Quickly
Study Groups
The DETER Strategy for Taking Tests
Reading Comprehension: The REDW Strategy for
Finding Main Ideas
Using Acronyms to Remember Information
Building Vocabulary: Using Context Clues to Learn
Word Meaning
Making an Oral Presentation
Managing Your Study Time
A Word Identification Strategy
Becoming a Flexible Reader
Using Prefixes to Expand Your Vocabulary
Multiple-Choice Tests
Procrastination
Setting Goals
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Preparing to Study: A Good Study Place
You need a good study place to be prepared to study. You should be able to answer YES
to all of the following questions:
1. Is my Study Place available to me whenever I need it?
Your Study Place does you little good if you cannot use it when you need it. If you are
using a Study Place that you must share with others for any reason, work out a schedule
so that you know when you can use it.
2. Is my Study Place free from interruptions?
It is important to have uninterrupted study time. You may have to hang a DO NOT
DISTURB sign on the door or take the phone off the hook.
3. Is my Study Place free from distractions?
Research shows that most students study best in a quiet environment. If you find that
playing a stereo or TV improves your mood, keep the volume low.
4. Does my Study Place contain all the study materials I need?
Be sure your Study Place includes reference sources and supplies such as pens and
pencils, paper, ruler, calculator, and whatever else you might need. If you use a computer
for your schoolwork, it should be in your Study Place .
5. Does my Study Space contain a large enough desk or table?
While working on an assignment or studying for a test, use a desk or table that is large
enough to hold everything you need. Allow enough room for writing and try to avoid
clutter.
6. Does my Study Place have enough storage space?
You need enough room to store your study materials. Be sure you have enough storage
space to allow you to keep your desktop or other work surface clear of unnecessary
materials that can get in the way.
7. Does my Study Place have a comfortable chair?
A chair that is not comfortable can cause discomfort or pain that will interfere with your
studying. A chair that is too comfortable might make you sleepy. Select a chair in which
you can sit for long periods while maintaining your attention.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
8. Does my Study Place have enough light?
The amount of light you need depends on what you are doing. The important thing is that
you can clearly see what you need to see without any strain or discomfort.
9. Does my Study Place have a comfortable temperature?
If your Study Place is too warm, you might become sleepy. If it is too cold, your thinking
may slow down and become unclear. Select a temperature at which your mind and body
function best.
Having a good Study Place is important for good studying.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Taking Notes in Class
In classes, your teachers will talk about topics that you are studying. The
information they provide will be important for you to know when you take
tests. You must be able to take good written notes from what your
teachers say.
Taking good notes is a three-stage process in which there are certain
things you should do before class, during class, and after class. Here
are the three stages of notetaking and what you should do during each
stage.
1. Get Ready to Take Notes (Before Class)
•
Review your notes from the previous class session before you come
to class. This will help you remember what was covered and get
you ready to understand new information your teacher provides.
•
Complete all assigned readings before you come to class. Your
teacher will expect that you have done this and will use and build
upon this information.
•
Bring all notetaking materials with you to class. Have several pens
and pencils as well as your notebook.
2. Take Notes (During Class)
•
Keep your attention focused on what your teacher is saying. Listen
for “signal statements” that tell you that what your teacher is about
to say is important to write in your notes. Examples of signal
statements are “The most important point…” and “Remember that .
. . “ Be sure to include in your notes information that your teacher
repeats or writes on the chalkboard.
•
Write quickly so that you can include all the important information
in your notes. Do this by writing abbreviated words such as med for
medicine, using symbols such as % for percent, and writing short
sentences.
•
Place a ? next to information you write in your notes, but about
whose meaning you are not sure.
3. Rewrite Your Notes (After Class)
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
•
Rewrite your notes to make them more complete by changing
abbreviated words into whole words, symbols into words, and
shortened sentences into longer sentences.
•
Make your notes more accurate by answering any questions you
had when writing your notes in class. Use your textbook and
reference sources to obtain the information you need to answer
your questions. If necessary, ask your teacher or other students for
help.
•
Check with other students to be sure you did not leave out
important information.
Having good class notes will help you to be better prepared for tests.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Your Preferred Learning Style
A learning style is a way of learning. YOUR preferred learning style is the way in which
YOU learn best. Three learning styles that are often identified in students are the
Auditory Learning Style, the Visual Learning Style, and the Tactile/Kinesthetic
Learning Style. Read about each of these learning styles to identify YOUR preferred
learning style.
Are you an Auditory Learner?
Auditory Learners learn best when information is presented in an auditory language
format. Do you seem to learn best in classes that emphasize teacher lectures and class
discussions? Does listening to audio tapes help you learn better? Do you find yourself
reading aloud or talking things out to gain better understanding? If YES, you are
probably an Auditory Learner.
Are you a Visual Learner?
Visual Learners learn best when information is presented in a written language format or
in another visual format such as pictures or diagrams. Do you do best in classes in which
teachers do a lot of writing at the chalkboard, provide clear handouts, and make extensive
use of an overhead projector? Do you try to remember information by creating pictures in
your mind? Do you take detailed written notes from your textbooks and in class? If YES,
you are probably a Visual Learner.
Are you a Tactile/Kinesthetic Learner?
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners learn best in hands-on learning settings in which they can
physically manipulate something in order to learn about it. Do you learn best when you
can move about and handle things? Do you do well in classes in which there is a lab
component? Do you learn better when you have an actual object in your hands rather than
a picture of the object or a verbal or written description of it? If YES, you are probably a
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learner.
Your learning style is your strength. Go with it whenever you can. When you can choose
a class, try to choose one that draws heaviest on your learning style. When you can
choose a teacher, try to choose one who's teaching method best matches your learning
style. When you choose a major and future career, keep your learning style firmly in
mind.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
A Strategy for Reading Textbooks
SQRW is a four-step strategy for reading and taking notes from chapters in a textbook.
Each letter stands for one step in the strategy. Using SQRW will help you to understand
what you read and to prepare a written record of what you learned. The written record
will be valuable when you have to participate in a class discussion and again when you
study for a test. Read to learn what to do for each step in SQRW.
Survey.
Surveying brings to mind what you already know about the topic of a chapter and
prepares you for learning more. To survey a chapter, read the title, introduction, headings,
and the summary or conclusion. Also, examine all visuals such as pictures, tables, maps,
and/or graphs and read the caption that goes with each. By surveying a chapter, you will
quickly learn what the chapter is about.
Question.
You need to have questions in your mind as you read. Questions give you a purpose for
reading and help you stay focused on the reading assignment. Form questions by
changing each chapter heading into a question. Use the words who, what, when, where,
why, or how to form questions. For example, for the heading "Uses of Electricity" in a
chapter about how science improves lives, you might form the question "What are some
uses of electricity?" If a heading is stated as a question, use that question. When a
heading contains more than one idea, form a question for each idea. Do not form
questions for the Introduction, Summary, or Conclusion.
Read.
Read the information that follows each heading to find the answer to each question you
formed. As you do this, you may decide you need to change a question or turn it into
several questions to be answered. Stay focused and flexible so you can gather as much
information as you need to answer each question.
Write.
Write each question and its answer in your notebook. Reread each of your written
answers to be sure each answer is legible and contains all the important information
needed to answer the question.
As you practice using SQRW, you will find you learn more and have good study notes to
use to prepare for class participation and tests.
HINT: Once you complete the Survey step for the entire chapter, complete the Question,
Read, and Write steps for the first heading. Then complete the Question, Read, and Write
steps for the second heading, and so on for the remaining headings in the chapter.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Good Listening In Class
It is important for you to be a good listener in class. Much of what you will have to learn
will be presented verbally by your teachers. Just hearing what your teachers say is not the
same as listening to what they say. Listening is a cognitive act that requires you to pay
attention and think about and mentally process what you hear
Here are some things you should do to be a good listener in class.
Be Cognitively Ready to Listen. Come to class cognitively prepared to listen. Make sure
you complete all assigned work and readings. Review your notes from previous class
sessions. Think about what you know about the topic that will be covered in class that
day.
Be Emotionally Ready to Listen. Come to class emotionally ready to listen. Your
attitude is important. Make a conscious choice to find the topic useful and interesting. Be
committed to learning all that you can.
Listen with a Purpose. Identify what you expect and hope to learn from the class
session. Listen for these things as your teacher talks.
Listen with an Open Mind. Be receptive to what your teacher says. It is good to
question what is said as long as you remain open to points of view other than your own.
Be Attentive. Focus on what your teacher is saying. Try not to daydream and let your
mind wander to other things. It helps to sit in the front and center of the class, and to
maintain eye contact with your teacher.
Be an Active Listener. You can think faster than your teacher can speak. Use this to
your advantage by evaluating what is being said and trying to anticipate what will be said
next. Take good written notes about what your teacher says. While you can think faster
than your teacher can speak, you cannot write faster than your teacher can speak. Taking
notes requires you to make decisions about what to write, and you have to be an active
listener to do this.
Accept the Challenge. Don't give up and stop listening when you find the information
being presented difficult to understand. Listen even more carefully at these times and
work hard to understand what is being said. Don't be reluctant to ask questions.
