1. health and fitness
2. disease

Bacterial and
Mycotic Infections in
Immunocompromised
Hosts: Clinical and
Microbiological
Aspects
Edited by
Maria Teresa Mascellino
www.esciencecentral.org/ebooks
Brucellosis: A Global Re-emerging
Zoonosis Clinical Aspects,
Associations and Brucellosis in
SpecificConditions
Al-Anazi KA1* and Al-Jasser AM2
Department of Adult Hematology and Hematopoietic, Stem Cell
Transplant, Oncology Centre, King Fahad Specialist Hospital, KSA
1
2
Central Laboratory, Ministry of Health, KSA
*Corresponding author: Khalid Ahmed Al-Anazi, Consultant HematoOncologist, Department of Adult Hematology and Hematopoietic Stem
Cell Transplant, Oncology Centre, King Fahad Specialist Hospital, P.O.
Box: 15215, Dammam 31444, Saudi Arabia, Tel: 966–03–8431111;
Fax: 966–03–8427420; E-mail: [email protected]
Abbreviations:
B.: Brucella; FUO: Fever of Unknown Origin; ESR: Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate; CRP: C-Reactive
Protein; CAT scan: Computerized Axial Tomography; MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging; CSF: Cerebrospinal Fluid; BBB: Blood
Brain Barrier; CNS: Central Nervous System; IV: Intravenous; HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus; HSCT: Hematopoietic Stem Cell
Transplantation; ESRD: End Stage Renal Disease; CFS: Chronic Fatigue Syndrome; ME: Myalgic Encephalopathy
Introduction
Brucellosis, the commonest zoonosis worldwide, is caused by Gram-negative, intracellular coccobacilli that affect various body
organs [1-3]. Infection can be acquired by several means and has recently been increasingly recognized in patients with comorbid
medical conditions and in immunocompromised individuals [2]. Not only duration of the incubation period, but also presentation
and clinical manifestations of Brucellosis are very variable. Brucella infections can be localized or disseminated and are very variable in
severity. Complications, chronic infections and relapses are prone to occur [1,2].
Human Brucellosis has protean clinical manifestations and the onset may be acute or insidious. The infection is usually underdiagnosed due to the misleading clinical picture. Hence, treatment may be delayed and complications may evolve [3]. Sustaining a high
index of suspicion is essential particularly in risk individuals and in patients living in endemic areas as early diagnosis and prompt
therapy improve the outcome and prevent complications [1-3].
Clinical Manifestations of Brucellosis
The infective dose is relatively low as 10 to 100 organisms are sufficient to cause infection/disease [4]. Duration of the incubation
period is variable. Usually it ranges between 1 week and 2 months but it can be as short as 5 days and as long as several months. During
the incubation period, the clinical features are protean and non-specific [1,2].
Presentation of Brucellosis is also very variable. It may present as an acute febrile illness or as a chronic infection. It can cause
both localized infection as well as systemic and generalized disease. Severity of the infection is also very variable as it may be totally
asymptomatic or can cause severe and potentially fatal illness. Relapses and complicated infections may also be encountered [1,2].
Complications of Brucellosis
Osteoarticular complications
Osteoarticular disease is the most common complication of Brucellosis as it has been described in 10 to 85% of patients [13,14]. The
spectrum of bone and joint involvement by Brucellosis includes: arthritis, bursitis, tenosynovitis, osteomyelitis, spondylitis and sacroiliitis
[13-16]. Spondylitis is the most common and most important form of osteoarticular involvement by Brucellosis in adults as it has been
reported in 6-58% of cases [16]. Spondylitis may be difficult to diagnose and can be complicated by potentially devastating neurological
OMICS Group eBooks
Fever is the commonest clinical feature. Insidious onset of fever, high grade and irregular, with chills lasting for days to weeks
is the most usual presentation [1-3,5]. As the infection may be atypical in presentation, some cases present with fever of unknown
origin (FUO) [2,5]. Other symptoms of Brucellosis include: night sweats, rigors, myalgia, arthralgia, low backache, anorexia, malaise,
fatigue, weakness, weight loss, headache, dizziness, depressed mood, dyspepsia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, cough, dyspnea,
hemoptesis, testicular pain and burning micturition. Physical examination may reveal: swelling of joints, tenderness over joints and
the lower back, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, external lymphadenopathy, jaundice, mouth ulcerations, scrotal swelling and a variety of
cutaneous eruptions [1-12]. The clinical manifestations and complications of Brucellosis included in 2 major retrospective studies and 1
meta-analysis are summarized in Table 1 [5,9,12].
002
Clinical feature
Buzgan et al [RS, 1028 patients]
Mantur et al [RS,792 patients ]
Dean et al [MA, 57 studies]
Fever
72.2
78.9
78
Arthralgia
73.7
23.1
65
Fatigue
71.2
1.7
39
Sweating
64.8
3.9
54
Weight loss
42.4
1
26
Myalgia
36.1
NA
47
Back pain
21.2
14.8
45
Chills
33.9
NA
45
Nausea & vomiting
24.9
NA
26
Abdominal pain
6.7
3.2
19
Headache
14.4
2.5
35
Cough
2
3.5
NA
Scrotal pain
3.4
2
NA
Splenomegaly
14.5
18.5
26
Hepatomegaly
20.6
11.3
23
Lymphadenopathy
2.4
2.9
NA
Spondylitis
3.1
NA
12
Sacroiliitis
6.2
NA
15
Endocarditis
0.7
NA
2
Skin lesions
2.4
NA
6
Scrotal swelling
3.4
NA
10
RS: Retrospective study; MA: Meta-analysis; NA: not available
Table 1: Percentages of clinical manifestations of brucellosis.
and vascular conditions. Back pain, fever and constitutional symptoms are the most common manifestations [13]. Spondylitis typically
affects men over the age of 40 years. Areas of the spine that are involved include: lumber (60%), thoracic (19%) and cervical (12%).
Tuberculosis of the spine should be included in the differential diagnosis [16]. Laboratory abnormalities in Brucella spondylitis include:
elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein (CRP), leucopenia or leucocytosis (at times with pus formation),
anemia, thrombocytopenia and moderate elevation of liver enzymes (Table 2). Blood cultures may be positive in up to 85% of cases.
Coomb’s test is invariably positive and agglutination tests may be positive in up to 90% of cases [13,16]. Plain X-rays, computerized axial
tomography (CAT) scans, bone scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are useful in the diagnosis of spinal Brucellosis. Although
bone scans are very useful, MRI is the method of choice for diagnosis and follow-up in spondylitis caused by Brucellosis [13,16-19]. The
radiological features appear 3 to 5 weeks after the onset of the clinical manifestations [16]. The radiological abnormalities are variable
and they include: focal spondylitis, epiphysitis, diskitis with disc collapse, paravertebral abscesses and osteomyelitis (bone destruction)
that may involve more than one bone or vertebral level and that may occur in 6-50% of patients (Figure 1) [13-16,18,20,21]. Treatment
of spondylitis includes a combination of antimicrobials in addition to other measures such as analgesia, immobilization to reduce pain
and drainage of abscesses if present. The best combination therapy includes doxycycline and aminoglycoside and response rate using this
regimen ranges between 60 and 90% of treated patients. Doxycycline and rifampicin combination can be given alternatively while the
combination of co-trimoxazole and ciprofloxacin is not recommended as it has been reported to yield a poor outcome. Longer duration
of treatment is usually required. While some studies have shown that 6 to 12 weeks may be the optimal duration, other studies have
shown that treatment for 12 to 18 weeks is associated with more optimal outcome. However, aminoglycosides are usually recommended
during the first 3 weeks of chemotherapy [13,16,22,23]. In the management of osteoarticular complications of Brucellosis, early diagnosis
and correct management are important to prevent harmful effects of Brucellosis [24,25]. The treatment of choice in most cases of spinal
Brucellosis is antibiotic therapy primarily [13,24]. Brucella infection of prosthetic joints has been reported in patients requiring total joint
arthroplasty. This serious complication may be introduced during surgery or through hematogenous spread or seeding. However, most
infections are caused by Gram positive cocci. Negative cultures do not rule out the presence of osteoarticular Brucellosis. Combined
medical (doxycycline and rifampicin therapy) and surgical (re-implantation) treatment is usually recommended [14]. Arthritis develops
in about 26% of patients having acute, subacute or chronic Brucellosis. Patients usually experience: fever, joint pain, sweating and fatigue.
The joints involved arranged in an order of decreasing frequency are: sacroiliac, knees, hips and spine. Treatment is usually in the form of
drug combination, either streptomycin and tetracycline or streptomycin and rifampicin. Antimicrobial therapy is usually associated with
excellent cure rates as arthritis usually resolves without sequelae. Brucellosis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of arthritis
in areas that are endemic for the infection [19,22]. Vertebral osteomyelitis is another serious complication of Brucellosis. It is associated
with high rates of treatment failure and functional sequelae. The duration of treatment for vertebral osteomyelitis caused by Brucellosis
is usually 3 months. Although MRI is considered the method of choice for the diagnosis of osteoarticular and spinal involvement by
Brucellosis, bone scan is another valuable method to detect spinal and osteoarticular involvement by Brucellosis. It is useful at diagnosis
and during follow up in chronic and relapsing cases of Brucellosis [20].
Percentage
Elevated ESR
69.4
Elevated CRP
57.5
Anemia
26.4
Positive rheumatoid factor
Leucopenia
Leucocytosis
12.7
10.7
8.4
Thrombocytopenia
7.03
Thrombocytosis
1.1
ESR: erythrocyte sedimentation rate;CRP: C-reactive protein
Table 2: Laboratory abnormalities in 1239 patients with brucellosis.
OMICS Group eBooks
Laboratory abnormality
003
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1: (A): MRI of lumbar spine in a patient with brucellosis showing evidence of paravertebral and epidural abscess; (B): MRI of thoracic spine
in a patient with brucellosis showing evidence of multifocal spondylodiskitis; (C): MRI of tibia in a patient with brucellosis showing evidence of
osteomyelitis.
