1. health and fitness
2. disease

1
Workshop on
Economical Important Diseases of Buffaloes
YASHDA
25 TH March 2009
Regional Disease Diagnostic Laboratory
( Western Zone )
Disease Investigation Section,
Aundh, Pune – 411 007 MAHARASHTRA
2
INDEX
Name of
Author
Sr.No.
Name of Article
1
Economically
important diseases of
buffalo and their
impact on export of
buffalo meat
Prof. P. K.
Uppal
1 TO 9
2
Bubaline disease
investigation: Current
Status and Future
Prospects
P.D.
Deshpande
10 TO 17
Raut CG
18 TO 23
Markandeya
, N. M
23 TO 43
3
4
Present status of
buffalopox in India
Non-specific
infectious infertility
in dairy animals:
Impact and control
measures
Page No
3
Key Note Address.
Economically important diseases of buffalo and their
impact on export of buffalo meat.
by
Prof. P. K. Uppal
B.V.Sc & A.H., M.V.Sc., Ph.D (Agra), Ph.D. (Cantab) U.K., FNAVsc, FIAAR
Technical Director
Diagnostic Research Laboratories, RWITC, Ltd.
(Approved by Govt. of India)
6, Arjun Marg, Pune – 411 001
India has immense potential for export of buffalo meat owing to its large
buffalo population. Indian buffalo constitutes about half of the world
buffalo population and accounts one third of the total cattle population
in this country. It contributes about 50% of total milk production of India
and provides more than 20% of the meat production. The meat export
suffers sometime because of diseases because importing countries raise
certain objections for diseases like foot and mouth disease, sarcocystosis,
brucellosis, tuberculosis and food pathogens like Campylobacter jejuni,
salmonella typhi, shigella dysentariae, staphylococcus aureus, E.coli,
Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica.
Buffaloes in India are raised by millions of farmers in unit of 1 – 3, who
are primarily small and marginal farmers. They mainly exist in Punjab,
Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Delhi. The export of meat was
initiated in early 1973-74. During that period, 1920 tonnes of buffalo
meat was exported out of 2005 tonnes of total meat exported.
Former Managing Director, BIBCOL. Dept. of Bio Technology
Phone: Pune: 0091-20-26362666/ 26360884
Fax: 0091-20-26333129/26361036
4
Email: profpkuppal.vsnl.net
Export was targeted to Persian Gulf and Middle East countries and
showed rapid growth and the export reaching a level of 54582 tonnes
during 1981-82. The meat export suffered a setback during 80s as a
result of ban imposed by Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries on
account of Rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease.
The bulk of buffalo meat is exported as deboned, deglanded frozen meat
which accounts for 75% of the total export. The major markets presently
are Malaysia, Philippines, UAE, Iran, Oman, Egypt, Kuwait, Mauritius,
Jordan, Bahrain, Yaman Arab Republic, Greece and Turkey.
Global arrangements covering the meat trade have been set by World
Trade Organisation (WTO). The requirements for exporting meat include
standards imposed for quality, price, and punctuality of delivery.
For Middle East countries, the basic regulatory requirements are Halal
slaughter and the fitness for human consumption certificate. Zoo
sanitary requirements have become more and more stringent. It is the
primary responsibility of exporting countries to take appropriate steps to
minimize the possibility of disease transmission through meat export.
The following issues, which form the basic constraints were identified.
1.
The management of economically important diseases listed in
OIE Manual from Zoo Sanitary standards of meat exports.
2.
Creation of a Federal Zoo Sanitary Service, Certificate control
and Quarantine service.
5
There is a need for effective utilization of buffalo resources for
sustainable buffalo production of meat, milk and work. There is a
tremendous loss of buffalo germplasm through city dairy through
disposal of productive animals for slaughter. In all, more than 7 million
male calves are produced every year and less than half are put into
agricultural
transport
mainly
in
sugarcane
belt.
This
precious
germplasm could form a basis for strong meat industry alongwith raised
buffalo broilers if proper infrastructure is created for fattening them.
Above all, it would be pertinent to develop animal healthcare plan for
complete freedom of certain diseases specially foot and mouth disease,
and all important diseases indicated by OIE. Therefore international
standard meat processing plants for processing is a must. In addition
buffaloes are to be raised in disease free zones so that the export could
be managed profitably. Above all animal identification and traceability of
buffaloes for export of meat will be one of the requirements for better
competitiveness.
ANIMAL HEALTHCARE PLAN:
In India, rinderpest was a main threat for the export of buffalo meat but
tremendous efforts made by animal health scientists paid dividend and
the disease has been declared free by OIE in India. This paved way for
the export of buffalo meat to various countries. However, there is a need
for other healthcare parameters including various contagious and
infectious diseases of buffaloes.
For better productivity the diseases of concern in buffaloes are
Haemorrhagic Septicaemia
(Pasteurellosis), Black-quarter Foot and
Mouth disease and Brucellosis. Similarly other diseases which have a
6
role on the productivity of buffaloes are Tuberculosis , Johne’s Disease,
Listeriosis, Tetanus, Salomonellsis, Blue tongue, Bufallo fox and
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis.
Animal health is the foundation to animal production. Therefore, country
demands multi-pronged attack for buffalo production programme in
order to reach the goal of healthy production cycle of buffalo – the
species which is bestowed with immense potentialities for meat and
dairying industries.
There are certain pathogens which influence the
quality of meat and their presence in meat may cause diseases in man
and therefore may become liable for rejection for human consumption.
The discussion would be concentrated on problems associated on buffalo
health and food borne infection and intoxication associated with buffalo
meat will be discussed.
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE:
It is an extremely contagious, acute disease in buffaloes which is
characterized by fever and vesicular eruption in the mouth and in the
feet. In India, there are three strains , Asia I, O and A. There are different
strains with different degree of virulence. The virus seems to be capable
of infinite mutation so that new antigenically different strains are
constantly appearing. The difficulties therefore are encountered in
vaccination programme. The disease is well documented amongst
buffaloes in India. The disease results into loss in milk production and
productive capacity of buffalo.
Export of buffalo Meat suffers many a time because of foot and mouth
disease in the country. Therefore control of foot and mouth disease in
India is given top priority. In order to boost
meat export OIE agreed to
have FMD free county or even zone with or without vaccination.
7
Countries like Argentina , Botswana, Taipei China, Malaysia and
Uruguay. The OIE requirement for the export of meat from FMD free zone
where vaccination is practiced requires following practices.
1. Prompt animal disease reporting.
2. No outbreak of FMD for the past 2 years and no evidence of FMD
virus infection for the last 12 months.
3. Regulatory measures for the prevention and controlled of both
FMD and FMD virus infection.
4. Supply documented evidence that appropriate vaccine is used and
there is frequent surveillance.