Triumph Over the Environment. The classroom may too noisy, too hot, too cold, too
bright, or too dark. Don't give in to these inconveniences. Stay focused on the big picture
- LEARNING.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Test Anxiety
WHAT IS TEST ANXIETY?
Too much anxiety about a test is commonly referred to as test anxiety.
It is perfectly natural to feel some anxiety when preparing for and taking
a test. In fact, a little anxiety can jump start your studying and keep you
motivated. However, too much anxiety can interfere with your studying.
You may have difficulty learning and remembering what you need to
know for the test. Further, too much anxiety may block your
performance during the test. You may have difficulty demonstrating what
you know during the test.
HOW DO I KNOW IF I HAVE TEST ANXIETY?
You probably have test anxiety if you answer YES to four or more of the
following:
1. I have a hard time getting started studying for a test.
2. When studying for a test, I find many things that distract me.
3. I expect to do poorly on a test no matter how much or how hard I
study.
4. When taking a test, I experience physical discomfort such as
sweaty palms, an upset stomach, a headache, difficulty breathing,
and tension in my muscles.
5. When taking a test, I find it difficult to understand the directions
and questions.
6. When taking a test, I have difficulty organizing my thoughts.
7. When taking a test, I often “draw a blank.”
8. When taking a test, I find my mind wandering to other things.
9. I usually score lower on a test than I do on assignments and
papers.
10.
After a test, I remember information I couldn’t recall during
the test.
WHAT CAN I DO ABOUT TEST ANXIETY?
Here are some things you can do before, during, and after a test to
reduce your test anxiety.
1. Use good study techniques to gain cognitive mastery of the
material that will be covered on the test. This mastery will help you
to approach the test with confidence rather than have excessive
anxiety. Employ the tips we provide at Preparing to Study.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
2. Maintain a positive attitude as you study. Think about doing well,
not failing. Think of the test as an opportunity to show how much
you have learned.
3. Go into the test well rested and well fed. Get enough sleep the
night before the test. Eat a light and nutritious meal before the
test. Stay away from junk foods.
4. Stay relaxed during the test. Taking slow, deep breaths can help.
Focus on positive self-statements such as “I can do this.”
5. Follow a plan for taking the test such as the DETER strategy we
describe at A Strategy for Taking Tests. Don’t panic even if you find
the test difficult. Stay with your plan!
6. Don’t worry about other students finishing the test before you do.
Take the time that you need to do your best.
7. Once you finish the test and hand it in, forget about it temporarily.
There is nothing more you can do until the graded test is returned
to you. Turn your attention and effort to new assignments and
tests.
8. When the graded test is returned to you, analyze it to see how you
could have done better. Learn from your mistakes and from what
you did well. Apply this knowledge when you take the next test.
You have to know the material to do well on a test. You have to control
test anxiety to show what you know.
abusby
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Using Abbreviations To Write Notes
Quickly
Many of the questions you find on class tests will be based upon the information your
teachers orally present in class. Therefore, you need to write class notes that completely
and accurately include the most important information presented by your teachers. This is
hard to do because your teachers can talk faster than you can write.
It would be nice if your teachers talked slower so that you could keep up with what they
are saying as you write your notes. This is not realistic though. It is up to you to write
more quickly. One way to do this is to write abbreviations for words. An abbreviation is a
shortened form of a word used when writing to represent the complete word. You must
be able to recognize the complete word from its abbreviation.
Many words have a commonly used abbreviation. Here are some examples of words that
have a common abbreviation:
Word
department
introduction
junior
mathematics
weight
Abbreviation
dept
intro
jr
math
wt
Word
package
negative
magazine
foot
highway
Abbreviation
pkg
neg
mag
ft
hwy
You can form your own abbreviation for just about any word. Here are three ways you
can do this.
1. Write just the beginning of a long word. Here are some examples of long words that
have been abbreviated by writing just the beginning of the word:
Word
different
incorporated
elementary
molecular
division
Abbreviation
diff
inc
elem
molec
div
Word
feminine
population
ambiguous
separate
hippopotamus
Abbreviation
fem
pop
ambig
sep
hippo
2. Leave out the vowels when writing a word. Here are some examples of words that
have been abbreviated by leaving out the vowels when writing the word:
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Word
century
mountain
reason
popular
quality
Abbreviation
cntry
mntn
rsn
pplr
qlty
Word
point
school
clean
teacher
progress
Abbreviation
pnt
schl
cln
tchr
prgrss
3. For words that have just one syllable, write just the first and last letter of the
word. Here are some examples of words that have been abbreviated by writing just the
first and last letter of the word:
Word
quart
tick
girl
night
link
Abbreviation
qt
tk
gl
nt
lk
Word
land
round
pack
field
heart
Abbreviation
ld
rd
pk
fd
ht
Use common abbreviations of words whenever you recognize them. For other words,
form abbreviations by using one of the three ways you just learned. Use the way that best
fits the word for which you are writing an abbreviation. Do not try to abbreviate every
word you write in your notes. Abbreviate those words that are important and for which
you can quickly form an abbreviation. REMEMBER: YOU MUST BE ABLE TO
RECOGNIZE THE COMPLETE WORD FROM ITS ABBREVIATION. Knowing
the context in which you wrote the word will help you recognize the complete word from
its abbreviation.
Using abbreviations for words will help you take good notes more quickly. Having good
notes will help you do better on tests.
abusby
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Study Groups
A study group can be helpful when you are trying to learn information and concepts
and preparing for class discussions and tests. Read to learn about the benefits of a
study group. Then read on to learn about how to start a study group and the
characteristics of a successful study group. Finally, be sure to read about the
possible pitfalls of a study group.
Benefits of a Study Group
A study group can be beneficial in many ways. Here are the most important
benefits:
1. A support group can “pick you up” when you find that your motivation to study
is slipping. The other group members can be a source of encouragement.
2. You may be reluctant to ask a question in class. You will find it easier to do
so in a small study group.
3. You may become more committed to study because the group members are
depending on your presentation and participation. You will not want to let
them down.
4. Group members will listen and discuss information and concepts during the
study sessions. These activities add a strong auditory dimension to your
learning experience.
5. One or more group members are likely to understand something you do not.
They may bring up ideas you never considered.
6. You can learn valuable new study habits from the other group members.
7. You can compare your class notes with those of the other group members to
clarify your notes and fill in any gaps.
8. Teaching/explaining information and concepts to the other group members
will help you reinforce your mastery of the information and concepts.
9. Let’s face it – studying can sometimes be boring. Interacting with the other
group members can make studying enjoyable.
Getting a Study Group Started
Study groups don’t just happen. Here is what you should do to get a study group
started:
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
1. Get to know your classmates by talking with them before class, during
breaks, and after class. When selecting a classmate to join your study group,
you should be able to answer YES for each of the following questions:
o Is this classmate motivated to do well?
o Does this classmate understand the subject matter?
o Is this classmate dependable?
o Would this classmate be tolerant of the ideas of others?
o Would you like to work with this classmate?
2. Invite enough of these classmates to work with you in a study group until you
have formed a group of three to five. A larger group may allow some
members to avoid responsibility, may lead to cliques, and may make group
management more of an issue than learning.
3. Decide how often and for how long you will meet. Meeting two or three times
a week is probably best. If you plan a long study session, make sure you
include time for breaks. A study session of about 60 to 90 minutes is usually
best.
4. Decide where you will meet. Select a meeting place that is available and is
free from distractions. An empty classroom or a group study room in the
library are possibilities.
5. Decide on the goals of the study group. Goals can include comparing and
updating notes, discussing readings, and preparing for exams.
6. Decide who the leader will be for the first study session. Also decide whether
it will be the same person each session or whether there will be a rotating
leader. The leader of a study session should be responsible for meeting the
goals of that study session.
7. Clearly decide the agenda for the first study session and the responsibilities
of each group member for that session.
8. Develop a list of all group members that includes their names, telephone
numbers, and email addresses. Make sure each group member has this list
and update the list as needed.
Characteristics of a Successful Study Group
Once started, a study group should possess the following characteristics to be
successful:
1. Each group member contributes to discussions.
2. Group members actively listen to each other without interrupting. Only one
group member speaks at a time.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
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3. The other group members work collaboratively to resolve any concern raised
by a group member.
4. Group members are prompt and come prepared to work.
5. The group stays on task with respect to its agenda.
6. Group members show respect for each other.
7. Group members feel free to criticize each other but keep their criticisms
constructive. This can encourage group members to reveal their weaknesses
so that they can strengthen them.
8. Group members feel free to ask questions of each other.
9. At the end of each study session, an agenda including specific group member
responsibilities is prepared for the next session.
10. Above all, the positive attitude that “we can do this together” is maintained.
Possible Pitfalls of a Study Group
A study group can be a very positive learning experience. However, there are pitfalls
to be avoided. Here are some cautions:
1. Do not let the study group get distracted from its agenda and goals.
2. Do not let the study group become a social group. You can always socialize
at other times.
3. Do not allow group members to attend unprepared. To stay in the group,
members should be required to do their fair share.
4. Do not the let the session become a negative forum for complaining about
teachers and courses.
5. Do not allow one or two group members to dominate the group. It is important
that all members have an equal opportunity to participate.
