1. No category

Response to Intervention
RTI: How to Create a
Toolkit of Strongg
Academic and
Behavioral Intervention
Plans
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Workshop Agenda
1. Academic Interventions: Key Points and
Critical Components
2 Reading,
2.
R di M
Math,
th andd W
Writing
iti Interventions
I t
ti
3. Behavioral Interventions: Keyy Points
4. Behavioral Strategies: Managing Whole Groups
5. Behavioral Strategies: Working with Individual
Challenging
g g Students
6. Measuring Intervention Integrity
7. Internet Resources to Support RTI Interventions
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Response to Intervention
Workshop PowerPoints and Related
R
Resources
Available
A il bl at:t
• http://www.jimwrightonline.com/
GISD php
GISD.php
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3
Response to Intervention
RTI ‘Pyramid of
Interventions’
Tier 3
Tier 2
Tier 1
Tier 3: Intensive interventions.
interventions
Students who are ‘nonresponders’ to Tiers 1 & 2 are
referred to the RTI Team for more
intensive interventions.
Tier 2 Individualized
interventions. Subset of
students receive interventions
targeting specific needs.
Tier 1: Universal interventions.
interventions
Available to all students in a
classroom or school. Can consist
of whole-group or individual
strategies or supports.
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Response to Intervention
RTI & Intervention: Key Concepts
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Response to Intervention
Essential Elements of Any Academic or Behavioral
I t
Intervention
ti (‘Treatment’)
(‘T t
t’) Strategy:
St t
•
Method of delivery ((‘Who
Who or what delivers the treatment?
treatment?’))
Examples include teachers, paraprofessionals, parents,
volunteers,, computers.
p
•
Treatment component
p
((‘What makes the intervention
effective?’)
Examples include activation of prior knowledge to help the
student
t d t to
t make
k meaningful
i f l connections
ti
between
b t
‘k
‘known’’
and new material; guide practice (e.g., Paired Reading) to
increase reading fluency; periodic review of material to aid
student retention.
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications:
M difi ti
S
Sorting
ti Th
Them O
Outt
• Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies
g
that are used routinely with all students in a
ggeneral-education settingg are considered ‘core
instruction’. High-quality instruction is essential
and forms the foundation of RTI academic
support. NOTE: While it is important to verify that
ggood core instructional ppractices are in pplace for
a struggling student, those routine practices do
not ‘count’ as individual student interventions.
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications:
M difi ti
S
Sorting
ti Th
Them O
Outt
• Intervention. An academic intervention is a
strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency
in a skill, or encourage
g a child to apply
pp y an
existing skill to new situations or settings. An
intervention can be thought
g of as “a set of
actions that, when taken, have demonstrated
abilityy to change
g a fixed educational trajectory”
j
y
(Methe & Riley-Tillman, 2008; p. 37).
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications:
M difi ti
S
Sorting
ti Th
Them O
Outt
• Accommodation. An accommodation is intended to help
the student to fully access and participate in the generalgeneral
education curriculum without changing the instructional
content and without reducing the student’s rate of learning
(Skinner Pappas & Davis,
(Skinner,
Da is 2005)
2005). An accommodation is
intended to remove barriers to learning while still expecting
that students will master the same instructional content as
th i ttypical
their
i l peers.
– Accommodation example 1: Students are allowed to supplement
silent reading of a novel by listening to the book on tape.
– Accommodation example 2: For unmotivated students, the
instructor breaks larger assignments into smaller ‘chunks’ and
providing students with performance feedback and praise for each
completed
l t d ‘‘chunk’
h k’ off assigned
i d workk (Skinner,
(Ski
P
Pappas & D
Davis,
i
2005).
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Response to Intervention
“
“Teaching is giving; it
isn’t taking away.”
”
(Howell, Hosp & Kurns, 2008; p. 356).
Source: Howell, K. W., Hosp, J. L., & Kurns, S. (2008). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation. In A. Thomas & J.
Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp.349-362). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School
Psychologists..