5. There is need of international veterinary certificate that animals
had been slaughtered in approved abattoir and have been
subjected to anti-mortem and postmortem inspections.
In order to control foot and mouth disease in India purified vaccine
application will be useful. Moreover NSP test will be helpful in vaccinated
population under field conditions.
BRUCELLOSIS:
Brucellosis has been recognized as a disease of major economic
importance in buffaloes and it may occur through buffalo meat.
Brucellosis is caused by a Gram negative bacteria named as Brucella
abortus. Brucella is a highly resistant organism and it may be
transmitted through contact of meat through fomites/flies or waste
disposal or by consumption of insufficiently / partially / uncooked meat.
8
It is mainly caused among the workers at slaughter house or those
processing the meat. In India, where slaughter of buffalo is done in
unorganized sector, there are of every chance of Brucellosis to be
transmitted to the handlers who are slaughtering / processing the meat.
In India, lot of nonproductive buffaloes are responsible for transmission
of brucellosis. It is pertinent that for eradication of brucellosis, quick
diagnoses with more specific and sensitive tests are adopted. It is
advisable that buffaloes must be tested for brucellosis before slaughter
and would help better export and will prevent the transmission to human
beings. The best approach to control is to have effective vaccination
adopted by test and slaughter programme.
INFECTIOUS BOVINE RHINOTRACHEITIS
Bovine herpes virus 1 is an important viral pathogen cause
respiratory
infection,
pneumonia,
conjunctivitis,
severe
abortions,
vulvovaginitis, balanoposititis and
Immunisuppression. The disease has a high morbidity and low mortality.
The virus of this causes latent infection which can persist for life and is a
major problem of buffaloes bull. The disease is wild spread. The is
difficult to diagnosis on the basis of clinical symptoms. The method used
for laboratory confirmation include virus isolation fluorescent antibody
test, ELISA, virus neutralization test and histopathology. The appropriate
vaccine in the country is the need of the hour which is in the process of
development. Hygienic semen collection free from IBR is important for
better productivity of buffaloes.
9
SARCOCYSTIS:
In India, incidence of sarcocystosis is found to be quite high in cattle and
buffaloes.
The
highest
percentage
of
infection
was
observed
in
oesophagal muscle, followed by shoulder and diaphragmatic muscle and
lowest in heart muscle. Sarcocyst is a coccidian parasite with carnivores
as definite host and herbivores (cattle, buffalo) as intermediate hosts.
The meat containing sarcocysts is condemned from aesthetic point of
view. The species involved are Sarcocystis bovicanis and Sarcocystis
hominis.
The
trichinoscopic
diagnostic
methods,
techniques
histological
are
visual
method
examination,
and
presently,
immunodiagnostic techniques like indirect haemagglutination microtitre
test, indirect FAT and ELISA.
FOOD SAFETY
Because of consumer awareness, there is a need for national food
hygiene development programme, which should include microbiological
hazards analysis in
buffalo meat. National assessment of
pathogen-
commodity combination will achieve one of the priority area of the work
which is advised by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC).
Due to Threat Perception on the spread of animal and zoonotic diseases
through buffalo meat it is essential to observe certain disease control
sanitary measures like Hazard analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
Good Manufacturing Practices, (GMP) and ISO standards.
10
Following issues need to be addressed for the safety of Buffalo meat and
meat products.
1.
Food Production
Chain has to maintain quality and safety
assurance system in the entire livestock product chain from
Farmer-to-consumer, to ensure that livestock products have
systems based control which meet national and international
standards. Some of the measures are hazard analysis
Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Agricultural Practices
(GAP), critical control points (HACCP), and cold chain.
2.
The control process should be consistent with the standard set by
the Codex Alimentarius and the Government should develop the
guidelines.
3.
A change in focus from individual animals to herds and
population for better economic return for meat and meat products
to monitor better health status.
4.
Development and implementation of new technologies for food
and feed production, preservation and commercialization, and
related problems of toxic residues and improved standards of
hygiene.
5.
For market development, standards towards production of safe
food to avoid rejection of Indian products due to use of immunobiologicals, antibiotics and other pharmaceutical.
6.
Legislation is set up where ever necessary to maintain
the
standards.
7.
Enforcement of legislation for accountability.
8.
Setting of Structured laboratories for better monitoring plan for
surveillance of food born diseases.
9.
State veterinary services are empowered the official responsibility
for surveillance and monitoring programme.
10.
Education, training and public awareness in food hygiene.
11
11.
Effective linkages with OIE, WHO, FAO and WTO to have trade
intelligence
ANIMAL IDENTIFICATION AND TRACEABILITY
Animal identification and traceability are closely related to disease
control procedure. They are epidemiological tools that have a major
impact on matters such as public health and trade. However country like
India can benefit immensely to export buffalo meat
if they adopt
identification system in a zone or a region which is free from foot and
mouth disease. This concept is fundamental animal disease control tool
in the context of regionalization and compartmentalization.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks are due to Disease Investigation Section
for inviting me to
deliver the key note address in the workshop to be held on 25th March
2009 at Yashada, Banner Road, Pune.
12
Bubaline disease investigation: Current Status and Future
Prospects
P.D. Deshpande, Nagappa Karabasanavar, R.P. Kolhe and A. R.
Ratnaparakhi
Department of Veterinary Public Health
KNP College of Veterinary Science (MAFSU, Nagpur),
Shirval, District- Satara, Maharashtra- 412 801
Modern day domesticated water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is a
cloven footed animal belonging to the bovine group. Other related
members of this group include lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis),
tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), and mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi),
etc. Basically, members of buffalo fall under two categories i.e. African
wild buffalo (Syncerus) and Asian buffalo (Bubalus) of which the later
eveolved as the domsticated buffalo today, known as water buffalo.
Another similar species is bison (American buffalo).
Buffalo are one of the most economic domestic animal species
predominanlty found in Asia, Africa and mediterranean countries.
There is an increasing trend in the world buffalo population, of the
total 174 million heads india contributes 98 million (56.4%). Buffalo
population wise india is followed by Pakistan with 26 million heads
(15.1%), China 23 million (13.1%) followed by other south-east Asia and
African countries.
Buffaloes are basically reared in rural sector that provides basic
livelihood in the from of milk and milk products (mozerella cheese), meat
(beef or carabeef), draft (especially paddy fields), manure, fuel, hide, etc.
However, there is increasing trend in the urban buffalo population (due
13
to high total solids in buffalo milk, more number of value added /
byproducts can be manufactured and buffalo milk fetch more market
price due to fat).
Today, buffalo has emerged as an indispensible to the Indian milk
industry by producing 5740 thousand tonnes of milk (year 2004); that
contributed 66.3% share of the global buffalo milk productuion (76548
thosand tonnes). As par as the global meat inventary is concerned the
buffalo constitutes a meagre of 1% share, while in India both cattle and
buffalo put together constitute a considerable 32% share of national
meat production.