Neuro Brucellosis
Neurological complications develop in 2-7% of patients with Brucellosis [26-28]. The clinical manifestations of neuroBrucellosis are
very heterogeneous and can be categorized into: central, peripheral, focal or diffuse. The onset can be acute or chronic [26,29,30]. The
clinical manifestations of neuroBrucellosis include: (1) meningitis that can be acute or chronic with acute Brucella meningitis being the
commonest presentation of neuroBrucellosis, (2) meningoencephalitis, (3) signs of meningeal irritation such as neck stiffness, (3) headache
and isolated intracranial hypertension, (4) polyradiculoneuritis: peripheral and cranial nerve palsies, sensory and motor abnormalities
in addition to paraplegia and quadriplegia, (5) brain and epidural abscesses, (6) subdural hematomas, intracerebral hemorrhages,
subarachnoidal hemorrhages, transient ischemic attacks and hemiplegia, (7) convulsions, coma and stupor, (8) cerebellar dysfunction,
gait abnormalities and spastic paraplegia, (9) myelitis and chorea, (10) depression, psychosis and dementia, (11) backache, areflexia and
hearing loss, (12) mycotic aneurysms and (13) Guillain-Barre syndrome [26-30].
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis usually shows: leucocytosis with predominant lymphocytosis, elevated CSF protein and low CSF
glucose [26,27,29]. CSF cultures for Brucella may be positive. Brucella serology and blood cultures are usually positive. Pus cultures
from brain abscess may be positive for Brucella species and brain biopsy usually reveals granuloma formation with central necrosis [26].
MRI may show: brain parenchymal swelling causing decreased lateral ventricular volume, hydrocephalus with periventricular edema,
meningeal enhancement in posterior fossa, multiple hypodense periventricular lesions that may be ischemic or demyelinating in nature
and spinal epidural abscesses [26,28,29]. Presence of neurological dysfunction in the absence of other neurological manifestations strongly
supports the diagnosis and response to anti-Brucella treatment confirms the diagnosis of neuroBrucellosis [26-29].
Differential diagnosis of neuroBrucellosis includes: neurosyphilis, neurotuberculosis and other neurological and psychiatric disorders
[26,27,29]. Clinicians serving in endemic areas should consider the likelihood of neuroBrucellosis in patients presenting with unexplained
neuropsychiatric manifestations [26,27,30].
Appropriate therapy for neuroBrucellosis requires: the use of 2 or 3 antimicrobials that cross blood brain barrier (BBB), supportive
care and symptomatic treatment in addition to treatment of specific complications such as convulsions. The antimicrobials that are
commonly used in the treatment of neuroBrucellosis include: ceftriaxone: 2 grams intravenously (IV) twice daily, rifampicin: 600 mg per
day, doxycycline 100mg twice daily, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 960 mg twice daily in addition to ciprofloxacin and streptomycin.
Treatment of neuroBrucellosis can range from 1to19 months, although it is advisable to give antimicrobials for at least 4 to 6 months
[26,29].
Cardiovascular complications
Cardiac involvement in Brucellosis is relatively rare [31,32]. The cardiovascular complications of Brucellosis include:
(2) Pericarditis that may be acute, pericardial effusions and cardiac tamponade [32,33].
(3) Myocarditis [32].
(4) Infection of cardiac devices causing devise dysfunction [35].
(5) Endarteritis, polyserositis and thrombophlebitis [2,33].
Management of endocarditis involves combined medical and surgical therapy [34,36]. Antibiotic therapy for Brucella endocarditis
includes combination therapies for prolonged periods of time. The first line is usually composed of: rifampicin: 900 mg orally twice daily,
OMICS Group eBooks
(1) Endocarditis which is the main cardiovascular complication of Brucellosis. It accounts for most of the 5% deaths encountered
in Brucellosis. Endocarditis can affect native as well as prosthetic valves, but mainly involves predisposed ones e.g. prosthetic valves and
those affected by congenital or rheumatic heart disease. It predominantly involves aortic valve then mitral valve. Although rare, Brucella
endocarditis is a potentially fatal complication. Subclinical onset is associated with poor prognosis. Massive aortic root endocarditis and
pseudoaneurysms have been reported. Endocarditis may also be encountered during relapse of Brucellosis [31-34].
004
streptomycin 12-16mg/kg daily intramuscularly and doxycycline 200 mg twice daily. Alternatively: rifampicin (900mg orally, twice daily)
combined with tetracycline 8mg / kg orally, thrice daily and cotrimoxazole 15mg/kg twice daily can be given. Antibiotic treatment should
be continued for at least 6 months post-operatively as surgery may be needed for defective valves [31,35,36].
Pulmonary complications
Pulmonary abnormalities, although rather rare, should be considered a focal form of Brucellosis [37]. Presentation of respiratory tract
involvement is usually with fever, paroxysmal dry cough or cough productive of mucopurulent sputum, pleuritic chest pain in addition
to sweating and fatigue. In most patients, physical examination reveals signs consistent with consolidation or pleural effusion [38,39].
The clinical and radiological manifestations of Brucellosis involving the respiratory tract include: pneumonic patches and consolidation
consistent with labor or bronchopneumonia, pleural effusions with predominance of monocytic or lymphocytic infiltration, interstitial
pneumonitis, pulmonary granulomas or solitary nodules, bilateral glass round opacities and military mottling, empyema, pneumothorax,
hilar and paratracheal lymphadenopathy, perivascular and peribronchial thickening, centri-acinar emphysematous changes and atelectasis
[37-39]. Brucella species can be cultured from pleural fluid, but the yield from sputum or bronchoalveolar lavage is usually poor. Treatment
is usually in the form of combination therapy that includes two of the following agents: doxycycline, rifampicin, streptomycin and cotrimoxazole. Pulmonary involvement by Brucellosis has good prognosis provided combined antimicrobial therapy is administered early in
the course of the infection [37-39]. Chest wall involvement is a rare manifestation of Brucellosis. Presentation is usually with parasternal
masses and nodular lesions over the chest wall that may be misdiagnosed as tuberculosis or malignancy [40].
Cutaneous involvement
Cutaneous lesions are usually considered non-specific findings in patients with Brucellosis. Cutaneous involvement has been reported
in 1 to 14% of patients with Brucellosis. Skin lesions may appear at presentation, during the course of the illness or at relapse [41-45]. A
variety of skin manifestations have been reported including: disseminated erythema, diffuse maculopapular eruption, papulonodular
lesions, erythema nodosum-like eruption, psoriasiform eruption, malar eruption, palmar erythema and eczema, ecchymoses, purpura,
leucocytoclastic vasulitis, panniculitis and multiple skin abscesses [41-46]. Hematogenous spread of the organisms can be the most
important pathogenic mechanism [41,42]. Serological tests for Brucellosis may be positive and blood cultures may be positive in up to
77% of patients, with B.mellitensis being the commonest species cultured [42,43,46]. Skin biopsy is usually positive and may facilitate
the diagnosis of Brucellosis. A variety of histopathological features have been described including: dermal inflammatory infiltrates with
dominance of lymphocytes and histiocytes, perivascular and periadnexal arrangement of infiltrates and focal granulomatous changes.
Cultures of skin lesions, particularly in case of abscess formation, may be positive for Brucella species [41-43,46].
Hematological abnormalities
Leucopenia is more frequently encountered in acute Brucellosis. Lymphopenia significantly correlates with the severity of clinical
manifestations e.g. bleeding and hepatic involvement. Relative lymphocytosis may occasionally be encountered. Pancytopenia is
commonly seen, often at presentation. Anemia is also a common consequence of Brucella infection and may be severe. Thrombocytopenia
is occasionally encountered and may be severe (Table 2). Bleeding diathesis and even disseminated intravascular coagulation may occur.
Hemolytic anemia that may be acute and Coomb’s positive can also be seen. Elevation of ESR and CRP may also be seen (Table 2) [3,4754]. Bone marrow examination in patients with Brucellosis usually shows: hypercellular or normocellular marrow, epitheliod giant cell
granulomas that are usually small with indistinct borders mimicking granulomas of tuberculosis and sarcoidosis. Histiocytic phagocytosis
may be seen with or without peripheral pancytopenia [47,48,54,55].
Microangiopathic hemolytic anemias, e.g. thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, have been reported in patients with acute
Brucellosis. Despite the severity of this rare complication, complete recovery has been encountered with early and prompt therapy using
plasma exchange, antimicrobial therapy for Brucellosis and corticosteroids [56-59]. Thrombocytopenic purpura has also been reported
in patients with Brucellosis. Early recognition of this complication is essential as central nervous system (CNS) hemorrhage is associated
with high mortality rates. Nevertheless, treatment of Brucellosis in addition to corticosteroid therapy can control both disorders [60,61].
Capillary leak syndrome has been reported in patients with Brucellosis and pancytopenia. Patients may present with: fever, sweats,
weakness, hepatosplenomegaly, peripheral edema, hypoalbuminemia and elevation of liver enzymes. With anti-Brucella therapy, both
clinical and laboratory manifestations usually resolve [62]. In patients living in areas that are endemic for Brucellosis, presentation with
FUO and pancytopenia should alert treating physicians to the possibility of having an underlying or an associated primary hematological
disorder such as myelofibrosis or myelodysplastic syndrome [63,64]. In patients having Brucellosis and hematologic malignancy,
simultaneous treatment of infection and hematologic malignancy can be considered to decrease morbidity and mortality [47].
Hepatic complications
(1) Chronic suppurative hepatosplenic Brucellosis: this is a rather severe complication of Brucellosis that mainly represents a
local reactivation of previous Brucellosis. The diagnosis is often difficult and successful management requires mainly medical therapy
with antimicrobials against Brucellosis. However, surgical intervention may be required in case of complications e.g. drainage of pus.