The information you just read will help you decide when a study group is appropriate
for you and will help ensure its success.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
The DETER Strategy for Taking Tests
To do well on a test, you must have good knowledge of the information that is being
tested. But you must also have a strategy for taking the test that allows you to show what
you know. The DETER strategy can help you do your best on any test. Each letter in
DETER reminds you what to do.
D = Directions
•
•
•
•
Read the test directions very carefully.
Ask your teacher to explain anything about the test directions you
do not understand.
Only by following the directions can you achieve a good score on
the test.
If you do not follow the directions, you will not be able to
demonstrate what you know.
E = Examine
•
•
Examine the entire test to see how much you have to do.
Only by knowing the entire task can you break it down into parts
that become manageable for you.
T = Time
•
•
•
Once you have examined the entire test, decide how much time
you will spend on each item.
If there are different points for items, plan to spend the most time
on the items that count for the most points.
Planning your time is especially important for essay tests where you
must avoid spending so much time on one item that you have little
time left for other test items.
E = Easiest
•
•
The second E in DETER reminds you to answer the items you find
easiest first.
If you get stuck on a difficult item that comes up early in the test,
you may not get to answer items that test things you know.
R = Review
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
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•
•
If you have planned your time correctly, you will have time to
review your answers and make them as complete and accurate as
possible.
Also make sure to review the test directions to be certain you have
answered all items required.
Using the DETER strategy will help you do better on tests and get better grades.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Reading Comprehension: The REDW Strategy for
Finding Main Ideas
REDW is a good strategy to use to find the main idea in each paragraph of a reading
assignment. Using this strategy will help you comprehend the information contained
in your assignment. Each of the letters in REDW stands for a step in the strategy.
Read
Read the entire paragraph to get an idea of what the paragraph is about. You may
find it helpful to whisper the words as you read or to form a picture in your mind of
what you are reading. Once you have a general idea of what the paragraph is about,
go on to the next step.
Examine
Examine each sentence in the paragraph to identify the important words that tell
what the sentence is about. Ignore the words that are not needed to tell what the
sentence is about. If you are allowed to, draw a line through the words to be ignored.
For each sentence, write on a sheet of paper the words that tell what the sentence is
about.
Decide
Reread the words you wrote for each sentence in the paragraph. Decide which
sentence contains the words you wrote that best describe the main idea of the
paragraph. These words are the main idea of the paragraph. The sentence that
contains these words is the topic sentence. The other words you wrote are the
supporting details for the main idea.
Write
Write the main idea for each paragraph in your notebook. This will provide you with a
written record of the most important ideas you learned. This written record will be
helpful if you have to take a test that covers the reading assignment.
Use REDW to help you understand the information in your reading assignments.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Using Acronyms to Remember Information
Forming an acronym is a good strategy to use to remember information in any order
that can be remembered. An acronym is a word that is formed from the first letter of
each fact to be remembered. It can be a real word or a nonsense word you are able
to pronounce.
Here is how to form an acronym.
•
•
•
Write the facts you need to remember.
Underline the first letter of each fact. If there is more than one word in a fact,
underline the first letter of only the first word in the fact.
Arrange the underlined letters to form an acronym that is a real word
or a nonsense word you can pronounce.
“HOMES” is an example of an acronym that is a real word you can use to remember
the names of the five Great Lakes: Michigan, Erie, Superior, Ontario, Huron: In
HOMES, H is the first letter of Huron and helps you remember that name; O is the
first letter of Ontario, and so on.
“Telk” is an acronym that can be used to remember the following animals: tiger, lion,
elephant, kangaroo. “Telk” is not a real word, but you can easily pronounce it. You
could also have used “kelt” as an acronym. Notice that in this example, you cannot
form a real word using the first letter of each fact to be remembered.
Sometimes two or more of the facts you must remember each begin with the same
first letter. For example, the acronym “capp” can be used to remember the following
fruits: pear, apple, peach, cherry. You can use the first letter “p” in the acronym to
remember either “pear” or “peach” and the second letter “p” to remember the other.
Use the acronym strategy as a way to remember information.
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How to Study
A Two-Part Refresher for In-flight Training Success
5/30/2007
Building Vocabulary: Using Context
Clues to Learn Word Meaning
When authors write, they often include context clues to the meaning of words they use
but think that some of their readers may not know. The context clue is usually presented
in the sentence or paragraph in which the word occurs. Sometimes a visual such as a
picture is provided. Here are six types of context clues used by authors to help the reader
understand the meanings of words. An example is provided for each.
1.Definition context clue. The author includes a definition to help the reader understand
the meaning of a word. In the following example, “tainted” is defined as having a disease.
The people of the town were warned not to eat the tainted fish. The local newspaper
published a bulletin in which readers were clearly told that eating fish that had a disease
could be very dangerous. This was especially true for fish caught in Lake Jean.
2. Synonym context clue. The author includes a synonym to help the reader understand
the meaning of a word. A synonym is a word that means the same as or nearly the same
as another word. In the following example, the synonym “pity” helps the reader
understand the meaning of “compassion.”
After seeing the picture of the starving children, we all felt compassion or pity for their
suffering.
3. Antonym context clue. The author includes an antonym to help the reader understand
the meaning of a word. An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word.
In the following example, the antonym “eager” helps the reader understand the meaning
of “reluctant.”
Joe was reluctant to take on the position of captain of the basketball team. He was afraid
that the time it would take would hurt his grades. On the other hand, Billy was eager for
the chance to be captain. He thought that being captain of the team would make him very
popular in school.
4. Description context clue. The author includes one or more descriptions to help the
reader understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, descriptions of
President Kennedy as having charm, enthusiasm, and a magnetic personality help the
reader understand the meaning of “charismatic.”
John Fitzgerald Kennedy, our 35th president, improved human rights and equal rights for
all people. He was a very charismatic president. People were attracted to his charm and
enthusiasm. His personality was described as magnetic.
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5. Summary context clue. The author makes a number of statements that help the reader
understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, statements about being
rude, showing no respect, having poor manners, and being impolite help the reader
understand the meaning of “impertinent.”
Andrea was a very impertinent young lady. She was so rude that she talked while her
teacher was explaining a lesson. She showed no respect for other students. Her manners
were very poor. Even her parents thought that Andrea was impolite.
6. Visual context clue. The author includes a picture, drawing, chart, graph, or other type
of visual to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. For example, to help the
reader understand that "exultant" means great joy, a picture of a girl with a joyful
expression on her face might appear. A caption under the picture might read "She was
exultant." Using the context clues provided by authors can help you learn the meaning of
many new words.
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Making an Oral Presentation
When making an oral presentation in class, you must know your subject well and
convince your audience that they have something to gain from listening to you. Here are
some things you can do to make an effective oral presentation.
Be prepared. Research your subject to ensure that you are knowledgeable. Practice your
presentation until you feel comfortable. Make sure you can present your information
within whatever time limits you will have. Anticipate questions you may be asked and
prepare answers to these.
Know your audience. Tailor your presentation to your audience’s level of knowledge
about the subject of your presentation, what they need to know, and their interests.
Be positive. Make it clear that you are knowledgeable and enthusiastic about your
subject.
Don’t read your presentation. Talk to your audience. Use your notes as prompts as
needed.
Provide examples. Try to make your presentation as concrete and “down to earth” as
possible. Add appropriate anecdotes and humor to drive home a point.
Use visual aids. Supplement what you say with visual aids such as handouts, charts,
transparencies, and slides. Make sure that everyone can easily see the visual aids. Don’t
use visual aids that are so complex that the audience will spend its time trying to read
them instead of listening to you. Visual aids are supplements to what you say, not
replacements for what you say.
Maintain eye contact. Shift your eye contact around the room so that everyone feels that
you are talking to them.
Actively involve your audience. People can only listen so long without their attention
wandering. Making your presentation interesting will help you to capture and keep your
audience’s attention for a while, but you must do more. Build in some simple and quick
activities for your audience so that they are actively involved in your presentation. Ask
questions that you are confident your audience will be able to answer.
Use your voice effectively. Vary the tone of your voice and be careful not to talk too
quickly.
End on a high note. Leave your audience feeling upbeat about what they have just
heard.
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Managing Your Study Time
There are only so many hours in a day, a week, and a term. You cannot change the
number of hours, but you can decide how to best use them. To be successful in school,
you must carefully manage your study time. Here is a strategy for doing this.
At the beginning of a term, prepare a Term Calendar. Update it as the term goes on.
Here is what to do to prepare a Term Calendar.
•
•
•
Record your school assignments with their due dates and your
scheduled tests.
Record your planned school activities.
Record your known out-of-school activities.
Each Sunday before a school week, prepare a Weekly Schedule. Update it as the week
goes on. Here is what to do to prepare a Weekly Schedule.
•
•
•
•
•
Record your daily classes.
Enter things to be done for the coming week from your Term
Calendar.
Review your class notes from the previous week to see if you need
to add any school activities.
Add any out-of-school activities in which you will be involved during
the week.
Be sure to include times for completing assignments, working on
projects, and studying for tests. These times may be during the
school day, right after school, evenings, and weekends.