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations &
M difi ti
Modifications:
S ti Th
Sorting
Them O
Outt
• Modification. A modification changes the expectations of
what a student is expected to know or do—typically by
lowering the academic standards against which the student
is to be evaluated.
e al ated
Examples of modifications:
– Giving a student five math computation problems for practice
instead of the 20 problems assigned to the rest of the class
– Letting the student consult course notes during a test when peers
are not permitted to do so
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11
Response to Intervention
Reading Interventions to
Promote Fluency &
Comprehension
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
“
“Risk for reading failure always involves the
interaction of a particular set of child
characteristics
h
t i ti with
ith specific
ifi characteristics
h
t i ti off th
the
instructional environment. Risk status is not
entirely inherent in the child,
child but always involves a
“mismatch” between child characteristics and the
instruction that is pprovided.” ((Foorman & Torgesen,
g
,
2001; p. 206).
”
Source: Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading
success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212.
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13
Response to Intervention
Savvyy Teacher’s
Guide: Reading
Interventions That
Work
(Wright 2000)
(Wright,
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14
Response to Intervention
Big Ideas in Beginning Reading
• “Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate
sounds in words.
• Alphabetic Principle: The ability to associate sounds with letters
and use these sounds to form words.
• Fluency with Text: The effortless,
effortless automatic ability to read words
in connected text.
• Vocabulary: The ability to understand (receptive) and use
(
(expressive)
i ) words
d tto acquire
i andd convey meaning.
i
• Comprehension: The complex cognitive process involving the
intentional interaction between reader and text to conveyy
meaning.”
Source: Big ideas in beginning reading. University of Oregon. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from
http://reading.uoregon.edu/index.php
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Response to Intervention
Building Reading
Fluency
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Response to Intervention
CBM Student Readingg Samples:
p
What Difference Does Fluency Make?
• 3rd Grade: 19 Words Per Minute
• 3rd Grade: 70 Words Per Minute
• 3rd Grade: 98 Words Per Minute
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17
Response to Intervention
NRP Conclusions Regarding Importance of Oral Reading
Fluency:
Fl
“An
An extensive review of the literature
indicates that classroom practices that
encourage repeated oral reading with
feedback and guidance leads to meaningful
improvements in reading expertise for students
students—for
for
good readers as well as those who are experiencing
ddifficulties.”-p.
cu es p 33-33
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18
Response to Intervention
Interventions for…Increasing Reading Fluency
• Assisted Reading Practice
• Listening Passage Preview
( Listening
(‘Listening
While Reading’)
• Paired
P i d Reading
R di
• Repeated
p
Readingg
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Response to Intervention
Paired Reading
The student reads aloud in
tandem with an
accomplished reader. At a
student signal,
signal the helping
reader stops reading, while
the student continues on.
on
When the student commits a
reading error,
error the helping
reader resumes reading in
tandem
tandem.
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20
Response to Intervention
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21
Response to Intervention
Building Reading
Comprehension
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22
Response to Intervention
‘Click or Clunk’
Self-Check
Self
Check
Students periodically check
their understanding of
sentences, paragraphs, and
pages of text as they read.
When students encounter
problems with vocabulary or
comprehension, they use a
checklist to apply simple
strategies to solve those
reading difficulties.
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Response to Intervention
‘Click or Clunk’
Check Sheet
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‘Click or Clunk?’ Example
Response to Intervention
‘…The
e co
combination
b a o oof of
lack
aclack
oof ppractice,
ce, de
deficient
cdeficient
e decod
decodingg
‘…The
combination
ofacpractice,
skills,
and difficult
materials
results
in unrewarding
decoding
skills, and
difficult
materials
results in
y readingg experiences
p reading
thatexperiences
lead to less involvement
early
unrewarding
early
that lead
in reading related activities. Lack
ofofexposure
and
Lack
exposure
and
to less involvement in reading related activities.