Abdominal CAT scan usually shows calcium deposits surrounded by hypodense areas. Agglutination antibodies are usually positive
but in low titers. Pus cultures may be positive for Brucella species, while blood cultures for Brucella are often negative. Polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) may detect Brucella antigen in pus cultures. The differential diagnosis includes infective endocartitis and splenic
infarctions with abscess formation [66-68].
(2) Hepatic granulomas and Brucella hepatitis: hepatic granulomas are commonly reported in patients with Brucellosis. The majority
of these cases were due to B.melitensis and they were reported in Spain and France. Approximately 70% of the granulomas in the Spanish
series were reported in patients with liver disease caused by Brucellosis. B.abortus is known to cause of hepatic granulomas that are
indistinguishable from sarcoidosis and tuberculosis [69-72].
(3) Hepatic brucellomas that may induce cholestasis have also been reported [73-75].
OMICS Group eBooks
Clinical hepatitis develops in 3-20% of Brucellosis patients. Acute and chronic liver dysfunction as well as disease can occur in patients
infected with Brucellae [2,65].
005
Genitourinary complications
The genitourinary system is affected in 2-20% of cases having Brucellosis [76]. Epidedymoorchitis is the most common form of
genito-urinary system involvement. Orchitis usually presents with a testicular mass that is indistinguishable from a malignant process
[76,77]. The first reports of Brucella species causing granulomatous orchitis were in the years 1928 and 1929 [77]. Epidedymoorchitis is
usually encountered in young patients and most of the cases are unilateral [78]. The most common laboratory findings are: leucocytosis
and elevated CRP. Patients usually respond very well to medical treatment which is usually in the form of a combination of antimicrobials
[77,78]. Relatively less common genitourinary complications of Brucellosis include: pyelonephritis, male infertility with reduced score
counts for spermatogenesis in addition to red blood cells and pus in semen, prostatitis, testicular as well as tubo-ovarian abscess formation,
cystitis, interstitial nephritis, glomerulonephritis and renal abscesses [2,79,80].
Disseminated Brucella infection
Rare but potentially fatal complications of Brucellosis include: (1) disseminated infection with abscesses and nodules in liver, lung,
pleura and spine, (2) pancytopenia combined with endocarditis and meningitis, (3) pancytopenia with disseminated abscesses in liver
and gall bladder and (4) Brucella bacteremia complicated by septic shock. Such cases require prompt diagnosis and early institution of
appropriate therapy that includes surgical drainage, artificial ventilation, transfusion of blood products and antimicrobial chemotherapy
[81-84].
Other rare complications of Brucellosis
1. Gastrointestinal involvement: Brucellosis may be complicated by: acute cholecystitis, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, ileitis,
colitis and diverticulitis presenting with acute abdomen [85-88].
2. Eye complications: Uveitis is the most frequent ocular presentation of Brucellosis and posterior uveitis is the most frequent uveal
syndrome. Other ophthalomological complications include: keratoconjunctivitis, endophthalmitis, choroiditis, iridocyclitis,
corneal ulcers, nummular keratitis, papilledema, cataract, glaucoma, diplopia, ophthalmoplegia, optic neuritis and atrophy in
addition to phthisis bulbi [2,89]. It is important to rule out uveitis through an ophthalmic examination in every suspicious case of
Brucellosis, as uveitis is a potentially blinding complication [89,90].
3. Brucellosis does not appear to be associated with hearing loss, while mastitis is a very rare presentation of Brucellosis in female
patients [91,92].
4. Acute renal failure and spontaneous splenic rupture have also been reported [93,94].
Relapse of Brucellosis
Relapses occur in 4.7 to 29% of patients with Brucellosis [2,6,9,95]. Relapses usually occur within 3 to 12 months of discontinuation
of the antimicrobial therapy [1,2,6]. The risk factors for relapse include: male sex, old age, lymphopenia, deficient immunologic response
such as in associated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, presence of an aggressive disease or a chronic infection, positive
blood cultures during initial infection, an inadequate choice of antibiotics, monotherapy rather than combination treatment, shortened
duration of therapy, localized foci of infection, positive family history, living in endemic area and rarely resistance to antimicrobial
therapy [1,2,6,95-98]. Relapse is not usually associated with: the initial or subsequent antibiotic susceptibility, the specific antimicrobial
regimen used to control the initial infection or having a high risk occupation [1,2,6,98.99]. Clinical differentiation between relapse and reinfection in areas of ongoing exposure can be difficult [2]. The highest relapse rates have been encountered in patients with complications
such as osteoarticular involvement [9,95]. Independent predictors of relapse include: positive blood cultures at baseline, temperature of ≥
38 0C and duration of symptoms less than 10 days [2]. During relapse: blood cultures may be positive, ESR and CRP are usually elevated
[1,96,97]. A repeat, but a longer course of a standard therapeutic regimen such as the combination of doxycycline, streptomycin and/or
rifampicin and surgical intervention in case of localized foci of infection are usually successful in most relapses [1,2,6,9].
Chronic Brucellosis
Although no uniform definition has been agreed upon, chronic Brucellosis traditionally refers to the persistence of clinical
manifestations for at least one year after establishment of the diagnosis of Brucellosis [1,2]. Chronic Brucellosis is characterized by:
(1) localized infection such as spondylitis, osteomyelitis, tissue abscess or uveitis producing recurrent bouts of fever and other clinical
manifestations, (2) relapse in patients with an objective evidence of infection such as high 1gG antibody titers and/or recovery of Brucellae
from blood or tissues and (3) manifestations such as chronic fatigue syndrome and psychoneurosis [1,2,6].
The diagnosis of chronic Brucellosis should be established on history and clinical grounds. The following laboratory tests confirm
the clinical suspicion of chronic infection: positive blood cultures, positive Brucella serology and positive quantitative real-time PCR
[2,100,102-106]. In some patients with chronic infection, symptoms are attributed to chronic Brucellosis in the absence of objective
evidence of infection ie low antibody titers and sterile cultures. Such patients typically have a cyclic course with intermittent backache,
arthralgia, sweating and signs of psychoneurosis [1,2]. Chronic infections are usually rare and the cause of chronic Brucellosis is usually
a focus of infection in tissues that may require prolonged antimicrobial therapy and surgical intervention such as drainage of an abscess
[1,2,6].
Associations and Brucellosis in Specific Conditions
Brucellosis in pregnancy
In endemic areas, the cumulative incidence of Brucellosis in pregnant women may reach 1.3 per 1000 obstetric deliveries and up to
OMICS Group eBooks
The clinical manifestations of chronic Brucellosis include: sweating, fatigue, malaise, tiredness, weakness, anorexia, depression,
arthralgia, myalgia, headache, lower backache, pain in temporomandibular joints, irritability, insomnia, abdominal pain, diarrhea,
constipation, arthritis, and lymphadenopathy [2,100-102]. There are 2 types of chronic Brucellosis: (1) chronic Brucellosis with clear
history of acute infection, where Brucella symptomatology continues after the acute attack. (2) chronic Brucellosis without clear history
of acute infection, where Brucella symptomatology becomes more pronounced in the chronic phase [1,2,100].
006
92.3% of infected pregnant ladies give history of unpasteurized milk consumption [107,109]. Brucellosis in pregnancy can present in an
acute, subacute or a chronic manner [108]. The clinical manifestations of Brucellosis in pregnancy include: fever, chills, sweating, anorexia,
fatigue, weight loss, abdominal or chest pain, gastrointestinal upset, arthralgia, urticaria, lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly
[109]. Occasionally, it may be complicated by: Brucella bacteremia, septic shock, neuroBrucellosis and even disseminated intravascular
coagulation [110,111]. Brucellosis in pregnancy is associated with: spontaneous abortion, intrauterine fetal death, premature rupture of
membranes, preterm delivery, low birth weight and postpartum endometritis but not with congenital malformations [107,108,112-118].
Preterm delivery and intrauterine fetal death may possibly be related to the acute illness rather than transplacental infection [118]. Vaginal
bleeding at presentation is usually associated with spontaneous abortion [107]. Delivery of pregnant women with Brucellosis may cause
infection of the delivery team [117].
Presence of carbohydrate erythritol in animal placenta appears to be a preferential medium and a growth factor for Brucellae in animals
[111]. Brucellosis causes fewer spontaneous abortions in humans than in animals due to the absence of erythritol in human placenta and
fetus [119]. The absence of erythritol in human placenta and the presence of anti-Brucella activity in the amniotic fluid have been thought
to protect against abortion. Nevertheless, positive Brucella cultures have been obtained from human placenta, aborted fetuses and other
products of conception [116,119]. In pregnant ladies with Brucellosis living in endemic areas, the incidence of spontaneous abortion
ranges between 24.4% and 53% and positive Brucella serology may be encountered in 2.89% of pregnant women [107,108,113]. Brucella
seropositivity is not more common in women with spontaneous abortion or miscarriage than in women with normal pregnancy outcome
[120,121]. Some studies have shown that there is no relationship between the magnitude of Brucella agglutination titre and the occurrence
of spontaneous abortion while others have shown that Brucella titres above 1:160 are associated with higher incidence of spontaneous
abortion [107,108,115,122].
Brucellosis in pregnancy should be treated as soon as the diagnosis is made in order to prevent complications such as maternal
morbidity, abortion and transmission of disease to fetus [108,112,116]. There are no randomized trials for the treatment of Brucellosis in
pregnancy, but the most commonly used regimen is the combination of rifampicin and cotrimoxazole [108,113,116]. However, Brucellosis
in pregnancy has been successfully treated with single agents such as rifampicin or cotrimoxazole and with other combinations such as
rifampicin and ceftriaxone [107,112,117,120,123]. Monotherapy with either rifampicin or cotrimoxazole is inadequate and is associated
with high relapse rates [117]. The treatment of choice should be effective and should have minimal adverse effects [117]. In pregnant women
presenting with febrile illness, the beneficial effects of treatment are usually encountered [107]. The optimal duration of antimicrobial
therapy is 6 weeks and the success rate of antibiotic treatment for Brucellosis in pregnant women may reach 90% [109,117,120]. Health
education of the target population is advisable to prevent the disease and its complications. Screening programs for Brucellosis in pregnant
women living in endemic areas is recommended [108,124]. Brucellosis should also be kept in the differential diagnosis of fever in pregnant
females living in endemic areas as early diagnosis and prompt therapy have been shown to improve the outcome considerably [108,124].