Buffalo: Still wild in instinct!
During the process of evolution that proceeded with domestication,
the wilder instinct of the buffalo (prey-predator behavior) continued to
persist. Hence, buffaloes exhibit no overt clinical signs though a
progressive disease is existent in the body, which poses difficultly in the
diagnosis.
In order to understand the physiopathology of a disease / disorder
in this particular species necessitates a rational thinking. Hence, disease
diagnosis aims at early and accurate diagnosis so that production,
performance, and reproduction are restored or enhanced.
Modern day diseases are complex and multifactorial in nature.
Diseases with multiple etiology are precipitated by endemicity of the
pathogens, production stress, immunosupression due to pollution &
parasites, iatrogenic problems, etc. For which
the managemnetal
strategies include exact diagnosis, selection of effective drug, complete
treatment regimen with supportive therapy for successful treatment in
order to restore health.
The health and productivity of an animal basically depends upon
its genotype and the environment has a profound influence on it. Hence,
for the better productivity, selection of elite and tested stock is essential.
In the modern, intensive type of buffalo farming the husbandry aspects
14
are to be given due credit. Especially with respect to animal density
which in an ever increasing threat to its health and productivity.
The ever increasing human population has also put demanding
restriction especially migration on animal species including the buffalo.
Through migration the new incumbents bring newer disease to the naïve
area. Similarly, the product trade which translocates not only within the
states but also across the international tranasboundaries. Both of these
domestic and international animal or product mobility has consequences
which demand a robust diagnostic approach and a system to address.
Prompt diagnosis:
Prompt diagnosis of a disease rests on clinical symptoms,
laboratory findings and expertise. However, in buffalo the overt clinical
manifestation are often mild or non-existent. For such sub-clinical
representations a robust laboratory investigation is a must. In this
direction laboratory examination of blood, milk, and other excretion /
secretions of an animal are of paramount importance.
Further, in order to aid the routine therapeutics testing of the
organisms for the drug of choice is also equally important. Hence, drug
sensitivity testing should become a routine for the practicing veterinary
clinicians. Especially, the production related problems such as mastitis,
anestrous, infertility should never be ignored.
Major bubaline ailments:
Following is a list of major ailments that buffaloes often suffer
from. Which require laboratory aid for the diagnosis and management
viz. arthritis, autoimmune diseases, bloat, brucellosis,
diphtheria, calf scour, dermatitis, diarrhoea
Johne’s disease,
BVD, calf
, FMD, IBR, infertility,
joint ill. ketosis, lameness / laminitis, listeriosis ,
lumpy jaw, lungworm, mastitis, metritis, navel ill, neoplasms, poisoning,
pneumonia, pox, prolapse, ringworm, rotavirus, traumatic reticulitis,
T.B, wooden tongue, etc. Of these here is a list very important infections
15
that need critical attention include anaplasma, anthrax, babesia,
BQ,
brucellosis, coccidiosis, ehrlichiosis, fascioliasis, HS, FMD, rabies, surra
and theileriosis.
Diagnostic services:
In order to cater the basic needs of the public, there is a need to
establish disease diagnostic centers. Preferably,
a well
equipped
laboratory within a radius of 20 km animal disease diagnostic lab and a
regional lab for investigation of epidemics. Such centers should have ties
with nearby institution such as veterinary colleges or national institutes
and referral laboratory.
These diagnostic facilities generate information on health and
production. Thereby a national repository or database could be created
which help even in the early warning systems of diseases. Also, these
diagnostic
faculties
management,
help
in
streamlining
formulating
of
national
strategies
and
local
for
disease
programs
(documentation, traceability and responsibility) and help the policy
makers to take appropriate decisions. Further, the establishments help
to control and regulate the local, domestic as well as international trade
in livestock and its products.
Rationale:
The disease investigation is an integrated and systemic program. It
involves following aspects
•
Diagnosis
•
Field investigation
•
Disease management program
•
Training and research
•
–
Students
–
Technical staff
–
Field practitioners
Improvement of diagnostic techniques and procedures
16
For the accurate diagnosis of a disease the sampling method and
techniques are very essential. Various types of sampling are employed for
the field investigation, for instance probability or non-probability;
individual or mass, etc. However, there are certain aspects that should
not be overlooked i.e. prevalence, population size, precision and
confidence level.
Diagnostic tools:
The diagnostic approaches are basically directed towards the
remediation of production, disease and reproduction. After ascertaining
the underlying cause through prompt diagnosis the therapeutic aspects
become easy in restoring the productivity.
For the diagnosis of bubaline ailments efforts are directed towards
the diagnosis of clinical, sub clinical and latent infectious agents, noninfectious / metabolic disease or disorders and also in zoonoses
surveillance.
There are various areas of diagnostics depending upon the type of
investigation required.
•
Pathology
:
clinical,
RBC/
WBC
count,
differential
count,
hematocrit/ hemoglobin Count, histopathology, staining, etc
•
Microbiology / bacteriology : bacterial isolation/ identification,
antibiotic sensitivity test, food/ water analysis, fungal detection,
etc
•
Immunodiagnosis / serology : Rapid Plate Test -RPT, Tube
Agglutination Test, Agar Gel Precipitation Test-AGPT, EnzymeLinked Immunosorbent Assay –ELISA, Complement fixation testCFT, Hemagglutination-Inhibition Test -HA-HI)
•
Virology (isolation/ identification, egg / lab animal inoculation,
tissue culture, serology, etc
•
Parasitology : routine blood examination i.e. direct smear, special
staining; and fecal examination i.e. direct smear, flotation,
sedimentation, larval culture, etc
17
•
Toxicology : mycotoxin analysis, other toxicological examination,
toxicity Test , heavy metals, pesticides, veterinary drug residues,
growth promoters, food additives, preservatives, etc
•
Molecular biology : techniques such as PCR (RT-PCR), RFLP, etc
offer great advantage over the other techniques by virtue of
rapidity,
sensitivity,
specificity,
economy,
repeatability,
reproducibility, differentiation, etc
The use of such diagnostics rest in the diseases management
strategies so as to improve the buffalo productivity and sustainable
animal husbandry
•
Early and accurate diagnosis of a disease leading to successful and
economic treatment of animal and restoration of productivity.
•
Isolation, segregation and quarantine of cases which helps in
limiting a disease.
•
Gives an idea of specific environmental sanitation approves
thereby pathogen load is minimized and nullified .
•
Mass treatment and vaccination strategies can be defined.
•
Biosecurity, surveillance and legislation processes are hastened.
•
Research, development and training are strengthened.
•
Local, national and internationally notifiable diseases are reported.
•
Such approaches help in the creation of disease free zones leading
to disease eradication.