Each evening before a school day, prepare a Daily Organizer for the next day. Place a √
next to each thing to do as you accomplish it. Here is what to do to prepare a Daily
Organizer.
•
•
•
Enter the things to do for the coming day from your Weekly
Schedule.
Enter the things that still need to be accomplished from your Daily
Organizer from the previous day.
Review your class notes for the day just completed to see if you
need to add any school activities.
Add any out-of-school activities in which you will be involved the
next day.
Your Weekly Schedule should have more detail than your Term Calendar. Your Daily
Organizer should have more detail than your Weekly Schedule. Using a Term Calendar, a
Weekly Schedule, and a Daily Organizer will help you make the best use of your time.
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A Word Identification Strategy
From time to time while reading you will see a word you cannot identify. It may be a
word you think you know but cannot identify, or it may be a word that is new to you.
When this happens, you should use a word identification strategy to identify and say
the word.
Here are the steps of a word identification strategy you can use. Each step tells one
thing you should do when you come to a word you cannot identify. Continue to follow
the steps until you have identified the word.
1. LOOK AGAIN at the word. As you look at the word again, say each letter in the
word. This will get you to look more carefully at the word. Often, when you look at a
word a second or third time, you will identify the word as a word you know.
2. READ THE SENTENCE containing the word to see if you can determine what the
word means by how it is used in the sentence. Sometimes, knowing the meaning of
a word will help you identify the word.
3. LOOK FOR A PREFIX at the beginning of the word. A prefix is a word part that is
attached to the beginning of a word. Here are some examples of words with the
prefix underlined: prepaid, unheard, rerun.
4. LOOK FOR A SUFFIX at the end of the word. A suffix is a word part that is
attached to the end of a word. Here are some examples of words with the suffix
underlined: lovely, tallest, spelling.
5. LOOK FOR THE STEM. The stem is what remains after the removal of a prefix
and/or suffix. If there is no prefix or suffix, then the whole word is the stem. Here are
some examples of words with the stem underlined: prepaid, lovely, misspelling).
6. BLEND AND SAY THE WORD. Blend together the prefix if there is one, the stem,
and the suffix if there is one to say the entire word. For example: un+help+ful =
unhelpful.
7. USE A DICTIONARY to help identify the word. Look in the dictionary for the word
and its phonetic respelling. The phonetic respelling shows the most common
pronunciation of the word. Use the phonetic respelling to help you pronounce the
word. Also, look at the definitions provided for the word. Select the definition that
best fits the meaning of the word as used in the sentence. Knowing the
pronunciation of the word and its meaning should allow you to identify the word.
8. ASK SOMEONE for help identifying the word. If you have reached this step and
still cannot identify the word, ask your teacher, parent, or another student to help you
identify and say the word.
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Use this word identification strategy whenever needed in your reading. You cannot
understand what you read unless you can identify most or all of the words.
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Becoming a Flexible Reader
To become a flexible reader, you need to know how to select and use a reading style that
is consistent with your purpose for reading. There are three important reading styles you
should learn to use. Each has its own purpose. Knowing when and how to use these three
reading styles will make you a flexible reader. Read to learn about the three reading
styles used by flexible readers.
Study Reading is the reading style used by flexible readers when their purpose is to read
difficult material at a high level of comprehension. When using the Study Reading style,
you should read at a rate that is slower than your normal reading rate. Further, as you
read you must challenge yourself to understand the material. Study Reading will often
require you to read material more than once to achieve a high level of comprehension.
Sometimes, reading the material aloud will also help you improve your comprehension.
Skimming is the reading style used by flexible readers when their purpose is to quickly
obtain a general idea about the reading material. The Skimming style is most useful when
you have to read a large amount of material in a short amount of time. When using the
Skimming style, you should identify the main ideas in each paragraph and ignore the
details in supportive sentences. Because you are only looking for the main idea in each
paragraph you read, a lower level of comprehension is to be expected than when using
the Study Reading style.
Scanning is the reading style used by flexible readers when their purpose is to quickly
locate a specific piece of information within reading material. The piece of information to
be located may be contained in a list of names, words, numbers, short statements, and
sometimes even in a paragraph. Since you know exactly what you are looking for, move
your eyes quickly over the reading material until you locate the specific piece of
information you need to find.
Before you begin your next reading assignment, identify your purpose for reading.
Decide if you are reading for a high level of comprehension, trying to get a general idea
about what you are reading, or looking for specific information. Then use the reading
style that is appropriate for your reading purpose.
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Using Prefixes to Expand Your
Vocabulary
What is a prefix?
You must understand what a root word is in order to understand what a prefix is. A root
word is a word you can change into a new word by adding a beginning and/or an ending.
A prefix is a beginning that is added to a root word. For example, take the root word
“purpose.” By adding the prefix “multi” to “purpose,” the new word “multipurpose” is
formed.
Every prefix has its own meaning. When added to a root word, a prefix changes the
meaning of the root word to which it is added. The root word “purpose” means “an aim
or a goal one wishes to achieve.” The prefix “multi” means “many.” The new word
“multipurpose” means “designed or used for many purposes.”
Learning to identify prefixes and knowing their meanings are great ways to expand your
vocabulary. An expanded vocabulary will increase your listening and speaking
comprehension. It will also help you communicate more effectively when writing or
taking tests.
Some Common Prefixes
Here are some common prefixes. The meaning of each prefix is shown, as well as words
that can be formed by adding the prefix to root words. Using these prefixes and others
will expand your vocabulary.
Prefix
Meaning of
Prefix
re
hyper
un
tri
pre
mis
sub
again
over
not
three
before
wrong
below
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Words Formed Using the Prefix
replay, resend, replace
hyperactive, hypersensitive,
hyperventilate
unclear, unsure, undecided
triangle, tricycle, triweekly
prepay, prepackage, predate
misconduct, misspell, misunderstand
subway, substandard, submarine
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Some More Prefixes
Here are some more prefixes and their meanings. You can add these prefixes to many
root words to form new words and expand your vocabulary.
Prefix
ante
bi
equi
hypo
neo
poly
semi
Meaning
before
two
equal
under
new
many
half
Prefix
auto
circum
im
inter
omni
retro
trans
Meaning
self
around
not
between
all
backward
across
To build your vocabulary using prefixes, do the following:
1. When you see a prefix whose meaning you do not know, look up
its meaning in a dictionary.
2. Write the prefix and its meaning where you can refer to it easily
and often.
3. Review the meaning of these prefixes from time to time.
4. Form words by adding these prefixes to root words.
5. Use these words when you speak and write.
Watch your vocabulary grow!
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Multiple-Choice Tests
Many of the tests you take in school will be multiple-choice tests. Here
are two types of items you will often find on multiple-choice tests.
1. An incomplete statement followed by several answer
choices.
In this type of item, the missing part of the statement can be anywhere in
the statement. You must circle the letter that represents the answer
choice that correctly completes the statement. Usually there are four
answer choices represented by the letters a, b, c, and d. Sometimes
there are more than four answer choices.
Here is an example of this type of item:
The first president of the United States,
the “Father of his country.”
, was known as
a. Thomas Jefferson
b. Abraham Lincoln
c. George Washington
d. Theodore Roosevelt
You should circle “c” to show that George Washington was the first
president of the United States.
2. A question followed by several answer choices.
In this type of item, you must circle the letter that represents the answer
choice that correctly answers the question.
Here is an example of this type of item:
How many states make up the United States of America?
a. 48
b. 52
c. 46
d. 50
You should circle “d” to show that 50 is the correct answer choice for this
question.
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Sometimes, one of the answer choices is “all of the above.” In the
following example, “e” is the correct answer choice because all of the
foods shown are dairy products.
Which of the following foods are dairy products?
a. milk
b. ice cream
c. yogurt
d. cream cheese
e. all of the above
Other times, one of the answer choices is “none of the above.” In the
following example, “b” is the correct answer choice because Argentina is
the only country listed that is in South America. For “e” to be correct,
none of the countries listed could be in South America.
is a country in South America.
a. Russia
b. Argentina
c. Mexico
d. Japan
e. none of the above
Guidelines When Taking Multiple-Choice Tests
Here are some guidelines that will help you correctly answer multiplechoice items.
1. Circle or underline important words in the item. This will help you
focus on the information most needed to identify the correct answer
choice.
2. Read all the answer choices before selecting one. It is just as likely
for the last answer choice to be correct as the first.
3. Cross out answer choices you are certain are not correct. This will
help you narrow down the correct answer choice.
4. Look for two answer choices that are opposites. One of these two
answer choices is likely to be correct.
5. Look for hints about the correct answer choice in other items on the
test. The correct answer choice may be part of another item on the
test.
6. Look for answer choices that contain language used by your teacher
or found in your textbooks. An answer choice that contains such
language is usually correct.
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7. Do not change your initial answer unless you are sure another
answer choice is correct. More often than not, your first choice is
correct.
8. Choose “all of the above” if you are certain all other answer choices
in the item are correct. Do not choose “all of the above” if even
just one of the other answer choices is not correct.
9. Choose “none of the above” if you are certain all other answer
choices in the item are incorrect. Do not choose “none of the
above” if even just one of the other answer choices is correct.