Congenital and neonatal Brucellosis
Congenital Brucellosis is very rare and its diagnosis indicates a substantial local endemic activity [125]. Congenital and neonatal
Brucellosis are usually associated with the presence of untreated maternal Brucellosis or Brucella bacteremia in the pregnant mother
[125,126]. Neonates become congenitally infected with Brucellosis by the following means: transplacental transmission from an infected
mother, exposure to blood, urine or genital secretions during delivery, breast feeding and blood or exchange transfusion in the early
neonatal period [117,125-128]. The clinical manifestation include: fever, anemic symptoms or features of bone marrow failure, jaundice,
respiratory distress, vomiting, irritability, convulsions, hepatosplenomegaly, septic shock, multiorgan involvement, meningitis and
endocarditis [125,127-129]. The diagnosis is made in the presence of: a compatible clinical picture, positive Brucella serology or positive
cultures for Brucella obtained from blood or breast milk [125,127-129]. The choice of drug therapy is very limited due to side effects such
as fluoroquinolone induced cartilage damage, teeth staining and fatty necrosis of liver caused by tetracyclines and cotrimoxazole induced
kernicterus [125,127-129]. However, the teratogenic potential of rifampicin, fluoroquinolones and cotrimoxazole is simply unknown
[130]. In individual cases, cotrimoxazole has been used successfully and there have been no reports of gentamicin toxicity [130]. The
combination of an aminoglycoside e.g. gentamicin or amikacin plus rifampicin or cotrimoxazole is usually successful and may prevent
complications [125,127-129].
Brucellosis in children
Involvement of the nervous system is rare in childhood Brucellosis [131,147]. Childhooh neurobrucllosis may present with
meningitis, meningoencephalitis, meningomyelitis, cerebellar ataxia, acute facial palsy, peripheral neuritis and chorea [131,134,147]. CSF
examination shows lymphocytic pleocytosis, high protein and low glucose concentrations. Serum and CSF Brucella agglutination titres
are usually positive [147]. Treatment usually comprises combination of 3 of the following drugs: rifampicin, cotrimoxazole, doxycycline
and streptomycin [131,147]. An additional therapy with dexamethasone may be beneficial. NeuroBrucellosis should be suspected in
children living in endemic areas presenting with unexplained neurological manifestations [147].
Brucella bacteremia is not uncommon in children living in endemic areas [149]. It occurs more frequently in males than in females
[149]. The most common presenting symptoms are fever and arthralgia. At least 95% of affected children have Brucella agglutination
titres of ≥ 1:320 [148,149]. Treatment comprises the use of the following agents in various combinations: rifampicin, cotrimoxazole,
streptomycin, gentamicin and tetracycline for 6 weeks [148,149]. Resistance to cotrimoxazole ranges between 22 and 29% and relapses
can be encountered in 5 to 13% of cases [148,149].
OMICS Group eBooks
The incidence of childhood Brucellosis varies according to the geographic location and the strain of Brucella species. Where B. abortus
is endemic, childhood Brucellosis is relatively uncommon while in areas that are endemic for B. melitensis, children represent 20-25% of all
cases of Brucellosis [131,132]. Childhood Brucellosis is more frequently encountered in males than in females [132-134]. The main sources
of Brucella infection in childhood are: consumption of raw milk and dairy products, close animal contact and recent history of travel to
endemic areas [131,132,134-142]. The clinical manifestations of Brucellosis in children include: fever, sweating, lethargy, clinical evidence
of bleeding e.g. epistaxis or hematuria, nasopharyngitis, arthralgia, myalgia, hepatosplenomegaly and weight loss [131,133-145]. Fever,
which may be prolonged, is the commonest clinical feature as it is encountered in 75-100% of cases while arthritis is usually seen in 5075% of patients [135,137-140,142]. Arthritis is usually oligoarticular with predominant involvement of lower limb joints. Unlike in adults,
axial skeletal involvement is rarely encountered [137]. Childhood Brucellosis may be complicated by: neuroBrucellosis, endomyocarditis,
osteomyelitis, skin lesions, bacteremia and relapse [131,132,135,136,146-149]. Various skin eruptions have been reported and lesions
include: maculopapular eruptions, petechiae, purpura, impetiginous and psoriasiform lesions, papules and Pityriasis alba [131,135,146].
007
Hematological abnormalities are variable and include: anemia that may be hemolytic in nature, leucopenia, lymphopenia or relative
lymphocytosis, monocytosis, thrombocytopenia, pancytopenia with hypersplenism, disseminated intravascular coagulation and
hemophagocytosis [132,134-140,143,144,146,150]. Bone marrow examination usually shows hypercellular or normocellular marrow
with non-caseating granulomatous lesions. Bone marrow may be infiltrated with histiocytes, eosinophils or plasma cells [144,146,150].
Hematological abnormalities are common and they correlate well with disease severity [139]. Other laboratory abnormalities include
elevation of ESR, liver enzymes and immunoglobulin levels [136,143,150]. In acute brucllosis, serum levels of IgG and IgM are increased
while in inactive chronic disease, serum levels of IgM and IgA levels are usually elevated [136]. Brucella serology is positive in almost
100% of cases with Brucella agglutination titres ≥ 1:320 or even ≥ 1:160 [138,139,148-150]. Positive blood and bone marrow cultures for
Brucella species are encountered in 30-60% of cases [132,136,139,144,148]. The differential diagnosis of Brucellosis in children includes:
enteric fever, malaria, rheumatoid arthritis and FUO [131].
There is no consensus on the treatment of childhood Brucellosis as single agents as well combinations of 2 or even 3 drugs have
been used [131,132,134,139-143,145,147-149,151-153]. Most of the drug combinations comprise cotrimoxazole in addition to
rifampicin, streptomycin, gentamicin or tetracycline [131,132,134,139-143,145,147-149,151-153]. In children less than 7 to 8 years of
age: cotrimoxazole, rifampicin and gentamicin can be given, while in children more than 7 to 8 years of age: tetracycline, rifampicin and
gentamicin are usually prescribed for 3 to 6 weeks [145-153]. Although drug combinations have been found to improve outcome and
prevent relapse, some complicated cases have been successfully treated with a single agent e.g. cotrimoxazole [131,137,141]. Uncomplicated
cases can be treated for 3 to 6 weeks, while in complicated cases e.g. those with arthritis, endocarditis and meningitis, prolonged treatment
for 3 months is usually recommended [137,141,143,147,153]. Skin lesions may disappear 8-10 days after starting antibiotic therapy [131].
In contrast to Brucellosis in adults, childhood Brucella endocarditis can be cured with antimicrobial therapy alone [131].
Brucellosis in childhood may cause serious complications. Early recognition of infection, prolonged antibiotic therapy as well as careful
and long-term follow up improves the outcome [133,134]. Prolonged combination therapy improves outcome and prevents relapses.
The overall relapse rate is usually about 9% [132]. Combined drug regimens incorporating cotrimoxazole in addition to rifampicin or
gentamicin can prevent disease relapse [141,142].
Brucellosis in acute leukemia and in stem cell transplant
In patients with acute leukemia living in endemic areas, Brucellosis can cause systemic infections, complicated bacteremia and serious
morbidity. Brucellosis may develop at presentation of acute leukemia or even if leukemia is under control. Early diagnosis of Brucellosis
and prompt administration of appropriate antimicrobial therapy usually improve the outcome in such immunocompromised individuals.
Presentation is usually with fever and pancytopenia. Antimicrobial therapy can be administered simultaneously with cytotoxic
chemotherapy to control both Brucellosis and leukemia but in case of bacteremia, prompt antimicrobial therapy may become essential
[154-156]. Brucellosis and even Brucella bacteremia can develop in recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) living in
endemic areas at any stage of their illness. Like in patients with acute leukemia, presentation is usually with fever and cytopenias. Prompt
therapy with appropriate antimicrobials such as streptomycin, doxycycline and ciprofloxacin will control the infection and prevent further
complications [157].
Brucellosis and renal disease
Brucellosis has been reported in patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD) living in endemic areas. Such cases usually present with
FUO but if left untreated, the infection may be complicated by serious complications such as neuroBrucellosis, paravertebral and epidural
abscesses and peripheral arthritis [158,159]. On the other hand, Brucellosis has been reported to cause ESRD. Renal biopsies in patients
having Brucellosis as a cause of ESRD have shown: mesangial and diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis, rapidly progressive and focal
segmental glomerulonephritis as well as exudative glomerulonephritis. Other renal complications of Brucellosis include: pyelonephritis,
interstitial nephritis, mixed cryoglobulinemia and IgA nephropathy. Antimicrobial therapy given for Brucellosis usually improves the
renal involvement [160].
Brucellosis coexisting with other infections and medical illnesses
Brucellosis has been reported in patients having other infections such as leishmaniasis, hepatitis C infection, HIV and viral hemorrhagic
fevers e.g. dengue fever. In such patients, cytopenias are major complications. Treatment of both infections and supportive care will
prevent further complications [161-166].
Brucellosis has also been reported in patients having chronic medical illnesses such as polycythemia rubra vera, chronic osteoarthritis,
liver cirrhosis, pulmonary fibrosis and rheumatoid arthritis receiving infliximab therapy. Early institution of appropriate antimicrobial
therapy is essential to control Brucella infection and to prevent evolution of complications [167,168].