Future prospects:
Although consequent to the improved quality of human life with
the advent modernization and mechanization, still there is a threat of
zoonoses due to population dynamics, climate change, pollution, animal
/ product trade, globalization, etc. hence, zoonoses surveillance should
be an integral part of a diagnostic facility.
Productive and reproductive health of buffaloes should be routinely
monitored, as they show silent heat and often do not show clear-cut
18
clinical manifestation. Hence, for such sub clinical ailments they should
be routinely screened. Also, surveillance for repeat breeding, infertility,
mastitis etc need to be undertaken.
In the post- Mumbai terrorist attack era, the chances of
bioterrorism can not be completely ignored. Hence, we working in the
area of animal science should be prepared to tackle those infection /
intoxications even not existent in our land. For this purpose, disease
diagnostics have a pivotal role to play.
Laboratory requirements:
Keeping in view the hazards to the investigators, operators,
assistants and other supporting staff in the laboratory, it is essential to
take utmost care to ensure the occupational safety. Also, disaster
preparedness should be scrupulously observed.
The laboratories involved in diagnosis should possess required
specifications. They should also be accredited. Relevant certification
(ISO, GLP, etc) are to be followed and the laboratories should be in
compliance with the national norms. All these provide adequate safety
thereby enhancing the throughput emerging from its premises.
Conclusion:
Buffalo continues to be one of the major animal species of India
involved in the rural upliftment, poverty alleviation, livelihood earning
and foreign exchange. However, there are certain deviations (disease,
disorder)
that
affect
its
optimal
performance,
production,
and
reproduction. Being still continuing with its wild instinct buffalo often
does not exhibit such deviations (if not always, occasionally). Hence,
there is a need to correct such deviations through skillful management
that are often not detected by even the most experienced veterinarian.
The laboratory diagnosis is therefore of paramount importance. In India,
although there are many such laboratories (state and central Govt., as
well as private), but they are not at present meeting the demand. So,
19
apart from government installations such as SVUs/ SAUs, ICAR (IVRICADRAD, PD_ADMAS, etc), DRDO, etc there is a need to encourage more
private diagnostic / public testing laboratories. Such laboratories should
have sufficient infrastructure, specifications, skilled man-power and
government support. They should be accredited, certified and should
comply with specified norms (GLP, GMP, ISO, etc). Productivity of an
animal lies in its positive health; hence these diagnostic labs shall cater
such field requirements. Better animal health ushers better quality
living, buffalo production in particular would definitely be benefited by it,
thereby paving ways for a developed nation ahead.
20
Present status of buffalopox in India
Raut CG; Suryavanshi SN*; Raut WC**.
National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, P.B.No.-11,
Pune-1;
*Disease Investigation Section, department of Animal Husbandry,
Government of Maharshtra, Aundh, Pune-7.
**Padmashree Dr. D.Y.Patil Medical College, Hospital & Research Centre,
Sant Tukaram Nagar, Pimpri, Pune-18.
Disease:
Buffalopox: It is a viral disease characterized by typical pox lesions
mainly on udder, teats, buccal cavity, ear, eyelids and to some extent on
other parts of the body.
Economic Impact:
If the lesions on udder and teats in severe form, milk yield goes down up
to 50-80%. Because of the secondary infection animal may develop
mastitis and sometimes become unproductive.
Due to zoonotic nature of the disease, there is a loss in manpower hours
for certain period.
Etiology:
Agent: virus, Family: Poxviridae; Genus: Orthopoxvirus – Members: as
follows
Poxvirus Taxonomy:
Orthopoxvirus:
1. Camel pox virus, 2.Cowpox virus, 3. Ectromelia virus, 4. Monkey
pox virus , 5. Raccoon pox virus, 6.Tatera pox virus, 7.Vacciniavirus.
i)Vaccinia virus Ankara, ii) Vaccinia virus Copenhagen ,
iii) Vaccinia virus Tian Tan,
iv)Vaccinia virus WR, v) Buffalo pox virus,
vi)Rabbit pox virus Utrecht,
vii)Cantagalovirus
21
8. Variolavirus, 9.Volepoxvirus
Genome:DNA , size : 300x100 nm , shape: brick shaped.
Geographic Occurrence:
Brazil, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India.
In India: Haryana , UttarPradesh, MadyaPradesh, Maharashtra, Gujrat,
TamilNadu,
In Maharashtra: Dhule, Jalgaon , Beed, Latur, Nanded, Usmanabad,
Aurangabad, Nashik, Solapur, Kolhapur. It occurs generally during late
winter and early summer.
In India, buffalopox disease reported since 1937 till date with less to
severe morbidity.
There were number of viral isolations from vesicular fluids and skin
scabs from humans and buffaloes.
Disease in Animals:
Lesions on teats, udder, ear, eyelids with some generalized form. Some
cases were reported pox lesions with otitis and conjunctivitis with
purulent discharge.
No mortality in adults but in calves may be due to anorexia as the lesion
may be on the buccal mucosa.
22
Disease in Humans:
Fever for 2-3 days, pox lesions on hands, pain at site and corresponding
axillary lymphadenitis. Generalized one or two lesions may be on the face
and leg. Adults as well as children may get affected.
Transmission:
Close contact with infected animal. Animal handlers generally affected by
close contact with the lesions. Mechanical transmission may possible by
flies and insects.
Animal Models:
Rabbits, Rats, Mice
Experiments conducted in chick embryos, albino rabbits and infant
mice; and electron microscopic observations revealed a pattern of
morphogenesis similar to that of vaccinia virus, except that the
extracellular forms of the virus were devoid of well defined lateral bodies.
Study conducted by intranasal instillation of buffalopox virus in infant
23
suckling mice produced fatal disease, which can be used as an animal
model for studying pathogenesis of buffalopox virus.
Diagnosis:
On the basis of clinical picture: typical pox lesions on the body
Genome detection by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) & analysis by
sequencing
Virus particles detection by Electron Microscopy by negative staining of
vesicular fluid, or microsectioning of scab.
Virus isolation:
In ovo: (embryonated egg inoculation)- choreoallontoic membrane (CAM)
In vitro: (cell culture) BHK-21, Vero. : look for cytopathic effect
In vivo: scarification of shaved skin of rabbits: look for development of
pox lesions
Treatment:
Generally symptomatic treatment is advisable. Cleaning & washing of
infected as well as normal animal during outbreak with 1% potassium
permangnate solution. Topical application of antibiotics on lesions.
Broad-spectrum antibiotics to check the secondary infections.
Control:
Segregation of the affected animals and treatment to check secondary
infections (particularly the mastitis) were recommended to curtail the
disease.
Restricted movement of affected animals. Animal handlers should use
the gloves for washing , cleaning and during treatment of the lesions.
Till now no vaccines are available.
24
Further readings:
Wariyar KC. (1937)Variola in buffaloes. Indian vet. J., 14, 169-170.