ppractice
on
the
ppart
of of
thethe
lessless
skilled
readers
delays
y
practice
on
the
part
skilled
readers
L k off exposure andd practice
Lack
ti on the
th partt off the
th less
l
the
development
of automaticity
and speed atand
the
delays
the
development
of
automaticity
skilled readers delays the development of automaticity
g
level. Slow,
, capacity-draining
p y draining
g
word-metacognition
word
metacognition
Slow,
capacity-draining
capacity
speed
atdthe
word
metacognition
level
Sl
Slow,
andd speed
att the
thword-metacognition
word-metacognition
d t
iti level.
llevel.l Sl
Slow,
word-recognition
processes
require
cognitive
word-recognition
processes
require
cognitive
capacity-draining word-recognition processes
require
gto higher-level
resources
that
should
be be
allocated
to higher-level
resources
that
should
allocated
level
cognitive
iti resources th
thatt should
h ld bbe allocated
ll t higher
d tto hi
higherh
process of text integration and comprehension.’
process
of text
integration
level process
of text
integrationand
andcomprehension.’
comprehension.’
- Stanovich,
Stanovich K.,
K (1986)
- Stanovich, K., (1986)
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25
Response to Intervention
Promoting Student
Reading
Comprehension ‘FixUp’ Skills
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit
Good readers continuously monitor their understanding of
informational text.
text When necessary
necessary, they also take steps to
improve their understanding of text through use of reading
comprehension ‘fix-up’
fix up skills.
Presented here are a series of fix-up skill strategies that can
helpp struggling
gg g students to better understand difficult readingg
assignments…
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27
Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [C
[Core Instruction]
I t ti ] Providing
P idi Main
M i Id
Idea Practice
P ti th
through
h
‘Partner Retell’ (Carnine & Carnine, 2004). Students in a
group or class are assigned a text selection to read silently.
silently
Students are then paired off, with one student assigned the
role of ‘reteller’ and the other appointed
pp
as ‘listener’. The
reteller recounts the main idea to the listener, who can
comment or ask questions. The teacher then states the main
idea to the class. Next, the reteller locates two key details from
the reading that support the main idea and shares these with
the listener.
listener At the end of the activity
activity, the teacher does a spot
check by randomly calling on one or more students in the
listener role and asking them to recap what information was
shared by the reteller.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [A
[Accommodation]
d ti ] Developing
D l i aB
Bankk off M
Multiple
lti l Passages
P
to Present Challenging Concepts (Hedin & Conderman,
2010; Kamil et al.,
al 2008; Texas Reading Initiative,
Initiative 2002)
2002). The
teacher notes which course concepts, cognitive strategies, or
other information will likelyy ppresent the ggreatest challenge
g to
students. For these ‘challenge’ topics, the teacher selects
alternative readings that present the same general information
and review the same key vocabulary as the course text but that
are more accessible to struggling readers (e.g., with selections
written at an easier reading level or that use graphics to
visually illustrate concepts). These alternative selections are
organized into a bank that students can access as a source of
‘wide reading’ material.
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29
Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [St
[Student
d t Strategy]
St t ] Promoting
P
ti Understanding
U d t di & Building
B ildi
Endurance through Reading-Reflection Pauses (Hedin &
Conderman 2010).
Conderman,
2010) The student decides on a reading interval
(e.g., every four sentences; every 3 minutes; at the end of
each pparagraph).
g p ) At the end of each interval,, the student
pauses briefly to recall the main points of the reading. If the
student has questions or is uncertain about the content, the
student rereads part or all of the section just read. This
strategy is useful both for students who need to monitor their
understanding as well as those who benefit from brief breaks
when engaging in intensive reading as a means to build up
endurance as attentive readers.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [St
[Student
d t Strategy]
St t ] Identifying
Id tif i or C
Constructing
t ti M
Main
i Id
Idea
Sentences (Davey & McBride, 1986; Rosenshine, Meister &
Chapman 1996)
Chapman,
1996). For each paragraph in an assigned reading,
reading
the student either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or (b)
highlights
g g keyy details and uses them to write a ‘gist’
g sentence.