Approximately 40% of patients with infections caused by Brucella species develop systemic and chronic manifestations indistinguishable
from chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) or myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME). Approximately 10% of patients with CFS/ME have been found
to have presence of Brucella species infections as shown by PCR [169]. Patients infected with Brucellosis may present with neurological
manifestations compatible with multiple sclerosis. However, old and new literature provides conflicting data on the association between
Brucellosis and multiple sclerosis [170-172].
Brucellosis and solid tumors
It has been postulated that chronic Brucellosis may be associated with tumor formation. Brucella species DNA, not Brucella species
organism, has been identified in CNS tumors such as medulloblastomas. Further studies are needed to explore the true association
between Brucella species DNA positivity and CNS tumor formation [173].
Brucellosis may also simultaneously present with other solid tumors e.g. ovarian cancer. In such cases, treatments for both Brucellosis
and the primary cancer should be administered to control both disorders [174].
OMICS Group eBooks
Brucellosis and chronic neurological disorders
008
Brucellosis and FUO
Infections account for 25 to 47% of all cases of FUO. Brucellosis has ranked number 2 to number 5 amongst infectious causes of FUO.
In geographical locations that are endemic for Brucellosis, higher proportions of patients presenting with FUO are ultimately diagnosed
to have Brucellosis [175-178].
Differential Diagnosis of Brucellosis
The differential diagnosis of Brucellosis includes: tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, syphilis, typhoid fever, malaria, mycoplasma infections
tularemia in addition to other infections, rheumatic disorders and causes of FUO [4, 179,180].
Brucellosis Case Definition
Brucellosis clinical illness is characterized by an acute or an insidious onset of fever, night sweats, undue fatigue, anorexia, weight loss,
headache and arthralgia [181]. A confirmed case of Brucellosis is defined as a clinically compatible illness with a laboratory confirmation
of the infection using one of the following: (1) isolation of Brucella species from an appropriate clinical specimen, or (2) 4 fold or greater
rise in Brucella agglutination titer using standard tube agglutination or equivalent ( >1/180 ), or (3) a single significantly high titer against
Brucella ( >1/160 ) or demonstration by immunofluorescence of Brucella species in an appropriate clinical specimen [181,182]. A probable
case of Brucellosis is defined as a clinical illness in a person who is epidemiologically linked to a confirmed case or a clinical illness with
supportive serology (Brucella agglutination titer ≥ 1/160) in one or more specimens obtained after the onset of symptoms [181].
Course and Prognosis of Brucella Infections
Human disease may last for 3 months as the organism is slowly growing and as the organism can survive for up to few months
in both hot and cold environments particularly moist conditions [8]. Unfavourable outcome is associated with complications and
treatment failure. Mortality due to Brucellosis is generally low ie below 5% of untreated cases. Most deaths are due to complications such
as endocarditis and meningitis [2,4].
Conclusions
Brucellosis is a global, re-emerging zoonosis that constitutes a major health and economic problem in many parts of the world. It has
recently been increasingly recognized in immunocompromised individuals such as those with hematologic malignancy, solid tumors,
ESRD and other comorbid medical conditions.
Clinically, Brucellosis has rather unpredictable manifestations and a very variable clinical course and many cases remain unrecognized.
Consequently, late diagnosis and complications are prone to occur. Mortality rate is less than 5% of cases and most deaths are due to
complicated infections. Management of Brucellosis in pregnancy, children and neonates requires special attention to a number of factors
including the specific drugs to be used and the duration of therapy.
References
1. Young EJ (1995) An overview of human Brucellosis. Clin Infect Dis 21: 283-240.
2. Bosilkovski M (2012) Clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of Brucellosis. UpToDate.
3. Franco MP, Mulder M, Gilman RH, Smits HL (2007) Human Brucellosis. Lancent Infect Dis 7: 775-786.
4. Arizona Department of Health Services (2004) Brucellosis: Bioterrorism Agent Profiles for Health Care Workers, Office of Public Health Emergency
Preparedness and Response, 5.1-5.4.
5. Mantur BG, Amarnath SK (2008) Brucellosis in India-a review. J Biosci 33: 539-547.
6. Evans AS, Brachman PS (2009) Bacterial Infections of Humans Epidemiology and Control. (4thedn), Springer Science + Business Media, LLC, 233,
New York, NY 10013, USA.
7. Pappas G, Akritidis N, Bosilkovski M, Tsianos E (2005). Brucellosis. N Engl J Med 352: 2325-2336.
8. Donev D, Karadzovski A, Kasapinov B, Lazarevik V (2010) Epidemiological and public health aspects of Brucellosis in the republic of Macedonia.
Prilozi 31: 33-54.
9. Buzgan T, Karahocagil MK, Irmak H, Baran AI, Karsen H, et al. (2010) Clinical manifestations and complications in 1028 cases of Brucellosis: a
retrospective evaluation and review of the literature. Int J Infect Dis 14: 469-478.
10. Demiroğlu YZ, Turunc T, Aliskan H, Colakoğlu S, Arslan H (2007) Brucellosis: retrospective evaluation of the clinical, laboratory and epidemiological
features of 151 cases. Mikrobiyol Bul 41: 517-527.
11. Lulu AR, Araj GF, Khateeb MI, Mustafa MY, Yusuf AR, et al. (1988) Human Brucellosis in Kuwait: a prospective study of 400 cases. Quart J Med 66:
39-54.
12. Dean AS, Crump L, Greter H, Hattendorf J, Schelling E, et al (2012) Clinical manifestations of human Brucellosis: a systematic review and metaanalysis. PLOS Negl Trop Dis 6: 1929.
14. Weil Y, Mattan Y, Liebergall M, Rahav G (2003) Brucella prosthetic joint infection: a report of 3 cases and a review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 36:
81- 86.
15. Namiduru M, Karaoglan I, Gursoy S, Bayazit N, Sirikci A (2004) Brucellosis of the spine: evaluation of the clinical laboratory and radiological findings
of 14 patients. Rheumatol Int 24: 125-129.
16. Bouaziz MC, Ladeb MF, Chakroun M, Chaabane S (2008) Spinal Brucellosis: a review. Skeletal Radiol 37: 785-790.
17. Pourbagher A, Pourbogher MA, Savas L, Turunc T, Demiroglu YZ, et al. (2006) Epidemiologic, clinical and imaging findings in Brucellosis patients with
osteoarticular involvement. Am J Radiol 187: 873-880.
18. Ozaksoy D, Yücesoy K, Yücesoy M, Karonlikaya I, Yüce A, et al. (2001) Brucellar spondylitis: MRI findings. Eur Spine J 10: 529-533.
OMICS Group eBooks
13. Solera J, Lozano E, Martinez-Alfaro E, Espinosa A, Castillejos ML, et al. (1999) Brucellar spondylitis: review of 35 cases and literature survey. Clin
Infect Dis 29: 1440-1449.
009
19. Aydin A, Fuat Yapar A, Savas L, Reyhan M, Pourbagher A, et al. (2005) Scintigraphic findings in osteoarticular Brucellosis. Nucl Med Commun 26:
639-647.
20. Colmenero JD, Ruiz-Mesa JD, Plata A, Bermudez P, Martin-Rice P, et al. (2008) Clinical findings, therapeutic approach and outcome of Brucellar
vertebral osteomyelitis. Clin Infect Dis 46: 426-433.
21. Kim D-H, Cho Y-D (2008) A case of spondylodiscitis with spinal epidural abscess due to Brucella. J Korean Neurosurg Soc 43: 37-40.
22. Alkhateeb MI, Araj GF, Majeed SA, Lulu AR (1990) Brucella arthritis: a study of 96 cases in Kuwait. Ann Rheum Dis 49: 994-998.
23. Bayindir Y, Sonmez E, Aladag A, Buyukberber N (2003) Comparison of five antimicrobial regimens for the treatment of Brucellar spondylitis: a
prospective, randomized study. J Chemother 15: 466-471.
24. Turgut M, Turgut AT, Kosar U (2006) Spinal Brucellosis: Turkish experience based on 452 cases published during the last century. Acta Neurochir
(Wien) 148: 1033-1044.
25. Santiago T, Rovisco J, Silva J, Pereira da Silva JA (2011) Osteoarticular Brucellosis, a ten year restrospective analysis. Acta Rheumatol Port 36:
120-125.
26. Haji-Abdolbagi M, Rasooli-Nejad M, Jafari S, Hasibi M, Soudbakhsh A (2008) Clinical and laboratory findings in neuroBrucellosis: review of 31 cases.
Arch Iranian Med 11: 21-25.
27. Yetkin MA, Bulut C, Erdinc FC, Oral B, Tulek N (2006) Evaluation of the clinical presentations in neuroBrucellosis. Int J Infect Dis 10: 446-452.
28. Ghaffarpour M, Khoshroo A, Harirchian MH, Sikaroodi H, Pourmahmoodian H, et al. (2007) Clinical epidemiological, laboratory and imaging aspects
of Brucellosis with and without neurological involvement. Acta Med Iran 45: 63-68.
29. Gul HC, Erdem H, Gorenek L, Ozdag MF, Kalpakci Y, et al. (2008) Management of neuroBrucellosis: an assessment of 11 cases. Intern Med 47:
995-1001.
30. Shehata GA, Abdel-Baky L, Rashed H, Elamin H (2010) Neuropsychiatric evaluation of patients with Brucellosis. J Neurovirol 16: 48-55.
31. Kiziltepe Z, Uysalel A, Tutar E, Akalin H (2003) Brucella melitensis endocarditis of ventricular septal defect patch: successful surgical treatment without
replacement. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 125: 196-197.
32. Abid L, Frikha Z, Kallel S, Chokri Z, Ismahen B, et al. (2012) Brucella myocarditis: a rare and life-threatening cardiac complication of Brucellosis. Inter
Med 51: 901-904.
33. Karagiannis SS, Mavrogiannaki AN, Chrissos DN, Papatheodoridis GV (2003) Cardiac tamponade in Brucella infection. Hellenic J Cardiol 44: 22-225.