Maqsood M. (1958) Generalised buffalopox. Vet. Rec., 70, 321-322.
Singh IP; Singh SB. (1967) Isolation and characterization of the
etiological agent of buffalopox. J. Res. Ludhiana, 4, 440-448.
Baxby D; Hill BJ. (1971) Characteristics of a new poxvirus isolated from
Indian buffaloes. Arch. ges. Virusforsch., 35 (1), 70-79.
Lal SM.; Singh IP. (1977) Buffalopox: a review. Trop. anim. Hlth Prod., 9
(2), 107-112.
Chandra R., Garg SK., Rana UVS ; Rao VDP. (1986). Pox infection of
buffaloes. Farm Animals, 2, 57-69.
Chandra R., Singh IP., Garg SK; Varshney KC.(1986) Experimental
pathogenesis of buffalopox virus in rabbits: clinico-pathological studies.
Acta virol., 30 (5), 390-396.
Mathew T; Mathew Z. (1986) Isolation, cultivation and haemadsorption of
buffalo poxvirus on BHK-21 cell line from Dhule Epidemic (Western
India). Int. J. Zoonoses, 13 (1), 45-48.
Nedunchelliyan S, Reddy DS., Venkataraman KS. (1992) Buffalo pox
infection in man. Ind. J. public Hlth., 36 (2), 57.
Dumbell K; Richardson M. (1993) Virological investigations of specimens
from buffaloes affected by buffalopox in Maharashtra State, India
between 1985 and 1987. Arch. Virol., 128 (3-4), 257-267
Kolhapure RM., Deolankar RP., Tupe CD., Raut CG., Basu A., Dama
BM., Pawar SD., Joshi MV., Padbidri VS., Goverdhan MK. & Banerjee K.
(1997) Investigation of buffalopox outbreaks in Maharashtra State during
1992- 1996. Ind. J. med. Res., 106 (11), 441-446.
Raut C.G., Tatwarti S.B., Deolankar R.P., Kolhapure R.M., Tupe C.D.
(1997):
Clinical
report:
Buffalopox
zoonosis
in
Nashik
suburb
(Maharashtra State) Livestock International. 7 P18-19.
25
Ramanan C; Ghorpade A; Kalra S; Mann S. (2007) Buffalopox.
International J. Dermatology 35(2)128-130.
Raut CG; Kulkarni AM; Pathak SV; Potekar AM; Ramteke VG; Chikbire
SB (2009) Outbreak of Buffalopox associated Zoonosis in Kolhapur
district of Maharashtra. Compendium, Ninth Indian Veterinary Congress,
XVI Annual Conference of Indian Association for Advancement of
Veterinary Research (IAAVR) & National Symposium on Transition from
Empiricalism to Molecularism in Veterinary Research for a sustainable
Animal Health & Production- Way Forward, Bombay Veterinary College,
Mumbai. February 20-21, 2009. P36.
26
Non-specific infectious infertility in dairy animals: Impact
and control measures
Markandeya, N. M. and Deshmukh, V. V.
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences
Maharashtra animal and fishery Sciences University
Parbhani - 431 402 (Maharashtra state)
Sustainable modern scientific dairying is based on regularity and
normalcy of animal reproduction. Fertility management in dairy animals
is an important global issue. Interference in routine reproductive process
by the diseases, poor nutrition, inadequate herd management, hereditary
and
congenital
factors,
hormonal
disturbances
or
environmental
changes, makes the animal temporarily infertile (Osmanu, 1979).
Infertility denotes reduced degree of fertility and records failure of a cow
to produce a viable calf in each calendar year regularly. Bovine infertility
is potent hazard for genetic improvement and milk production in dairy
animals.
Cattle are deemed infertile when they are neither normally fertile
nor completely sterile. Interest in bovine infertility increased with the
introduction of artificial insemination in the 1950s and as the farmers,
herdsmen physiologists and other workers experienced reproductive
failures in high milk producing dairy animals under field conditions
(Roberts,
1956).
Sub-optimum
fertility
is
the
major
problem
in
reproduction of dairy animals and hence, traditional dairy farming and
sub-fertility are responsible to each other.
Infertility problems can be classified by various ways but infectious
and noninfectious infertility is the most important and practically
essential criteria of infertility classification. Infections very commonly
affect all stages of reproductive processes and are costly and time
consuming. Specific and non specific infections are invading reproductive
27
tract very commonly and reproductive process is either delayed, stopped
or altered by the organisms.
Nonspecific infections
It is necessary to understand difference between specific and
nonspecific infection of reproductive tract. Nonspecific infection is the
infection, which is not known to be caused by a specific pathogen. Non
specific infection can be described as the condition relating to immunity
that occurs naturally as a result of animal’s genetic makeup or
physiology and does not arise from a previous infection or vaccination.
The non specific pathogens are generally termed as wound invaders and
many non specific organisms act as opportunistic pathogens. Non
specific organisms are germs which are available any where in the
universe including the bodies of live animals.
Non specific infectious agents are influenced by perpetuating or
predisposing causes in animals and they tend to affect only individuals,
whereas, the specific infections are mainly of enzootic type. Non specific
infection enters animal system by lateral or horizontal transmissions.
Existence of certain micro-organisms is well documents in healthy
genital tracts of dairy animals. Most of the infection in non gravid horns
is
transient
and
self
limiting.
Non
specific
infection
leads
to
contamination of genital tract, followed by elimination and repeated
contamination. Non specific infections reduce reproductive efficacy of
dairy animals and also the profit potential of dairy farms.
Contaminants of reproductive tract
Non-specific infectious infertility is caused by bacteria in particular
and other pathogens like viruses, fungi, protozoa and mycoplasma
infections in general. Mixed infections are common in reproductive tract
leading to non specific infectious infertility.
Bacterial
Pseudomonas
organisms
pyocyanea,
include
Pseudomonas
Actinomycetes
pyogenes,
auregenosa,
Klebsiella
28
pneumoniae,
Corneybacterium
pyogenes,
Corneybacterium
Suis,
Corneybacterium diptheriae, Salmonella paratyph, A and B, Salmonella
typhi, Neisseria gonorrhoea, Neisseria meningitides,, Bacillus anthiracis,
Bacillus subtitis, Fusobacterium, Bacteriods,, Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcus albus, Streptococcus pyogenes Streptococcus faecalis,
Streptococcus agalactiae, Escherechia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Shigella
shigae and many more. The record of various bacterial organisms in
reproductive tract is well documented in the literature.
Auther et al. (1960} has recorded evidence of synergism between
A. pyogenes and fusobacterium nechrophorum, the later organisms
apparently produce leucocidal endotoxin which would interfere with the
host’s ability to eliminate A pyogenes. Bacteriods spp. also produces
substances that interfere with phyagocytic ingestion and bacterial kill in
the genital tract. Bane (1980) reported the composition of uterine flora of
healthy and abnormal puerperium and recorded that the composition
was very similar but significant quantitative and strain differences exists
in pathogenic conditions.