Knowing how multiple-choice items are constructed and using these
guidelines will help you improve your score on a multiple-choice test.
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Procrastination
What is Procrastination?
Procrastination is putting off or avoiding doing something that must be done. It is
natural to procrastinate occasionally. However, excessive procrastination can result in
guilt feelings about not doing a task when it should be done. It can also cause anxiety
since the task still needs to be done. Further, excessive procrastination can cause poor
performance if the task is completed without sufficient time to do it well. In short,
excessive procrastination can interfere with school and personal success.
Why Do Students Procrastinate?
There are many reasons why students procrastinate. Here are the most common reasons:
1. Perfectionism. A student’s standard of performance may be so high
for a task that it does not seem possible to meet that standard.
2. Fear of Failure. A student may lack confidence and fear that he/she
will be unable to accomplish a task successfully.
3. Confusion. A student may be unsure about how to start a task or
how it should be completed.
4. Task Difficulty. A student may lack the skills and abilities needed to
accomplish a task.
5. Poor Motivation. A student may have little or no interest in
completing a task because he/she finds the task boring or lacking in
relevance.
6. Difficulty Concentrating. A student may have too many things
around that distract him/her from doing a task.
7. Task Unpleasantness. A student may dislike doing what a task
requires.
8. Lack of Priorities. A student may have little or no sense about which
tasks are most important to do.
How Do I Know if I Procrastinate Excessively?
You procrastinate excessively if you agree with five or more of the following statements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
I often
I often
I often
I often
I often
them.
6. I often
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put off starting a task I find difficult
give up on a task as soon as I start to find it difficult.
wonder why I should be doing a task.
have difficulty getting started on a task.
try to do so many tasks at once that I cannot do any of
put off a task in which I have little or no interest.
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7. I often try to come up with reasons to do something other than a
task I have to do.
8. I often ignore a task when I am not certain about how to start it or
complete it.
9. I often start a task but stop before completing it.
10.
I often find myself thinking that if I ignore a task, it will go
away.
11.
I often cannot decide which of a number of tasks I should
complete first.
12.
I often find my mind wandering to things other that the task
on which I am trying to work.
What Can I Do About Excessive Procrastination?
Here are some things you can do to control excessive procrastination.
1. Motivate yourself to work on a task with thoughts such as “There is
no time like the present,” or “Nobody’s perfect.”
2. Prioritize the tasks you have to do.
3. Commit yourself to completing a task once started.
4. Reward yourself whenever you complete a task.
5. Work on tasks at the times you work best.
6. Break large tasks into small manageable parts.
7. Work on tasks as part of a study group.
8. Get help from teachers and other students when you find a task
difficult.
9. Make a schedule of the tasks you have to do and stick to it.
10.
Eliminate distractions that interfere with working on tasks.
11.
Set reasonable standards that you can meet for a task.
12.
Take breaks when working on a task so that you do not wear
down.
13.
Work on difficult and/or unpleasant tasks first.
14.
Work on a task you find easier after you complete a difficult
task.
15.
Find a good place to work on tasks.
Above all, think positively and get going. Once you are into a task, you will probably
find that it is more interesting than you thought it would be and not as difficult as you
feared. You will feel increasingly relieved as you work toward its accomplishment and
will come to look forward to the feeling of satisfaction you will experience when you
have completed the task.
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Setting Goals
A goal is something you want to achieve. A short-term goal is something you want to
achieve soon. Examples of short-term goals are finishing your homework and doing well
on tomorrow’s test. A long-term goal is something you want to achieve at some later
date. Examples of long-term goals are writing a paper and passing a class.
To set appropriate goals, you must know what is important for you to accomplish. Then
you must set specific and clearly stated goals. If you do not have clearly stated goals,
your effort will lack direction and focus. Write your goals to have a record of them.
The Three Ws of Goals
Each goal you set should state what you will do and when you will do it. For example, a
goal relating to writing a research paper might be stated as follows: I will finish gathering
information for my research paper by November 20.
Characteristics of Appropriate Goals
Your goals should be:
1. within your skills and abilities. Knowing your strengths and weaknesses will help
you set goals you can accomplish.
2. realistic. Setting a goal to learn the spelling of three new words a day is realistic.
Trying to learn the spelling of fifty new words a day is not realistic.
3. flexible. Sometimes things will not go the way you anticipate and you may need to
change your goal. Stay flexible so when you realize a change is necessary you will be
ready to make the change.
4. measurable. It is important to be able to measure your progress toward a goal. It is
especially important to recognize when you have accomplished your goal and need to go
no further. Failure to measure your progress toward a goal and recognize its
accomplishment will result in effort that is misdirected and wasted.
5. within your control. Other than when working as part of a group, accomplishment of
your goal should not depend on other students. You can control what you do, but you
have little or no control over what others do. You may do what you have to do, but if
others don’t, you will not accomplish your goal.
Many times your parents, teachers, and counselors will set goals for you. Be accepting
when they do. These are people who know what is important for you and are very
concerned with your success. They can also help you accomplish the goals they set.
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SET GOALS IN SCHOOL THAT PROVIDE YOU WITH DIRECTION AND LEAD
TO SUCCESS.
See our other study skills resources at www.how-to-study.com
and don't forget to
check out the study skills programs at www.mangrum-strichart.com.
Feel free to share the information we provide at this site. Please give
credit to www.how-to-study.com when you do so.
You must obtain our written permission for any use of the information
for commercial purposes. Copyright © How-To-Study.com.
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Part Two:
How To Study Guide
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How to Study:
A Brief Guide
William J. Rapaport
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Department of Philosophy,
and Center for Cognitive Science
State University of New York at Buffalo,
Buffalo, NY 14260-2000
Last Update: 14 May 2007, 2:45 p.m.
If you are reading a printed version of this, you might be interested in the Web version, at
http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/howtostudy.html
which has numerous links to other helpful Web sites (indicated in some printed versions by underlined
phrases).
OUTLINE and INDEX:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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Introduction
Manage your time
Take notes in class & rewrite them at home
Study hard subjects first & study in a quiet place
Read texts actively & slowly, before & after class
Do your homework
Study for exams
Take Exams
Do I really have to do all this?
Are there other websites that give study hints?
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1. Introduction
Everyone has a different "learning style". (A good introduction to the topic of learning
styles is Claxton & Murrell 1987. For more on different learning styles, see Keirsey
Temperament and Character Web Site, William Perry's Scheme of Intellectual and
Ethical Development, Holland 1966, Kolb 1984, Sternberg 1999.)
Consequently, everyone has a different "studying style". But the way that you are
studying right now might not be the best for you. How would you know? Easy: If your
grades aren't what you'd like them to be, then you probably need to change how you
study!
I am going to give you some suggestions on how to study efficiently. They worked for
me when I was in high school, college, and graduate school. Not only that, but they
worked equally well for me in humanities courses (like philosophy and literature) and in
science courses (like math and computer science). But, given that everyone's learning
style is different, some of my suggestions may not work for you, at least not without
some individual modifications. Nevertheless, I urge you to try them. Most successful
students use them (or some slight variation of them).
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2. Manage Your Time
School is a full-time job. And managing your time is important.
•
If you have a "real" job after school that you do just for fun (or for some extra
spending money), or if you participate in extra-curricular activities (whether
school-related or not), keep your priorities in mind:
Your education should come first!
•
If you must work (in order to make ends meet), you should realize the limitations
that this imposes on your study time.
How much time should you devote to studying? A recent survey in the Chronicle of
Higher Education suggested that students are not studying enough. So, how much is
enough? If you assume that your education is a full-time job, then you should spend
about 40 hours/week on it. Figure that 1 academic credit equals about 1 hour. So, if
you're taking 15 credits, then you're spending about 15 hours in class. Subtracting that
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from 40 gives you 25 hours that you should be spending studying at home (or in the
library).
You should spread that out over the week. Suppose you decide to study Sunday through
Thursday evenings, taking Fridays and Saturdays off (from studying, that is). Dividing
that 25 hours by those 5 days gives you 5 hours of studying per night. If you think that's
too much, then plan on studying in the afternoons, too, or some of Saturday.
The above are just rules of thumb. If you're taking a 3-credit independent-study course,
but you meet with your instructor only 1 hour/week, then you should add the extra 2
hours to your at-home study time. If you're working to earn some money, you should
subtract your work hours from your free time, not from your study time! (If you don't
want to do that, then you should consider quitting your job or reducing your course load.)
If that still seems like a lot, consider the difference between high-school courses and
college courses. The typical high-school course meets every day, for about 5 hours/week.
But the typical college course meets only about 3 hours/week, yet is supposed to be more
intensive than its high-school counterpart. That's because in college you're expected to
put more of your own time into studying.
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Set yourself a grade goal. If you don't meet it, cut down on non-school activities. (If you
can't, because you're working for a living, then consider dropping down to part-time
schooling.)
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For some websites on time management, take a look at:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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UB Student Affairs webpage on "Time Management"
http://ub-counseling.buffalo.edu/studytime.shtml
"Time Management Skills"
http://www.mindtools.com/page5.html
"Time Management for University Students"
http://www.yorku.ca/cdc/lsp/tmonline/time.htm
"How to Be Punctual"
http://www.wikihow.com/Be-Punctual
... or do a Google search on "time management" for more ideas.