34. Amirghofran AA, Karimi A, Emaminia A, Sharifkazemi MB, Salaminia S (2011) Brucellosis relapse causing prosthetic valve endocarditis and aortic root
infective pseudoaneurysm. Ann Thorac Surg 92: 77-79.
35. Dhand A, Ross JJ (2007) Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator infection due to Brucella melitensis: case report and review of Brucellosis of cardiac
devices. Clin Infect Dis 44: 37-39.
36. Fedakar A, Cakalagaoglu C, Konukoglu O, Yanartas M, Gocer S, et al. (2011) Treatment protocol and relapses of Brucella endocarditis; cotrimoxazole
in combination with the treatment of Brucella endocarditis. Trop Doct 41: 227-229.
37. Pappas G, Bosilkovski M, Akritidis N, Mastora M, Krteva L, et al. (2003) Brucellosis and the respiratory system. Clin Infect Dis 37: 95- 99.
38. Lubani MM, Lulu AR, Araj GF, Khateeb MI, Qurtom MAF, et al. (1989) Pulmonary Brucellosis. Quart J Med 71: 319-324.
39. Simsek F, Yildirmak MT, Gedik H, Kantürk A, Iris EN (2011) Pulmonary involvement of Brucellosis: a report of six cases. Afr Health Sci 11: 112-116.
40. Rahmadel K, Golsha R, Golshah E, Shirazj RR, Momtaz NS (2011) Chest wall involvement as a manifestation of Brucellosis. J Glob Infect Dis 3: 86-88.
41. Ariza J, Servitje O, Pallares R, Fernandez Viladrich P, Rufi G, et al. (1989) Characteristic cutaneous lesions in patients with Brucellosis. Arch Dermatol
125: 380-383.
42. Karaali Z, Baysal B, PoturogluS, Kendir M (2011) Cutaneous manifestations in Brucellosis. Indian J Dematol 56: 339-340.
43. Tanyel E, Fisgin NT, Yildiz L, Leblebicioglu H, Doganci L, et al. (2008) Panniculitis as initial manifestation of Brucellosis. Am J Dematopathol 30: 169171.
44. Mólionis H, Christou L, Elisaf M (2000) Cutaneous manifestations in Brucellosis: case report and review of literature. Infection 28: 124-126.
45. Akcali C, Savas L, Baba M, Turunc T, Seckin D (2007) Cutaneous manifestations in Brucellosis: a prospective study in Turkey. Adv Ther 24: 706-711.
46. Berger TG, Guill MA, Goette DK (1981) Cultaneous lesions in Brucellosis. Arch Dematol 117: 40-42.
47. Sari I, Altuntas F, Hacioglu S, Kocyigit I, Sevinc A, et al. (2008) A multicenter retrospective study defining the clinical and hematological manifestations
of Brucellosis and pancytopenia in a large series: hematological malignancies, the unusual cause of pancytopenia in patients with Brucellosis. Am J
Hematol 83: 334-339.
48. Jahromi MK, Javadzadeh T, Jodayri DS, Talaie R, Kazemi A (2006) A 40 years old woman with fever and pancytopenia. Iran J Clin Infect Dis 1: 39-41.
49. Akdeniz H, Irmak H, Seckinli T, Buzgan T, Demiröz AP (1998) Hematological manifestations in Brucellosis cases in Turkey. Acta Med Okayama 52:
63-65.
50. Dilek I, Durmus A, Karahocagil MK, Akdeniz H, Karsen H, et al. (2008) Hematological complications in 787 cases of acute Brucellosis in Eastern
Turkey. Turk J Med Sci 38: 421-424.
51. Abdi-Liae Z, Soudbakhsh S, Jafari S, Emadi H, Tomaj K (2007) Haematological manifestations of Brucellosis. Acta Med Iranica 45: 145-148.
52. Crosby E, Liosa L, Miro Quesada M, Carrillo C, Gotuzzo E (1984) Hematological changes in Brucellosis. J Infect Dis 150: 419-424.
53. Sari I, Kocyigit I, Altuntas F, Kaynar L, Eser B (2008) An unusual case of acute Brucellosis presenting with Coombs-positive autoimmune hemolytic
anemia. Inter Med 47: 1043-1045.
55. Hovde RF, Sundberg RD (1950) Granulomatous lesions in the bone marrow in infectious mononucleosis: a comparison of the changes in the bone
marrow in infectious mononucleosis with those in Brucellosis, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis and lymphatic leukemia. Blood 5: 209-232.
56. Kuperman AA, Baidousi A, Nasser M, Braester A, Nassar F (2010) Microangiopathic anemia of acute Brucellosis-is it a true TTP? Medit J Hemat Infect
Dis 2: 2010031.
57. Altuntas F, Eser B, Sari I, Yildiz O, Cetin M, Ünal A (2005) Severe thrombotic microangiopathy associated with Brucellosis: successful treatment with
plasmapheresis. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 11: 105-108.
58. Erdem F, Kiki I, Gundoğdu M, Kaya H (2007) Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura in a patient with Brucella infection is highly responsive to combined
plasma infusion and antimicrobial therapy. Med Princ Pract 16: 324-326.
OMICS Group eBooks
54. Martin-Moreno S, Soto-Guzman O, Bernaldo-de-Quirös J, Reverte-Cejudo D, Bascones-Casas C (1983) Pancytopenia due to hemophagocytosis in
patients with Brucellosis: a report of four cases. J Infect Dis 147: 445-449.
010
59. Di Mario A, Sica S, Zini G, Salutari P, Leone G (1995) Microagiopathic hemolytic anemia and severe thrombocytopenia in Brucella infection. Ann
Hematol 70: 59-60.
60. Young EJ, Tarry A, Genta RM, Ayden A, Gutuzoo E (2000) Thrombocytopenic purpura associated with Brucellosis: report of 2 cases and literature
review. Clin Infect Dis 31: 904-909.
61. Sevinc A, Buyukberber N, Camci C, Buyukberber S, Karsligil T (2005) Thrombocytopenia in Brucellosis: case report and literature review. J Natl Med
Assoc 97: 290-293.
62. Erkurt MA, Sari I, Gul HC, Coskun O, Eyigun CP, et al. (2008) The first documented case of Brucellosis manifested with pancytopenia and capillary
leak syndrome. Inter Med 47: 863-865.
63. Bakri FG, Al-Bsoul NM, Magableh AY, Shehabi A, Tarawneh M, et al. (2010) Brucellosis presenting as myelofibrosis: first case report. Int J Infect Dis
14: 158-160.
64. Li JJ, Sheng Z-K, Tu S, Bi S, Shen X-M, et al. (2012) Acute Brucellosis with myelodysplastic syndrome presenting as pancytopenia and fever of
unknown origin. Med Princ Pract 21: 183-185.
65. Gur A, Geyik MF, Dikici B, Nas K, Cevik R, et al. (2003) Complications of Brucellosis in different age groups: a study of 283 cases in southeastern
Anatolia of Turkey. Yonsei Med J 44: 33-44.
66. Ariza J, Pigrau C, Canas C, Marron A, Martinez F, et al. (2001) Current understanding and management of chronic hepatosplenic suppurative
Brucellosis. Clin Infect Dis 32: 1024-1033.
67. Diaz R, Ariza J, Alberola I, Casanova I, Rubio MF (2006) Secondary serological responses of patients with chronic hepatosplenic suppurative
Brucellosis. Clin Vaccine Immunol 13: 1190-1196.
68. Colmenero JD, Suarez-Munöz MA, Queipo-ortuño MI, Reguera JM, Morata P (2002) Late reactivation of calcified granuloma in a patient with chronic
suppurative Brucellosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 21: 897-899.
69. Young EY (1979) Brucella melitensis hepatitis: the absence of granulomas. Ann Intern Med 19: 414-415.
70. Young EY (1980) Brucella hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 92: 708-709.
71. Bruguera M, Cervantes F (1980) Hepatic granulomas in Brucellosis. Ann Intern Med 92: 571-572.
72. Jordans HGM, De Bruin KD (1980) Granulomas in Brucella melitensis infection. Ann Intern Med 92: 264-265.
73. Halimi C, Bringard N, Boyer N, Vilgrain V, Panis Y, et al (1999) Hepatic brucelloma: 2 cases and a review of the literature. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 23:
513-517.
74. Ennibi K, Rabhi M, Chemsi M, Elouennass M, Chaari J, et al (2009) Nodular liver lesions with fever in a Moroccan man: hepatic brucelloma. Med Trop
(Mars) 69: 509-511.
75. Menendez P, Villarejo P, Cubo T, Padilla D, Gambi D, et al (2009) Hepatic brucelloma: diagnosis and treatment. Gastroenterol Hepatol 32: 291-293.
76. Hizli F, Uygur MC (2006) Brucella orchitis: a rare cause of testicular mass: report of a case. Int Urol Nephrol 38: 637-639.
77. Memish ZA, Venkatesh S (2001) Brucellar epididymo-orchitis in Saudi Arabia: a retrospective study of 26 cases and review of the literature. Br J Urol
88: 72-76.
78. Celen MK, Ulug M, Ayaz C, Geyik MF, Hosoglu S (2010) Brucellar epididymo-orchitis in Southeastern part of Turkey: an 8 year experience. Braz J
Infect Dis 14: 109-115.
79. Schuppe H-C, Meinhardt A, Allam JP, Bergmann M, Weidner W, et al (2008) Chronic orchitis: a neglected cause of male fertility? Andrologia 40: 84-91.
80. Navarro-Martinez A, Solera J, Corredoira J, Beato JL, Martinez-Alfaro E, et al (2001) Epididymoorchitis due to Brucella mellitensis: a retrospective
study of 59 patients. Clin Infect Dis 33: 2017-2022.
81. Park KW, Kim D-M, Park CY, Kim HL, Jang SJ, et al. (2007) Fatal systemic infection with multifocal liver and lung nodules caused by Brucella abortus.
Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 1120-1123.