The student then writes the main idea of that paragraph on an
index card. On the other side of the card, the student writes a
question whose answer is that paragraph’s main idea
sentence. This stack of ‘main idea’ cards becomes a useful
tool to review assigned readings.
readings
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [St
[Student
d t Strategy]
St t ] Restructuring
R t t i Paragraphs
P
h with
ith M
Main
i Id
Idea
First to Strengthen ‘Rereads’ (Hedin & Conderman, 2010).
The student highlights or creates a main idea sentence for
each paragraph in the assigned reading. When rereading each
pparagraph
g p of the selection,, the student ((1)) reads the main idea
sentence or student-generated ‘gist’ sentence first (irrespective
of where that sentence actually falls in the paragraph); (2)
reads the remainder of the paragraph, and (3) reflects on how
the main idea relates to the paragraph content.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [St
[Student
d t Strategy]
St t ] Summarizing
S
i i Readings
R di
(B d
(Boardman
ett al.,
l
2008). The student is taught to summarize readings into main
ideas and essential details--stripped
details stripped of superfluous content.
content
The act of summarizing longer readings can promote
understandingg and retention of content while the summarized
text itself can be a useful study tool.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [St
[Student
d t Strategy]
St t ] Linking
Li ki P
Pronouns to
t Referents
R f
t (Hedin
(H di &
Conderman, 2010). Some readers lose the connection
between pronouns and the nouns that they refer to (known as
‘referents’)—especially when reading challenging text. The
student is encouraged
g to circle ppronouns in the reading,
g, to
explicitly identify each pronoun’s referent, and (optionally) to
write next to the pronoun the name of its referent. For example,
the student may add the referent to a pronoun in this sentence
from a biology text: “The Cambrian Period is the first geological
age that has large numbers of multi-celled
multi celled organisms
associated with it Cambrian Period.”
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34
Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• St
Student
d t St
Strategy]
t ] Apply
A l Vocabulary
V b l ‘Fix-Up’
‘Fi U ’ Skills
Skill for
f
Unknown Words (Klingner & Vaughn, 1999). When
confronting an unknown word in a reading selection
selection, the
student applies the following vocabulary ‘fix-up’ skills:
1 Read the sentence again.
1.
again
2. Read the sentences before and after the problem
sentence for clues to the word’s
word s meaning.
3. See if there are prefixes or suffixes in the word that can
ggive clues to meaning.
g
4. Break the word up by syllables and look for ‘smaller words’
within.
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35
Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [St
[Student
d t Strategy]
St t ] Compiling
C
ili a Vocabulary
V b l Journal
J
l from
f
Course Readings (Hedin & Conderman, 2010). The student
highlights new or unfamiliar vocabulary from course readings.
readings
The student writes each term into a vocabulary journal, using a
standard ‘sentence-stem’ format: e.g.,
g , “Mitosis means…” or “A
chloroplast is…”. If the student is unable to generate a
definition for a vocabulary term based on the course reading,
he or she writes the term into the vocabulary journal without
definition and then applies other strategies to define the term:
e g look up the term in a dictionary; use Google to locate two
e.g.,
examples of the term being used correctly in context; ask the
instructor, etc.).
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36
Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [St
[Student
d t Strategy]
St t ] Encouraging
E
i St
Student
d t Use
U off Text
T t
Enhancements (Hedin & Conderman, 2010). Text
enhancements can be used to tag important vocabulary terms,
terms
key ideas, or other reading content. If working with
pphotocopied
p material,, the student can use a highlighter
g g
to note
key ideas or vocabulary. Another enhancement strategy is the
‘lasso and rope’ technique—using a pen or pencil to circle a
vocabulary term and then drawing a line that connects that
term to its underlined definition. If working from a textbook, the
student can cut sticky notes into strips
strips. These strips can be
inserted in the book as pointers to text of interest. They can
also be used as temporary labels
labels—e.g.,
e.g., for writing a
vocabulary term and its definition.