Hussain et al. (1990) reported that no bacterial species was
consistently reported from cows for more than 2 weeks of parturition.
Williams et. al (2007) reported that Escherichia coli is the pathogenic
bacterium most frequently isolated from the post partum uterus and is
associated with increased concentrations of peripheral plasma acute
phase proteins and fetid vaginal mucus.
Mycoplasma is self replicating prokaryotes under class mollicutes
and these organisms lack in cell wall and hence they are resistant to
penicillin or its analogues. Mycoplasma bovis and ureaplasm have been
reported in reproductive infections. Incidence of abortions due to
mycotoxic infection in dairy herds is recorded by Rameshkumar et al.
(1988). Mycoplasma is associated with infertility but their exact
29
aetiological role is difficult to ascertain because they are present in the
tracts of healthy animals. Oestrogenic mycotoxicosis is a disease caused
by fungal toxin which mimics the action of oestrogen and stimulates
oestrus like activities like hyperemia and odema of vulva, mammary and
teat enlargement, prolapse of vagina.
Heat and humidity in tropical countries create conditions favorable
for fungal growth.
Fungi of Candida tropicalis, Candidia albicans,
Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium types have been
reported to cause genital infections and related infertility in animals.
Kodagali (1979) recorded candida, aspergillus, fuzerium, mucor species of
fungi and yeasts on prepucial sac of breeding buffalo bulls and reported
that loose prepuce or prepucial prolapse leads to injury and infection of
prepuce in breedable males.
Pathogenenic process of infertility
Bacteria or pathogens are symbionts of reproductive tract that
some become pathogenic when the animal is stressed where as others
are immediately pathogenic. Inflammation of reproductive that in dairy
animals occurs when physical and functional barriers are breached and
organisms enters in the tract. Uterus acts as incubator as it provides
regularly moist, dark, warm, sterile and facilitative environment with
nutrients which favours harboring of microorganism for a quiet long
period. Fortunately most of the animals do not develop severe genital
infections. However, fluctuation in bacterial colonization in genital tract
occurs regularly.
Bacterial flora is continuously changing because of elimination and
recontamination.
The chances of non specific infections are more in
rainy and winter season and also in cases of indoor calving. Non specific
infections leading to infertility enter through ascending routes and
30
particularly due to wounds, lacerations of external genitalia as uterus is
most vulnerable for the environmental infections especially immediately
after calving or when afterbirths are retained for too long periods.
Bacterial load usually reduces during first three weeks after partition but
can last up to 14 weeks in some cows.
Bacteria may interfere fertility in animals by directly killing
gametes or concepts, through change in uterine milk composition, by
causing inflammation or by cause chronic histological lesions in the
reproductive
phygocytic
tract.
Persistent
activity
of
infections
neutrophils
and
reduce
they
are
chemotactic
responsible
and
for
inflammatory damage leading to impaired fertility. In absence of accurate
counts of the bacteria present in the uterus at the time of service and
during the subsequent oestrus cycle, it is impossible to determine
whether pathogenic bacteria cause the infertility by injuring the gametes
or developing concepts.
Pathogen gain access to reproductive tract due to breeding,
parturition, veterinary examinations, retained placenta. Relaxed vulva,
dilated vagina and open cervix facilitates the entry of pathogens in
reproductive tract and hence uterine involution turns septic rather than
aseptic process. Deosi et al. (1992) reported that majority of pathogen of
endogenous
origin
establishment
of
may
post
not
partum
contribute
metritis
but
substantially
is
only
towards
because
of
environmental contaminants.
Pathogenic organisms cause uterine inflammation, denudation of
its
mucosa
and
increase
its
secretions,
thus
altering
uterine
environment. Bacterial invaders colonize the non involuted uterus where
toxin produced by them is absorbed, which leads to septicemia and
pyaemia.
Tissue damage, a prominent feature of many anaerobic
infections, results from the action of bacterial toxins and enzymes. The
31
endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is released from E.coli, can
pass from the uterine lumen to the peripheral circulation and LPS
concentrations are increased in cows with uterine infection.
Prolapse of genitalia may be the cause of entry of severe external
environmental infection due to long term exposure of genital organs.
There are chances of urinary tract infection leading to straining and
subsequent prolapse. Infection induces inflammation and denudation of
mucosa of exposed organs resulting in tissue damage and release of
highly irritating histaminic substances leading continuous straining
(Sharma et al. 1977).
Immunological aspects in non specific infections
Ability of cows varies for resistance to continual uterine infections.
Similarly ability to mount immunological and physiological defense
mechanism also varies from cow to cow and herd to herd. There is
decrease in immune function of animals after calving due to severe
stress. Lewis (1997) reported that aberrant immune function predisposes
for uterine infections in cows which indicates that methods regularizing
immune function have the potential for prevention or treatment of
uterine infections.
Female reproductive tract, like respiratory and gastrointestinal
tract, is continuously exposed to microbial organisms. Cervix is a major
barrier to prevent microorganisms as lactoferrins inhibits microbial
growth. However, immune defense mechanism is provided by phgocytes
engulfing and killing antigen or microbes, B lymphocytes producing
antibodies against microbes and T lymphocytes secreting cytokines to
stimulate macrophages. Elimination of pathogens normally through
reproductive tract is through leucocytic infiltration, persistent uterine
32
contractions, sloughing of caruncular tissue and secretions of uterine
lochia as reported by Arthur et al¸ (1989).
Uterine humoral immunity is expressed through secretions of
immunoglobulins. Immunoglobulin concentration in uterine secretions
reflects both the extent of the endometrial inflammatory process in the
face of microbial challenge and its chances of cervical recovery
(Aknarzov, 1988). Uterine defense mechanism remains inadequate
during the progesterone dominated phase because low pH creates
intrauterine environment favourable for bacterial infection (Gunnick,
1973).
Innate
immunity
is
the
first
defense
to
infection
and
is
physiologically ancient than adaptive to fight against invading microbes
through cellular components like lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophills,
macrophages, natural killer cells and molecular components like mucin,
defensin,
serpins,
lectiferrins,
interleukins,
cystatinsetc.
Possible
application of immunomodulators and or cytokines for increasing uterine
defense in case of microbial invasions and to monitor embryonic and
fetal developments is currently under investigation (Yadav and Agrawal,
2002). Halls et al. (2002) has accounted host defense peptides and
proteins expressed in the male reproductive tract.
Modulation of reproduction functions through immunological
approach is a recent concept and immnomodulators can be considered
as alternatives therapeutic agents in clinical and sub-clinical infections.