82. Kaya D, Avsar K, Akcam FZ (2011) Unusual manifestations of Brucellosis. Arch Med Sci 7: 173-175.
83. Starakis I, Polyzogopoulou E, Siagris D, Mazokopakis E, Gogos CA (2008) Unusual manifestations of Brucellosis: liver abscess and pancytopenia
caused by Brucella melitensis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 20: 349-352.
84. Haran M, Argawal A, Kupfer Y, Seneviratne C, Chawla K, et al. (2011) Brucellosis presenting as septic shock. Br Med J Case Reports.
85. Al Otaibi FE (2010) Acute acalculus cholecystitis and hepatitis caused by Brucella melitensis. J Infect Dev Ctries 4: 464-467.
86. Miranda RT, Gimeno AE, Rodriguez TF, de Arriba JJ, Olmo DG, et al. (2001) Acute cholecystitis caused by Brucella melitensis: case report and review.
J Infection 42: 77-78.
87. Gencer S, Ozer S (2003) Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis caused by Brucella melitensis. Scand J Infect Dis 35: 341-343.
88. Kaufman N, Reichman N, Flatau E (1999) Brucellosis presenting as acute abdomen. Harefuah 136: 276-278, 339.
89. Rolando I, Olarte L, Vilchez G, Lluncor M, Otero L, et al. (2008) Ocular manifestations associated with Brucellosis: a 26-year experience in Peru. Clin
Infect Dis 46: 1338-1345.
90. James DG (1964) The riddle of uveitis. Postgrad Med J 40: 686-691.
91. Bayazit YA, Namiduru M, Bayazit N, Ozer E, Kanlikama M (2002) Hearing status in Brucellosis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 127: 97-100.
92. Jensenius M, von der Lippe B, Hermansen NO, Jahr G, Caugant DA, et al. (2007) Brucellar mastitis: presentation of a case and review of the literature.
Int J Infect Dis 12: 98-100.
93. Dagli O, Dokur M, Guzeldag G, Ozmen Y (2011) Acute renal failure due to Brucella melitensis. J Infect Dev Ctries 5: 893-895.
95. Naz H, Aykin N, Cevik F, Bal C (2009) Brucellosis in central Anatolia: evaluation of complications and relapse. Trop Doct 39: 107-109.
96. Alavi SM, Alavi SMR, Alavi L (2009) Relapsed human Brucellosis and related risk factors. Pak J Med Sci 25: 46-50.
97. Ariza J, Corredoira J, Pallares R, Viladrich PF, Rufi G, et al. (1995) Characteristics of and risk factors for relapse of Brucellosis in humans. Clin Infect
Dis 20: 1241-1249.
98. Ibarra V, Blanco JR, Metola L, Oteo JA (2003) Relapsing Brucellosis in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Clin Microbiol Infect 9:
1259-1260.
99. Ariza J, Bosch J, Gudiol F, Linanes J, Fernandez Viladrich P, et al. (1986) Relevance of in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of Brucella melitensis to
relapse rate in human Brucellosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 30: 958-960.
OMICS Group eBooks
94. Demirdal T, Okur N, Demirturk N (2011) Spontaneous splenic rupture with hematoma in a patient with Brucellosis. Chang Gung Med J 34: 52-55.
011
100.Editorial (1974) Chronic Brucellosis. Br Med J 1: 299.
101.Sacks N, Van Rensburg AJ (1976) Clinical aspects of chronic Brucellosis. S Afr Med J 50: 725-728.
102.McDevitt MG (1973) Symptomatology of chronic Brucellosis. Br J Indust Med 30: 385-389.
103.White RG (1978) Immunoglobulin profiles of the chronic antibody response: discussion in relation to Brucellosis infections. Postgrad Med J 54: 595602.
104.Aroca MJC, Garcia EN, Santos JS (2011) Association between Brucella melitensis DNA and Brucella spp. antibodies. Clin Vaccine Immunol 18: 892.
105.Castano MJ, Solera J (2009) Chronic Brucellosis and persistence of Brucella melitensis DNA. J Clin Microbiol 47: 2084-2089.
106.Nimri LF (2003) Diagnosis of recent and relapsed cases of human Brucellosis by PCR assay. BMC Infect Dis 3: 1-7.
107.Khan MY, Mah MW, Memish ZA (2001) Brucellosis in pregnant women. Clin Infect Dis 32: 1172-1177.
108.Kurdoglu M, Adali E, Kurdoglu Z, Karahocagil MK, Kolusari A et al (2010) Brucellosis in pregnancy: a 6-year clinical analysis. Arch Gynecol Obstet
281: 201-206.
109.Mohammad KI, El Ghazaly MM, Zaalouk TK, Morsy AT (2011) Maternal Brucellosis and human pregnancy. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 41: 485-496.
110.Schreyer P, Caspi E, Leiba Y, Eshchar Y, Simpolinski D (1980) Brucella septicemia in pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Reprod Biol 10: 99-107.
111.Jay Gloeb D, Lupi C, Jo O’Sullivan (1994) NeuroBrucellosis complicating pregnancy: a case report. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 1: 285-289.
112.Gulsun S, Aslan S, Satici O, Gul T (2011) Brucellosis in pregnancy. Trop Doct 41: 82-84.
113.Roushan MR, Baiani M, Asnafi N, Saedi F (2011) Outcome of 19 pregnant women with Brucellosis in Babol. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 105: 540-542.
114.Hackmon R, Bar-David J, Bashiri A, Mazor M (1998) Brucellosis in pregnancy. Harefuah 135: 3-7,88.
115.Elshami M, Amien Ahmed I (2008) The effects of maternal Brucellosis on pregnancy outcome. J Infect Developing Countries 2: 230-234.
116.Nuri P, Volkan T, Mete E, Ozgur Y (2011) Brucellosis in adolescent pregnancy-case report and review of literature. Ginecol Pol 82: 226-229.
117.Karcaaltincaba D, Senan I, Kandemir O, Guvendag-Guven ES, Yalvac S (2010) Does Brucellosis in human pregnancy increase abortion risk?
Presentation of two cases and review of literature. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 36: 418-423.
118.Makhseed M, Harouny A, Araj G, Moussa MA, Sharma P (1998) Obstetric and gynecologic implications of Brucellosis in Kuwait. J Perinatol 18: 196199.
119.Al-Tawfiq JA, Memish ZA (2013) Pregnancy associated Brucellosis. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov 8: 47-50.
120.Abo-Shehada MN, Abu-Halaweh M (2011) Seroprevalence of Brucella species among women with miscarriage in Jordan. East MediterrHealth J 17:
871-874.
121.Nassaji M, Rahbar N, Ghorbani R, Lavaf S (2008) The role of Brucella infection among women with spontaneous abortion in an endemic region. J
Turkish-German Gynecol Assoc 9: 20-23.
122.Sharif A, Reyes Z, Thomassen P (1990) Screening for Brucellosis in pregnant women. J Trop Med Hyg 93: 42-43.
123.Figueroa Damian R, Rojas Rodriguez L, Marcano Tochon ES (1995) Brucellosis in pregnancy: course and perinatal results. Ginecol Obstet Mex 63:
190-195.
124.Al-Amoudi SM (1995) Brucellosis in pregnancy in Bisha, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 16: 315-318.
125.Yagupsky P (2010) Neonatal Brucellosis: rare and preventable. Ann Trop Paediatr 30: 177-179.
126.Mesner O, Riesenberg K, Biliar N, Borstein E, Bouhnik L, et al. (2007) The many faces of human-to-human transmission of Brucellosis: congenital
infection and outbreak of nosocomial disease related to an unrecognized clinical case. Clin Infect Dis 45: 135-140.
127.Tikare NV, Mantur BG, Bidari LH (2008) Brucellar meningitis in an infant-evidence for human breast milk transmission. J Trop Pediatr 54: 272-274.
128.Mosayebi Z, Movahedian AH, Ghayomi A, Kazemi B (2005) Congenital Brucellosis in a preterm neonate. Indian Pediatr 42: 599-601.
129.Pinto RG, Al-Suweih N (1996) A case of congenital Brucellosis. Med Princ Pract 5: 101-103.
130.Corbel MJ (2006) Brucellosis in humans and animals. World Health Organization, Geneva and Stylus Publishing, LLC., Herndon.
131.Mantur BG, Akki AS, Mangalgi SS, Patil SV, Gobbur RH, et al. (2004) Childhood Brucellosis - a microbiological, epidemiological and clinical study. J
Trop Pediatr 50: 153-157.
132.Shaalan MA, Memish ZA, Mahmoud SA, Alomari A, Khan MY, et al. (2002) Brucellosis in children: clinical observations in 115 cases. In J Infect Dis
6: 182-186.
133.Tsolia M, Drakonaki S, Messaritaki A, Farmakakis T, Kostaki M, et al. (2002) Clinical features, complications and treatment outcome of childhood
Brucellosis in central Greece. J Infect 44: 257-262.
134.Ulug M, Yaman Y, Yapici F, Can-Ulug N (2011) Clinical and laboratory features, complications and treatment of Brucellosis in childhood and review
of the literature. Turk J Pediatr 53: 413-424.
135.Shen MW (2008) Diagnostic and therapeutic chalanges of childhood Brucellosis in nonendemic country. Pediatrics 121: 1178-1183.
136.Sharda DC, Lubani M (1986) A study of Brucellosis in childhood. Clin Pediatr 25: 492-495.
137.Gomez-Reino FJ, Mateo I, Fuertes A, Gomez-Reino JJ (1986) Brucellar arthritis in children and its successful treatment with trimethoprimsulphamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole). Ann Rheum Dis 45: 256-258.
138.El-Amin EO, George L, Kutty NK, Sharma PP, Choithramani RS, et al. (2001) Brucellosis in children of Dhofar region, Oman. Saudi Med J 22: 610-615.
139.Issa H, Jamal M (1999): Brucellosis in children in south Jordan. East Mediterr Health J 5: 895-902.