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3. Take Notes in Class & Rewrite Them at Home
Outline and Index:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Take Notes
Take Complete Notes
Use Abbreviations
Neatness Doesn't Count
Ask Questions & Make Comments
Copy Your Notes at Home
Don't Take Notes on a Computer
Don't Rely on the Instructor's Lecture Notes
3.1. Take Notes
Good studying at home begins with good notes taken in class. Just as everyone has a
different learning style, different teachers have different teaching styles (and often these
clash with the students' learning styles!): Some teachers lecture, some lead discussions,
some "facilitate" individual work (as in a lab), etc. Consequently, different classroom
settings will require different note-taking techniques. But the suggestions here are general
enough to work in most situations.
3.2. Take Complete Notes
The key idea of taking good notes in class is to write down as much as possible. There
are several reasons to take notes that are as complete as possible:
1. It will force you to pay attention to what's going on in class.
2. It will keep you awake (!)
3. There will be less that you'll have to remember.
Should you concentrate on taking notes or should you concentrate on understanding what
you are learning? Paradoxically, I'd err on the side of taking notes, not understanding!
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Understanding can come later, when you review your notes. But if you have incomplete
notes, it will be hard for you to learn what you didn't take notes on.
3.3. Use Abbreviations
Taking complete notes will require you to write fairly quickly and, as a consequence, to
use abbreviations. Here are some that I use (many of which I stole from other students
and teachers), to give you an idea of how you can abbreviate. If you send text messages
on your cell phone, then you know the sort of abbreviations I'm talking about. Use them
when you take notes in class!
ABBREVIATION
abusby
MEANING
betw
between
ccpt
concept
cd
could
compn
computation
compnl
computational
comp
complete
dn
description
fn
function
h.
human
...g
(e.g., contg)
...ing
(continuing)
...l
(e.g., compnl)
...al
(computational)
lg
language
mn
mean
mng
meaning
...n
(e.g., abbrvn)
...tion
(abbreviation)
NB:
note/note well/nota bene
pn
proposition
prop
property
re
about (from Latin)
reln
relation
qn
question
...r
(e.g., compr)
...er
(computer)
shd
should
s.t.
something/sometimes
(context should make it clear which you mean)
stmt
statement
thot
thought
w/
with
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w/o
without
wd
would
wh
which
&
and
v
or (this is a symbol from logic)
¬
not/negation sign
(this is a symbol from logic)
possible/possibly
(this is a symbol from logic)
must/necessary/necessarily
(this is a symbol from logic)
all/for all/every
(this is a symbol from logic)
some/there is/there are/there exists
(this is a symbol from logic)
A related idea is based on a system of shorthand called Speedwriting: There used to be
ads in the New York City subway system that read something like this:
if u cn rd ths, u cn lrn spdwrtg
The key idea in abbreviating is to use abbreviations that will make sense to you. You can
put an abbreviation key in the margin of your notebook for any abbreviations that you
make up on the spot.
3.4. Neatness Doesn't Count.
Yet another key idea of note-taking is that you don't have to be neat; you only have to be
legible enough to be able to read your notes a few hours (or, at most, a few days) later.
The reason for this will become clear later.
3.5. Ask Questions & Make Comments
If you have a question or something comes to mind as you're taking notes, you have two
choices: You can contribute to the class discussion by asking your question or making
your comment. Or you can jot your question or comment down in your notes. I suggest
always doing the latter, but also doing the former as often as possible. One reason that
you should always put your question or comment in your notes is so that you won't forget
it; you can then always bring it up later, either in class or one-on-one with the teacher or a
fellow student. Another reason, of course, is that if you do bring it up in class, it should
thereby become part of the day's class notes! One technique that I use to be able to
distinguish my own questions or comments from the rest of the notes is to put them in the
margin and/or to surround them with big, bold square brackets
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like this.
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By the way, if you have a question, especially if you need clarification of something that
the teacher said or wrote (possibly because it was inaudible or illegible), ask it! Do not be
embarrassed about asking it! I can guarantee you that there will be at least one other
student in the class (and often many more) who will be extremely grateful to you for
having asked the very same question that they were too embarrassed to ask, and they will
come to view you as wise and brave for having asked it. (So will the teacher!)
3.6. Copy Your Notes at Home
Notice that this section is titled "Take Notes in Class & Rewrite Them at Home"; the title
was not "Take Notes in Class & Study Them at Home". Of course you should study your
class notes at home; but just (re-)reading them is too passive. One of the themes of this
guide is that studying must be active. It is all too easy when just reading passively to have
your mind wander or even to fall asleep:
Moreover, notes are often incomplete or sketchy; just reading such notes won't help. And
a few days or months after you take them, they may very well be illegible or
incomprehensible. Finally, if you don't do something active with your notes, you run the
risks of having unorganized notes or of misplacing them.
What I suggest is that you study your notes by re-writing them. For each class, buy a
separate notebook from the one you take your notes in. I recommend a "composition" or
spiral notebook, not a looseleaf notebook, for your "permanent" (i.e., re-written) notes.
Then, as soon as possible after class (preferably that evening or the next), copy your
notes into your permanent notebook.
The main idea behind re-writing your "raw" class notes (besides making them more
legible and organized) is that the very act of copying them is one of the best ways of
studying them! Further study of your class notes can then be done from these "cooked"
ones that are neater, more legible, more organized, and more complete. I will suggest
ways to do this later.
Use this opportunity to fill in gaps from your memory while they are still fresh in mind.
You may find that you have questions, perhaps something you missed or don't
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understand, or even a "substantive" question. If so, good! Make a note of your question
and ask it in class next time!
Use this opportunity to (re-)organize your notes in a more logical or coherent fashion.
You could write your permanent notes in an outline form if that seems suitable: You don't
have to follow any "official" or formal outlining style (e.g., using the I.A.1.(a)(i) format
or the (sometimes silly) rule that there must always be at least two subsections, never just
one) -- after all, these are your notes. Personally, I like to number main ideas (and
separate them with a line), using an "indented bullet" style for details:
1.
Main idea 1
- detail 1
- detail 2
- further detail 2.1
- detail 3
- further detail 3.1
- further detail 3.2
2.
Main idea 2
3.
Main idea 3
etc.
3.7. Don't Take Notes on a Computer
By the way, I do not recommend taking class notes on a laptop computer. Certainly you
should not do this unless you are a very good typist and have "compiled" your wordprocessing or text-editing program into your fingertips. (In any case, typing can be very
noisy and disturbing to your fellow students!) Also, typing class notes into a computer
file can be inconsistent with my recommendation to re-write your class notes. Of course,
you can edit your computer file later, but editing is not the same as copying, and I am
recommending copying as a means to studying (for one thing, it forces you to (re-)read
all your notes). Of course, you can copy your raw notes into a neater computer file; this
may be a matter of taste, but I find that I have a firmer grasp of what I write if I handwrite
it than if I type it. (As Usama Fayyad computers are "great at bookkeeping but not yet
great at recording impromptu ideas, thoughts, feelings. For that, paper is still far superior.
You can hold it, fold it, put it in your pocket, look at it again later when it's convenient"
(as quoted in Swerdlow 1999: 130).)
Worse, you may be tempted to use the computer that you're ostensibly taking notes on to
surf the Internet, look at email, or chat with friends. Don't! (For an interesting debate on
this topic, see Adams 2006.)
For that matter, turn off your computer in class. And your iPod. And your cell phone.
And your pager. And anything else that might distract you. For reasons why, see:
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Bugeja, Michael J. (2007), "Distractions in the Wireless Classroom", Chronicle of
Higher Education (26 January): C1,C4.
3.8. Don't Rely on the Instructor's Lecture Notes
Some instructors provide their own set of lecture notes, often on the Web or in
PowerPoint (or some other format). These can be useful, but you should not rely on
them. If all you do with them is print them out, maybe read them once, and save them,
they are useless, because you are using them passively. You need to treat them just as you
would with your own lecture notes: Re-write them! Better yet: Use them to fill in gaps in
your own re-written lecture notes, and to check whether you had any mistakes in your
own notes. (You may find new material in the instructor's notes that was not discussed in
class, or you may find material in your own notes that was discussed in class but did not
find their way into the prepared notes.)
4. Study Hard Subjects First & Study in a Quiet Place
Study hard subjects first. Each night (or day) when studying or doing your homework,
do those subjects first for which you need to be alert and energetic. Leave the easier, or
more fun, subjects to later.
Study in a quiet place, with as few distractions as possible. Do not listen to music or
TV: It is virtually impossible to do two things at once if one of them is studying.
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5. Read Texts Actively & Slowly, before & after Class
Outline & Index:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Read actively, not passively
Read slowly
Highlight the text in the margin
Make notes in the margin
Keep a notebook
Read literature quickly and passively the first time
Read before and after class
5.1. Read Actively, Not Passively
By 'text', I mean whatever you have to read: It might be a text book, a work of fiction, a
poem, an essay, an article from a journal or magazine, or even a class handout. With one
major exception, you should not read passively. That is, don't just read the text straight
through without thinking about what you're reading.