Immunization by antigens and by raising antibiotics against reproductive
hormones
has
been
used
to
develop
experimental
method
for
fundamental research in reproduction and to explore potential for
augmenting reproductive efficiency in livestock.
33
Diagnosis of non specific infections
Appearance of cervical mucus, vaginal discharge is usually
considered as detection of reproductive tract infections. Character and
odor of vaginal mucus can be scored for diagnosis of genital infections.
Intrauterine oxygen reductase potential (Eh) and PH can be used to
assess the degree of bacterial contamination of the uterine lumen.
Contaminating bacteria are practically always present in the
external genitalia. The most careful sampling procedure and especially
designed sampling instruments can not eliminate contaminating samples
entirely, which causes insurmountable difficulties. Zamjanis, R. (1970)
reported that the number of micro-organisms or the titer of antibodies
present in the genital tract varies greatly in certain infection diseases. In
fact pathogens may disappear entirely from reproductive tract after being
present for a certain period of time and negative results then may be due
to sampling without selection of proper animals and the proper time.
Cultural sensitivity tests give inconsistent results of uterine,
vaginal and cervical swabs on diagnostic lines. Thus bacterial culture of
cervical mucus could aid in diagnosis of infectious infertility but it
should be interpretated in the light of clinical diagnosis and breeding
history of the animal (Sharda and Krishnan, 2001). Isolation of bacteria
from genital tract in absence of any clinical deformity or change in
genital organs suggests role of bacteria in infertility. However, subclinical infection is difficult to diagnose and it is also time consuming,
hence empirical treatments are undertaken by the field vets for infections
of genital tract.
34
Petit et al (2008) reported that the percentage of positive vaginal
swabs did not differ between pregnant and non-pregnant animals. In the
genital tract, the percentage of swabs positive for normal mucosal
bacteria decreased from caudally to cranially. Pathogenic bacteria were
found more often in cervical than in vaginal swabs. Bacteria on the
vaginal and cervical mucosa in cattle involve a wide range of species and
their
colonization
of
the
mucosa
rather
than
infection
without
endometritis or vaginitis in animals has to be assumed.
Non specific infectious affections in male animals
Various types of male infertility conditions have been reported in
the literature like balanitis, posthitis, seminal vesiculits, prostatitis,
urethral inflammation, testicular degeneration, orchitis, epididymitis,
ampulitis etc. Under practical conditions, it is not possible to produce
semen free from microorganisms as contamination with few non
pathogenic organisms is unavoidable (Binda et al. 1994).
Saprophytic flora of prepuce contaminates semen of healthy bulls
at the time of ejaculation. Many microbes producing systemic infections
but which are not specific to reproductive tract can be encountered in
semen. Prepucial microflora of bull and vaginal microflora of cow gets
transferred to uterus during insemination. Bacterial counts in semen
vary with age, breed, season and prepucial washing.
The principal part of contamination of semen consists of
saprophytic or opportunistic organisms from prepuce and upper parts of
genital organs. It is advisable to wash prepuce before semen collection
with mild disinfectant lotion vary regularly to reduce bacterial load. Mean
microbiological load was increased by four fold in second ejaculate
(Gangadhar, et al., 1986), hence use same artificial vagina for two
35
successive ejaculates is not expected under clean semen production. The
bacterial contamination of semen is major concern for semen production
laboratories as the pathogens adversely affect the semen quality (Diemer
et al.¸1986). Bacteria are contaminating approximately 50 per cent of
frozen semen doses as reported by Weierzbowski et al. (1984).
Artificial insemination is being widely practiced in the world and
there is constant exchange of semen doses on international front. To
presume that semen can be consistently microbiologically sterile in
respect of non genital, specific, opportunistic, vagrant pathogens, which
are umbiguious in the environment of cattle, are reported to be naïve by
Bhosarekar (2005). Fungal infections may develop during processing of
semen for preservation.
Fungal infections of prostate and other
accessory sex glands may result in presence of fungal infections in
semen, which reduces quality of semen.
Quality of semen depends on microbial load present in the semen
and international standards regarding microbial counts are much less as
compared to Indian standards. A permissible count of 500 bacteria per
dose of semen straw is the international standard. Accordingly, it is
recommended that prepucial washings (maximum 50,000 count) and
neat semen (maximum 1000 to 5000 count) should carry lowest
minimum bacterial load with no count for AI equipments and dilutors as
they are to be used only after strict sterilization.
Liquid nitrogen used for storage of frozen semen doses may act as
vehicle for contaminant pathogens with variety of organisms and various.
The same thus serves as source of infection to cows and buffalos during
AI. Even fresh liquid nitrogen carry staphylococcus aureus. Certain
bacterial contaminants acquire a level of resistance to antibiotics and
they are able to survive at -190OC in liquid nitrogen (Ranold and
Prabhakar, 2001).
36
Endocrine events and non specific infections
Sub
fertility
due
to
non
specific
contamination
involves
perturbation of the hypothalamus, pituitary and ovary and pathogenic
effects persist even after clinical resolution of disease. Pivotal role of
progesterone in converting uterus resistant to susceptible for infection is
important in female infertility. The uterine epithelium permeability to
bacteria
is
reduced
and
the
leucocytic
response
is
delayed
in
progestational phase. Local production of antibody in the reproductive
tract is also regulated by ovarian steroids.
Absorption of bacterial components from uterus can prevent the
follicular phase, LH surge and ovulation. There are also localized ovarian
effects of high uterine bacterial growth density because fewer frontline
dominant follicles are selected in ovary ipsilateral than contra lateral to
the previously gravid horn. Uteri of animals during follicular and luteal
phases differ significantly in their inflammatory responses to bacterial
infection (Sadasiva Rao and Sheshagiri, 1999).
Dairy
animals
are
resistant
to
uterine
infections
when
progesterone levels are minimal and they are susceptible when
progesterone
concentrations
are
increased.
Although
bacterial
contamination can ieduce puerperal metritis soon after calving, when
progesterone levels are basal, uterine infections do not usually develop
till progesterone levels are increased.
Uterine contamination following calving is common in 90 per cent
animals but healthy animals are able to clear the bacteria of uterus in
first 2 to 3 weeks of calving. In cows which develop uterine infection in
later stages, bacteria reside in the uterus without proliferating into
infection until luteal progesterone down regulates immune functions.
First post partum dominant follicle is ovulated silently with perturbed
37
oestradiol secretion and subsequent formation of small corpus luteum,
which secretes less progesterone. These reproductive events favor for
delaying uterine infection.
E. coli is a common cause of infertility involving the perturbation of
the hypothalamus, pituitary and ovary in dairy cows. Infusion of E. coli
LPS into the uterine lumen suppresses the pre-ovulatory luteinising
hormone surge and disrupts ovulation in heifers. Even adequate
concentration of treatment antibiotic in cyclic animals is not achieved in
the subendometrial tissue, cervix and vagina during luteal phase
(Gustafsson, 1984).