141.al- Eissa YA, Kambal AM, al-Nasser MN, al-Habib SA, al-Fawaz IM, et al. (1990) Childhood Brucellosis: a study of 102 cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J 9s:
74-79.
142.Zamani A, Kooraki S, Mohazab RA, Zamani N, Matloob R, et al. (2011) Epideiological and clinical features of Brucella arthritis in 24 children. Ann
Saudi Med 31: 270-273.
143.Galanakis E, Bourantas KL, Leveidiotou S, Lapatsanis PD (1996) Childhood Brucellosis in north-western Greece: a retrospective analysis. Eur J
Pediatr 155: 1- 6.
144.Al-Eissa YA, Assuhaimi SA, Al-Fawaz IM, Higgy KE, Al-Nasser MN, et al. (1993) Pancytopenia in children with Brucellosis: clinical manifestations and
bone marrow findings. Acta Haematol 89: 132-136.
OMICS Group eBooks
140.Street L Jr, Grant WW, Alva JD (1975) Brucellosis in childhood. Pediatrics 55: 416-421.
012
145.Hendricks MK, Perez EM, Burger PJ, Mouton PA (1995) Brucellosis in childhood in the Western Cape. S Afr Med J 85: 176-178.
146.Ulug M, Yapici F, Can-Ulug N (2011) Unusual clinical presentations of Brucellosis in childhood. Braz J Infect Dis 15: 406-407.
147.al- Eissa YA (1995) Clinical and therapeutic features of childhood Brucellosis. Scand J Infect Dis 27: 339-343.
148.Memish Z, Mah MW, AlMahmoud S, Al Shaalan M, Khan MY (2000) Brucella bacteremia: clinical and laboratory observations in 160 patients. J Infect
40: 59-63.
149.Almuneef M, Memish ZA, Al shaalan M, Al Banyan E, Al-Alola S, et al. (2003) Brucella melitensis bacteremia in children: review of 62 cases. J
Chemother 15: 76-80.
150.Al-Eissa Y, Al-Nasser M (1993) Haematological manifestations of childhood Brucellosis. Infection 21: 23-26.
151.Khuri-Bulos NA, Daoud AH, Azab SM (1993) Treatment of childhood Brucellosis: results of a prospective trial on 113 children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 12:
377-381.
152.Roushan MR, Mohraz M, Janmohammadi N, Hajiahmadi M (2006) Efficacy of cotrimoxazole and rifampicin for 6 or 8 weeks of therapy in childhood
Brucellosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 25: 544-545.
153.Lubani MM, Dudin KI, Sharda DC, Mana Ndhar DS, Aray GF, et al. (1989) A multicenter therapeutic study of 1100 children with Brucellosis. Pediatr
Infect Dis 8: 75-78.
154.Al-Anazi KA, Al-Jasser AM (2007) Brucella bacteremia in patients with acute leukemia: a case series. J Med Case Reports 1: 144.
155.Eser B, Altuntas F, Soyuer I, Er O, Canoz O, et al. (2006) Acute lymphoblastic leukemia associated with Brucellosis in two patients with fever and
pancytopenia. Yonsei Med J 47: 741-744.
156.Bay A, Oner AF, Dogan M, Acikgoz M, Dilek I (2007) Brucellosis concomitant with acute leukemia. Indian J Pediatr 74: 790-792.
157.Al-Anazi KA, Abu Jafar S, Al-Jasser AM, Al-Omar H, Al-Mohareb FI (2009) Brucella bacteremia in a recipient of an allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell
transplant: a case report. Cases J 2: 91.
158.Turunc T, Demiroğlu YZ, Aliskan H, Colakoglu S, Timurkaynak F, et al. (2008) Brucellosis in cases of end-stage renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant
23: 2344-2349.
159.Kantartzi K, Panagoutsos S, Kokkinou V, Passadakis P, Vargemezis V (2009) Unexpectedly high incidence of Brucellosis in one university dialysis unit
of North East Greece. Nephrol Dial Transplant 24: 2003-2004.
160.Ghanei E, Miladipour A, Nasrollahi A, Homayuni M (2009) Brucellosis with kidney failure. Iran J Kidney Dis 3: 109-111.
161.M. Fakhar M, E. Banimustafavi E, M.M. Motazedian MH, Q. Asgari Q (2009) Co-infection of Leishmania infantum and Brucella spp. in Iran. Com Clin
Pathol 18: 91-94.
162.Kurtaran B, Oto OA, Candevir A, Inal AS, Sirin Y (2011) A case of HIV infection with thrombocytopenia: association of HIV, thrombotic thrombocytopenic
purpura and Brucellosis. Indian J Hematol Blood Transfus 27: 35-38.
163.Abou El Azm AR, Abou-Ali L, Kobtan AR, Mansour N, Tawfik S (2013) Can Brucellosis influence the course of hepatitis C in dual infection? Arch Virol
158 (3): 543-547.
164.Cocchi S, Bisi L,Codeluppi M, Venturelli C, Di Benedetto F, et al (2010) Brucellosis in a patient with end-stage liver disease undergoing liver
transplantation: successful treatment with tigecycline. Liver Transplant 16: 1215-1216.
165.Bzeizi KI, Benmousa A, Sanai FM (2010) Coincidence of acute Brucella hepatitis and dengue fever or serologic cross-reactivity? Saudi J Gastroenterol
16: 299-301.
166.Ayyub M, Al-Juhani NR, Alfi AY, Al-Ukayli S (2006) Brucellosis and dengue fever- a co-infection or cross reactivity? Biomedica 22: 80-83.
167.Jacob NR, Rodriguez CG, Binaghi MA, Scapellato PG, Rosales Ostriz MB, et al. (2008) Brucellosis complicating chronic non-infectious disorders:
diagnostic and therapeutic dilemmas. J Med Microbiol 57: 1161-1166.
168.Akgul O, Ozgocmen S (2011) Infliximab and Brucellosis: not the usual suspects, this time. Mod Rheumatol 21: 313-315.
169.Nicolson GL, J. Haier J (2010) Role of chronic bacterial and viral infections in neurodegenerative, neurobehavioural, psychiatric, autoimmune and
fatiguing illnesses: part 2. Br J Med Practit 3: 301-310.
170.Eisele CW, McCullough NB, Beal GA (1950) Brucellosis and multiple sclerosis. JAMA 143: 1473-1474.
171.Spicknail CG, Kurland LT, Carle BN, Terry LL (1950) Relation of Brucellosis and multiple sclerosis. JAMA 143: 1470-1473.
172.Murrell TG, Mathews BJ (1990) Multiple sclerosis--one manifestation of neuroBrucellosis? Med Hypotheses 33: 43-48.
173.Zhang B, Izadjoo M, Horkayne-Szakaly I, Morrison A, Wear DJ (2011) Medulloblastoma and Brucellosis-molecular evidence of Brucella sp. in
association with central nervous system cancer. J Cancer 2: 136-141.
174.Emara MM, Vyas V, al Awadi S, Jaroslav N, el Khodry A, et al. (2007) Synchronous occurrence of Brucellosis and ovarian cancer - a case report.
Austral-Asian J Cancer 6: 257-259.
175.Sipahi OR, Senol S, Arsu G, Pullukcu H, Tasbakan M, et al. (2007) Pooled analysis of 857 published adult fever of unknown origin cases in Turkey
between 1990-2006. Med Sci Monit 13: CR 318-322.
176.Bleeker-Rovers CP, van der Meer JW, Oyen WJ (2009) Fever of unknown origin. Semin Nucl Med 39: 81-87.
177.Saltoglu N, Tasova Y, Midikli D, Aksu HS, Sanli A, et al. (2004) Fever of unknown origin in Turkey: evaluation of 87 cases during a nine-year-period
of study. J Infect 48: 81-85.
178.Mourad O, Palda V, Detsky AS (2003) A comprehensive evidence-based approach to fever of unknown origin. Arch Intern Med 163: 545-551.
179.Norton WL (1984) Brucellosis and rheumatic syndromes in Saudi Arabia. Ann Rheum Dis 43: 810-815.
181.Government of Alberta (2005) Alberta Health and Wellness, Disease Control and Prevention: Public Health Notifiable Disease Management GuidelinesBrucellosis.
182.Manitoba Public Health, Communicable Disease Control Unit (2001) Communicable Disease Management Protocol-Brucellosis|.
OMICS Group eBooks
180.Bocanegra TS, Gottuzzo E, Castaneda O, Alarcon GS, Espinoza LR (1986) Rheumatic manifestations of Brucellosis. Ann Rheum Dis 45: 526-528.
013
Sponsor Advertisement
TIF Publications
TIF Publications cater to the needs of readers of all ages and educational
backgrounds, and provide concise up-to-date information on every aspect of
thalassaemia - from prevention to clinical management. TIF’s publications have
been translated into numerous languages in order to cover the needs of the
medical, scientific, patients and parents communities and the general community.
List of Publications - ORDER YOUR BOOKS!
N E W ! Ju
s t R e le a
se
d!
N E W ! Ju
s t R e le a
sed
Hard copies and CD-ROM or DVD versions can be
ordered directly from TIF and are distributed free of charge.
Place your order at [email protected]
The translation of TIF’s educational publications into
various languages continues in 2013.
All translated publications are or will become available on
our website. Check with us to get updated on the latest
translations!
UPCOMING TIF PUBLICATIONS
• Community Awareness Booklets on α-thalassaemia, β-thalassaemia & Sickle Cell Disease (Greek)
(Eleftheriou A)
• Sickle Cell Disease: A booklet for parents, patients and the community, 2nd Edition
(Inati-Khoriaty A)
• Guidelines for the Clinical Management of Transfusion Dependent Thalassaemias, 3rd Edition
(Cappellini M D, Cohen A, Eleftheriou A, Piga A, Porter J, Taher A)
Please visit our website at
http://www.thalassaemia.org.cy/list-of-publications
Free of charge
All our publications are
available as PDF files on
our website, completely
free of charge.
!