If you read without thinking, I guarantee that your mind will eventually wander off, your
eyes will eventually glaze over, and you will fall asleep--it's a form of self-hypnosis. So
you must read actively. To use computer jargon, you must turn the inert medium of text
on paper to an interactive medium, in which you have a "conversation" with the text, as
you might if you could be talking to the author.
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5.2. Read Slowly.
The first step in reading actively is to read s-l-o-w-l-y. Here is an algorithm (i.e., a
procedure) for how to read any text, in any subject, slowly and actively:
WHILE there is a next sentence to read, DO:
BEGIN (* while *)
Read it, SLOWLY;
IF you do not understand it, THEN
BEGIN (* if *)
re-read the previous material, SLOWLY;
re-read the incomprehensible sentence, SLOWLY;
IF you still don't understand it, THEN
ask a fellow student to explain it;
IF you still don't understand it, THEN
ask your Teaching Assistant (TA) to explain it;
IF you still don't understand it, THEN
ask me;
IF you are in an upper-level course & you still don't
understand it, THEN
write a paper about it (!)
END (* if *)
END; (* while *)
Since there is no next sentence (because the Boolean test in the WHILE is false), you've
understood the text!
This algorithm has three major advantages:
1. It forces you to actively think about each sentence you read before you go on to
read the next one.
2. It slows you down, so that you don't read past the point at which you don't
understand. This is especially important in mathematical and scientific subjects.
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3. It can help you get help from your teacher, because you can show your teacher
exactly where you got lost. It is always much better to show your teacher exactly
what it is that you don't understand than it is to just say that you don't understand
the material.
4. Note that it also provides you an opportunity to interact with your instructors and
fellow students!
For more information on slow reading, see:
1. Fletcher, Lancelot R. (1994), "Slow Reading Lists (and the Meaning of Slow
Reading)"
o
Note: If you scroll down about halfway on the above link, you'll reach the section called
"What Do I Mean by "Slow Reading"?".
2. Daly, Robert (2003), "Slow Reading: Why it Matters, How to Do It, How to
Teach It"
3. Waters, Lindsay (2007), "Time for Reading", Chronicle of Higher Education
53(23) (9 February): B6-B8.
5.3. Highlight the Text in the Margin
There are some other tricks for active reading. One, of course, is to highlight important or
interesting passages. There are several ways to do this. The worst is to use a yellow
highlighting marker (or hot pink, or whatever color you like). The main problem with this
is that you will tend to find almost every sentence to be important or interesting. As a
consequence, every page will become yellow (or hot pink, or whatever). Not only does
this defeat the purpose of highlighting--because if everything has been highlighted, then
really nothing has been!--but the pages of your text will become damp, curl up, and be
generally messy.
This technique can have other problems, too:
A slightly less messy, but equally useless, technique is to use a pen or pencil to underline
important or interesting passages. I guarantee that you will wind up underlining every
sentence on every page, and you will have gained nothing.
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The technique that I suggest is also susceptible to this problem, but has a built-in way to
overcome it, so that you can re-read the text, highlighting different passages each time.
The trick is to highlight a passage by drawing a vertical line in the margin. I like to use
the right margin and to make my line a right square bracket:
]
. If you want to make it
clear [exactly where the highlighted passage begins or ends,] you can use small square
brackets in the text, as I did in this sentence, along with the vertical line in the margin.
This way, even if you've slipped into the error of highlighting (i.e., vertical-lining) every
sentence on every page, at least you haven't ruined the page. Moreover, when you re-read
the text (note that I said 'when', not 'if' :-), you can then use a different highlighting
technique (e.g., underlining) to highlight more important passages. Sometimes, I use
double brackets in the margin for this second round of highlighting:
]
] and underlining
for a third round. (If you must, you could use yellow highlighter for a fourth round.)
5.4. Make Notes in the Margin
You should also make notes in the margin of the text (if there's room, and if the text
belongs to you). I like to put cross-references in the margin; e.g., if a passage on p. 20
reminds me in some way of a passage on p. 10, I'll write "see p. 10" in the margin on p.
20, and "see p. 20" in the margin on p. 10. Or I'll put some keyword in the margin if a
passage reminds me of some major idea.
But now suppose that a few months (or a few years) later, you want to find that
interesting passage that related to, say, consciousness; how will you find it? You could,
of course, page through the book till you find it, but what I like to do is to make an index
of my marginal comments; you can add entries (e.g., Consciousness: 10, 20) to the book's
index if it already has one, or use a blank page at the end of the book if it doesn't have an
index.
5.5. Keep a Notebook
Highlighting has the disadvantage that it can lead you to highlight everything, and
margins have the disadvantage that they are often too small for making comments. The
best technique for active reading is to keep a notebook. In addition to (or instead of)
highlighting a passage, copy it--verbatim--into your notebook. Be sure to begin your
notebook with a full citation to the text for use in a bibliography, and be sure to write
down the page numbers of each passage that you copy. Then, write down--at length and
in detail--your comments on the passage. (I sometimes like to use a pen for the text and a
pencil for my commentary.)
These notes can then be used later if you write a term paper or research paper that
discusses the material in the text. For that purpose, it will be useful to number your notes.
I find the following scheme useful: Number each notebook page with a Roman numeral
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(I, II, etc.), number each quoted passage (or stand-alone comment) with an Arabic
numeral (1, 2, etc.), and letter (a, b, etc.) each comment associated with a quoted passage
(or stand-alone comment). Then you can refer to each passage with an identifier (like
XIV-7-b, i.e., comment b about quotation 7, which comment is located on notebook page
XIV) that will enable you to find it later. See below.)
5.6. Read Literature Quickly and Passively the First Time.
Earlier, I said that there was an exception to this method of slow and active reading. If the
text is a work of literature (a story, novel, play, poem, etc.), it is often best to read it once
all the way through without stopping, just as you would read something for fun, so that
you get to know what it's about and can appreciate it as a work of literature. (If there's a
recording of it, you might find it helpful to listen to the recording while reading the text; I
have found this especially useful for Shakespeare.) Then you can use the slow and active
reading techniques for a second (or third, or fourth, or ...) reading when you are studying
the text.
Actually, even for non-fiction, it can be useful to read the text through once, quickly, to
get an overview, perhaps making notes if something strikes you, and then doing the slow
and active reading techniques when you are studying the text.
What about film or video versions? They can be helpful but, in general, of course are no
substitute for reading. The exception here is for plays, which are intended to be seen, not
(just) read. If you do decide to watch in addition to read, which should you do first? I
prefer watching first, reading afterwards. I have almost always been disappointed by film
adaptations of favorite texts (because they don't match the mental images that I construct
when I read), but I have almost never been disappointed by a text after watching a film
adaptation. Besides, if you watch first and read later, the adaptation can help you
visualize what you're reading.
5.7. Read Before and After Class
Ideally, you should read a text at least twice. Read it (perhaps quickly) before the class in
which it will be discussed, so that you are familiar with its contents. Then (re-)read it
after class using the slow and active method. If time permits, you can cut corners by only
reading it--slowly and actively!--after class.
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6. Do Your Homework
It should go without saying that you should do your homework and do it on time.
Science and math courses (and some others, such as foreign-language courses) often
require you to do homework exercises or problem sets. I strongly recommend that you do
not simply do the problems and hand them in. Rather, do them on scrap paper, check
them over, and then copy them neatly. Turn in the neat copy (and, of course, be sure that
your name is on it!). You may even want to duplicate your work in case the teacher loses
it (unlikely) or doesn't give it back in time to use it for studying for an exam (this should
only happen in rare circumstances, usually just before an exam (when the teacher has a
lot of things to do), but it is not unheard of).
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And don't just write down answers. Write down the problem and the complete solution
showing how you arrived at your answer.
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7. Study for Exams
Outline:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Manage your time
Make a study outline
Write sample essays & do sample problems
Make "flash cards"
Stop studying when you feel confident
7.1. Manage Your Time
Earlier, I discussed managing your time. When you have exams, time management
becomes even more crucial. Begin studying about 1 week before the exam. Spend at least
an hour each night (or day) studying for the exam in the manner described below. Try to
spend the entire night (and/or day) before the exam studying for it. Of course, if you have
two exams on the same day, you'll have to split the time in half.
For final exams, try to spend as much time as possible studying. Do not be tempted, by
any free time that you have during exam week, to do anything other than studying. (If
you must take some time to relax, do it after you've done all your studying for the day.) If
you have E exams and D days to study for them, spend roughly D/E days studying for
each exam. (E.g., if you have 4 exams and 5 days to study for them, spend a little more
than 1 day (1.25 days to be exact) studying for each exam.)
If you have some free days, then some exams, then some more free days, then some more
exams, etc., plan your studying so that you'll spend approximately the same amount of
time studying for each exam, making sure that the night (or day) just before an exam is
spent studying for it. E.g., suppose you have 2 free days to study before exam #1, then
one more free day before exams #2 and #3. Think of each day as having 3 parts: morning,
afternoon, and evening. Let's assume that each exam is in only one of these parts (i.e., it's
not so long that it extends through 2 of them). Then you might divide your studying time
as shown in the chart. Note that you should not delay studying for exam #3 until after
exam #2; start studying for all exams right away.