Non specific infectious affection in female animal
Types of female infertility problems related with nonspecific
infections are aberrations in oestrus expression, gamete damage, failure
of implantation, abortion, retained placeta, ovaro bursal adhesions,
salpingitis, uterine infection, metritis, cervicitis, vaginitis, placentitis or
cotyledonitis.
Infection of the reproductive tract by non specific organisms is very
common together with number of specific pathogens which selectively
affect the reproductive system. Ball and Peters (2004) reported
disturbances in reproductive activities due to non specific systemic
infection with record of behavioral estrous inhibition due to mild
systemic disease and embryo loss due to pyrexia as a resultant of some
systemic infection. Induced endometritis significantly increases interoestus length when infection is introduced during luteal phase. Sporadic
infections due to non specific pathogens also lead to abortions in
pregnant animals.
38
Invading
microflora
of
reproductive
tract
are
important
determinants of successful and speedy involution of uterus as well as
subsequent fertility. Failure of immune system to control usual
commonsal organisms principally leads to incomplete involution of
uterus (Wheeler, 1994). Honnapagol, S.S. (2006) reported that uterine
infections influence the time of first ovulation as animals with
bacteriologically sterile uterus ovulate average 16 days after parturition,
while infected ones are likely to ovulate average 31 days after parturition.
Very few animals die due to uterine infections but many animals
are culled regularly for their poor reproductive performance resulting due
to non specific uterine infections as uterine infection can reduce milk
yield, or in treatment cases contaminate milk.
It is also important to
know that because they are non specific uterine infections they are
difficult to treat.
A. pyogences either alone or with other bacteria is often associated
with utrine infections. Khanna et al. (1992) reported 7.14 per cent
incidence of mycoplasma infection in repeat breeder buffaloes and 6.25
per cent in cows due to cervicitis and endometratis.
Heifers with incompletely developed cervicial rings and older cows
with prolapsed cervical rings are prone to endometritis. It is difficult to
identify the most significant microbes associated with endometritis
because both pathogenic and non pathogenic organisms colonize in the
bovine endometrium and many of them are fastidious (Studer, 1981).
Vaginitis condition due to non specific infection is characterized by
purulent vaginal discharge, red granular lesions and pain on palpation.
The condition is also termed as “Dirty cow syndromes” and Haemophilus
somnus infection was isolated in vaginitis by Last et al. (2001).
39
Control measures
Sanitary and phytosanitary measures of WTO pertain to laws or
regulations to protect livestock against exposure to micro organisms. No
hand is microbiologically sterile and hence, strict attention to sanitation,
peri-parturient hygiene, assisted calving may be the best defense for
limiting
non
specific
infection.
Effective
sexual
health
control
programme with frequent bacterial examination in dairy animals need to
be emphasized.
In India, dairy animal farm construction is carried out without
considering requirements of functional and productional aspects of the
animals. The hygienic requirements are poorly considered during
constructions. A hygienic environment in the animal house is essential
for preservation of animal health and as an aid to control diseases.
Super fire ways of restricting non specific infections needs to be
followed for combating infertility or sub-fertility in dairy animals.
Contamination primarily results from overcrowding and improper
cleaning animal shades. Safe and sanitary disposal of liquid and solid
wastes, quarantine of newly purchased and procured animals, isolation
of suspected animals and foot bath for both human and animals are the
most essential prerequisites for ideal and healthy farm.
Thorough cleaning, complete draining, perfect drying of floorings of
animals sheds and exposure to sunlight daily for six hours are the most
ideal recommendations to keep the environmental infection away from
the herd. Comfortable environment through proper ventilation for free
removal of obnoxious odor is highly essential as the foul odor is the evil
of all bad things in the herds.
40
Uterine infection depends on various factors like calving
management,
general
sanitation,
pathogenic
organisms,
endocrine
factors, nutrition, milk production and environmental stress. But proper
stages of oestrus, well built and body condition of animal, high level of
intrinsic immunity, strong resistance to contaminants and proper
defense mechanism will resists ascending infection in all probabilities.
The uterine infections can be controlled by antibiotics, anti-septics,
Hormones or immuno-modulatory treatments. Antimicrobials can cure
bacterial, yeast, chlamydial, rikettesial and certain protozoal infection
but not the viral or parasitic diseases. Objective of treatment in uterine
infections is to stimulate the uterine muscles through higher vascularity
either by increasing blood supply or to create healthy and sterile
environment by checking uterine infection.
Indiscriminate use of higher antibiotics has not only created most
vital and serious problem of drug resistance but also has lead to flaring
up of mycotic and anaerobic infections.
Refractoriness to usual anti-
biotic therapy boosts non specific infections. Anti-biotic can not be
considered as total control measure in infections and no antibiotic can
kill all known micro organisms.
Drugs are therapeutically used to cure diseases and sub
therapeutically to control outbreaks of diseases. However, it is pertinent
to note that routine and prophylactic administration of intrauterine
antibiotics to all cows with and without abnormal calving appears to
enhance colonization of resistant bacteria within a herd and does not
improve reproductive efficiency. Disappointing efficacy of intra uterine
antimicrobials to combat infections is reported by various research
workers
and
clinicians.
Antimicrobial
therapy
also
necessitates
compulsory disposal of milk.
41
Emergence of anti-biotic resistant bacteria in the environment is
also a global problem. The difficulty in controlling genital infection is due
to emergence of drug resistance and the pattern of drug resistance
continuous to change in a particular area, depending upon various
epidemiological factors. However, immunomodulators (Oyster glycogen,
Lipopolysaccharide etc.) can be considered as choice of treatment.
Chronic endometritis fails to respond even to immunomodulators as it is
already exposed to several intra uterine treatments. Use of nistatin as an
antifungal agent was recorded to be successful in reducing fungal
infection in preserved semen by Sidhu et al. (1997).
Lactoferin is known for optimal health, immunity and resistant to
diseases. It can be used commercially as natural antibiotic, antiviral and
antifungal agent. Lactoferrin is considered to be bacteriostatic (Devatkal,
et al. , 2003). The natural antibiotics or hosts defense peptides, i.e.
antimicrobial peptides, are the part of innate immune system and are
considered as antibiotics of the grate future. Alternately, polyherbal
ayurvedic formulations are to be recommended and proved bacteriostatic
action of herbal drugs in rabbit pyometra (Dakshinkar, 1999).
It is worth noting to consider that Chinese farms decreased
uterine infections from 54.8 to 25.00 per cent in just 5 years with
concurrent advantage of improved post partum fertility as reported by
Liu – Chong LI (1996). The challenge for future is to design prevention
and control programmes to reduce the incidence of non specific
infectious infertility conditions and to understand how the immune and
endocrine systems are integrated to optimize reproductive efficiency in
dairy animals.
42
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