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DAY PART OF DAY
Day 1 morning
WHAT TO DO
study for exam #1
afternoon
study for exam #2
evening
study for exam #3
Day 2 morning
study for exam #1
afternoon
study for exam #2 or #3 (or both)
evening
study for exam #1
Day 3 morning
study for exam #1
afternoon
take exam #1
evening
study for exam #2
Day 4 morning
study for exam #3
afternoon
study for exam #2
evening
study for exam #3
Day 5 morning
study for exam #2
Day 6
afternoon
take exam #2
evening
study for exam #3
take exam #3
7.2. Make a Study Outline
Use your recopied class notes, together with your highlighted text and notebook,
to make an outline of the material. Try to put as much as possible onto the front
sides of only 1 or 2 sheets of paper (like those plasticized crib sheets that are often
sold in college bookstores). Then do all your studying from these. (You could
even combine this outline with "flash cards".)
7.3. Write Sample Essays & Do Sample Problems
For subjects in which you will be expected to write essays, either "psych out" the
teacher and make up some plausible essay questions, or get copies of old exams
that have real essay questions on them. Then write sample essays. Although the
essay questions that you find or make up may not be the actual ones on your
exam, you will probably find that much of what you wrote in your sample essays
by way of preparation for the exam can be recycled for the actual exam. You will
then be in the advantageous position during the exam of not having to create an
essay answer from scratch but being able to merely recall the main ideas from a
sample that you have already written as part of your studying.
For subjects in which you will have to solve problems or write proofs, solve lots
of sample problems from your text or from other texts ( Schaum's Outline Series
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(McGraw-Hill) books are usually quite good in this regard). How will you know
if your answers are correct? The best way is to form a study group of 2 or more
fellow students: Solve the same problems and compare answers. If your answers
agree, they're probably correct; if not, go to your Teaching Assistant (TA) or
teacher. As with slow reading, it's always better when asking for help from a
teacher to have a specific problem or question to ask.
7.4. Make "Flash Cards"
For any subject, you can make a set of "flash cards". But I suggest using regular 8
1/2" x 11" paper, not index cards. Divide each page in half, vertically. On the left,
write a "question" that requires an "answer", e.g., the name of a theorem, a term to
be defined, the statement of a theorem, etc. On the right, write the answer, e.g.,
the statement of the theorem named on the left, the definition of the term on the
left, the proof of the theorem stated on the left, etc. (This could even be your
study outline.)
Then memorize the questions and answers--but do not simply recite them by
heart. Instead, write down the answers: Cover the right-hand side (the answers)
with a blank sheet of paper, and write down the answers. When you finish a page,
check your work and repeat writing the answers to the questions you missed until
you get them all correct.
Why write, and not merely recite? Because you will have to write the answers on
the actual test; get used to writing them now. (Of course, if it's going to be an oral
exam, reciting may be better than writing. Still, one tends to skip details when
reciting, especially if you recite silently to yourself, but if you write the answers
and have a good memory, then, during an oral exam, you can "read" the answers
with your mind's eye.)
7.5. Stop Studying When You Feel Confident
How do you know when you've studied enough? It's not when you're tired of
studying! And it's not when you've gone through the material one time! You
should stop only when you get to the point that you feel confident and ready for
whatever will be on the exam--when you're actually eager to see the exam to find
out if you guessed its contents correctly.
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8. Take Exams
First, read the entire exam all the way through.
For an essay question, do a "mind dump": Write down, on scrap paper, brief
reminders (keywords) of everything that you remember about the topic of the
question. Then develop an outline of your answer. Then write the essay. (With
luck, much of the essay can be "copied from memory" from the sample essays
you wrote when studying.)
For an exam with problems to solve or proofs to write, do the easy ones first.
When you are all done, review your answers carefully.
And, when all of your exams are over, take heed...:-)
abusby
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10. Do I Really Have to Do All This?
Right about now, you're probably asking yourself whether you really have to do
all of this. It seems like an awful lot of work.
Well, of course, you don't have to do all of it at once. Try various of these
suggestions to see what works for you. Try some variations that may better fit
your learning style or personal circumstances. But, in the long run, there's no
quick and easy road to studying. It is hard work and should take a lot of time.
So, do you really have to do all of this? Yes (or things very much like them)--if
you want to really learn the material (and get good grades).
Finally, for what it's worth, here are some comments from students and others
who have tried some of these methods:
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abusby
"... this is the way you taught me to study years ago and it finally paid off
last year!" (a college sophomore who went from high-school grades in the
70s to a 3.00 average in college)
"Thank you for the guide. It has some great tips! I'm surprised that I use
some of the techniques myself. (E.g., I abbrev. and cndnse my notes.) I
have one suggestion, though: when reviewing for a test/exam, only study
what you aren't familiar with. It reduces studying time and is helpful if
you're a last minute person like me. :) Well, that may not work for you,
but who knows?"
"... encourage some study groups! Not 5 in a group, 'cause that will be a
crowd, but study environment is as important as studying itself; change of
environments is sometimes good to make you study better. Thank you for
your helpful hints, and it does help me to notice some of my weaknesses
in studying."
"I'd like to pass along a bit of technique that worked well for me in just
about all my courses. Thinking about the subject matter--often catalyzed
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•
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by discussion with others--before delving into it was my key to success.
After giving it some thought, I wrote out a series of logical, fundamental
questions which I sought to answer that would clarify the subject matter.
You know, make it perspicuous. I read/listened/watched with those
questions in mind, noting as well other points an author/instructor was
attempting to make. If my questions (which were fundamental to a clear
understanding) went unanswered, I would seek the answers through other
written, visual, or aural materials. Visiting an instructor during office
hours or asking the question in class was often most helpful. Once I had
the basics well in mind, building on them was easy and fun. Studying and
learning in this way also helped me to prepare for exams. Clearly, if I
could think of a question, there was a good chance one writing an exam
might think of it too. The technique is not a panacea for all study-related
problems; however, it does set forth a system to build upon in an
individualized way. I also suggest a visit to the children's section of the
library when revisiting or attempting to master the basics of certain things.
Books written at that level, though often oversimplified, present ideas and
concepts in a clear and easily understandable form usually lacking in
primers written for adults. There's no substitute for laying a good
foundation on which to build additional knowledge." -- Marc L. Ames
"I would like to thank you for the effort made doing this guide.... But there
is one thing I would like to suggest for ... future "upgrades" of this text: I
think you have to mention that it is important to be in good physical
condition as well, I mean: sleep 8 hours a day, eat well, .... What I would
like to point is that, in my opinion, it would be good to tell students that
they have to be in their best condition to study/take an exam/work." -Diego Fernández Fernández, E.U.I.T.I.O student (Computer Engineering),
Oviedo (SPAIN).
"I would like to thank you very much for the "How to Study" document I
discovered on the net. It is very informative, and it will help me with my
day to day activities. I only wish I had it while I was in high school!" -Joseph Di Lillo, Team Lead--SAP Service Desk.
"Thanks so much for the great study guide. I am a high school counselor,
and we have been teaching a freshmen study skills class for two years....
Your ideas have really inspired me, and there are many of the same
theories that we have been presenting, but in a new way! Thanks for the
great tips!" --Trinity Walsh, Guidance Counselor, Elder High School,
Cincinnati, OH.
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11. Are There Other Websites that Give Study
Hints?
Yes; here are some that looked good to me; many of them have further links for
you to follow:
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abusby
The Harvard Guide to Happiness (reprinted from The New York Times (18
April 2001).
http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/harvard.html
Study Guides and Strategies
http://www.studygs.net/
Blue, Ronald C., "How to Study"
http://tep.uoregon.edu/resources/faqs/outsidehelp/study.html
How to Study in High School and College: Effective Study Skills
http://www.adprima.com/studyout.htm
How to Study with howtostudy.com
http://www.howtostudy.com/studtips.htm
Keys to College Success
http://www.sunysccc.edu/student/Advisement/keystosuccess.htm
The Study Skills Help Page: Strategies for Success
http://www.mtsu.edu/~studskl/
Hayes-Bohanan, James (2002), "The Not-the-13th-Grade Page: A FREE
Online Guide to College Success"
http://webhost.bridgew.edu/jhayesboh/NOT13TH/not13th.htm
Good Study Habits
http://www.study-habits.com/
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References
Adams, Dennis (2006), "Wireless Laptops in the Classroom (and the Sesame
Street Syndrome)", Communications of the ACM 49(9; September): 25-27.
Claxton, Charles S., & Murrell, Patricia H. (1987), Learning Styles: Implications
for Improving Educational Practices, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.
4 (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education).
Holland, John L. (1966), The Psychology of Vocational Choice (Waltham, MA:
Ginn & Co.)
Kolb, David A. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of
Learning and Development (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall).
Sternberg, Robert J. (1999), Thinking Styles (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press).
Swerdlow, Joel L. (1999, August), "The Power of Writing", National Geographic
196(2): 110-133, 136.
Copyright © 1999-2007 by William J. Rapaport ( [email protected])
http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/howtostudy.html-20070514-2
abusby
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