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37
Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [St
[Student
d t Strategy]
St t ] Reading
R di Actively
A ti l Th
Through
h Text
T t
Annotation (Harris, 1990; Sarkisian et al., 2003). Students are
likely to increase their retention of information when they
interact actively with their reading by jotting comments in the
margin
g of the text. Usingg pphotocopies,
p , the student is taught
g to
engage in an ongoing 'conversation' with the writer by
recording a running series of brief comments in the margins of
the text. The student may write annotations to record opinions
about points raised by the writer, questions triggered by the
reading or unknown vocabulary words
reading,
words.
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38
Response to Intervention
HELPS Program
• http://www.helpsprogram.org
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39
Response to Intervention
Improving the Integrity of
Academic Interventions
Th
Through
ha
Critical-Components ‘PreFlight’ Check
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Academic Interventions ‘Critical Components’ Checklist
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41
Response to Intervention
Academic Interventions ‘Critical Components’ Checklist
This checklist summarizes the essential components of
academic interventions.
interventions When preparing a student’s
student s
Tier 1, 2, or 3 academic intervention plan, use this
document as a ‘pre-flight
pre flight checklist
checklist’ to ensure that the
academic intervention is of high quality, is sufficiently
strong to address the identified student problem, is fully
understood and supported by the teacher, and can be
implemented with integrity. NOTE: While the checklist
refers
f to
t the
th ‘t‘teacher’
h ’ as th
the iinterventionist,
t
ti i t it can also
l
be used as a guide to ensure the quality of interventions
implemented by non-instructional personnel
personnel, adult
volunteers, parents, and peer (student) tutors.
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42
Response to Intervention
Allocating Sufficient Contact Time & Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher
Ratio
The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two
factors that help to determine that intervention’s ‘strength’ (Yeaton & Sechrest, 1981).
Critical Item?


Intervention Element
Notes
Time Allocated. The time set aside for the intervention is
appropriate for the type and level of student problem
(Burns & Gibbons, 2008; Kratochwill, Clements &
Kalymon, 2007). When evaluating whether the amount of
time allocated is adequate, consider:
 Length of each intervention session.
 Frequency of sessions (e
(e.g..,
g daily,
daily 3 times per week)
 Duration of intervention period (e.g., 6 instructional
weeks)
Student-Teacher Ratio.
Ratio The student receives sufficient
contact from the teacher or other person delivering the
intervention to make that intervention effective. NOTE:
Generally, supplemental intervention groups should be
limited to 6-7 students (Burns & Gibbons, 2008).
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Response to Intervention
Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem
Academic interventions are not selected at random. First,, the student academic pproblem(s)
( ) is defined
clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to
understand which intervention(s) are likely to help—and which should be avoided.
Critical Item? Intervention Element

Notes
Problem Definition. The student academic problem(s) to be addressed in the
intervention are defined in clear, specific, measureable terms (Bergan, 1995;
Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004). The full problem definition describes:
 Conditions. Describe the environmental conditions or task demands in place
when the academic problem is observed.
 Problem Description.
p
Describe the actual observable academic behavior in
which the student is engaged. Include rate, accuracy, or other quantitative
information of student performance.
 Typical or Expected Level of Performance. Provide a typical or expected
performance criterion for this skill or behavior. Typical or expected academic
performance can be calculated using a variety of sources,
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Response to Intervention
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45
Response to Intervention
Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item?

Intervention Element
Notes
Appropriate Target. Selected intervention(s) are appropriate for the identified student
problem(s) (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008). TIP: Use the Instructional
Hierarchy (Haring et al., 1978) to select academic interventions according to the four
stages of learning:
 Acquisition. The student has begun to learn how to complete the target skill
correctly but is not yet accurate in the skill. Interventions should improve
accuracy.
 Fluency. The student is able to complete the target skill accurately but works
slowly. Interventions should increase the student’s speed of responding (fluency)
as well as to maintain accuracy.
 Generalization.
Generalization The student may have acquired the target skill but does not
typically use it in the full range of appropriate situations or settings. Or the
student may confuse the target skill with ‘similar’ skills. Interventions should get
the student to use the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations,
or to accurately discriminate between the target skill and ‘similar’ skills.
 Adaptation. The student is not yet able to modify or adapt an existing skill to fit
novel task-demands or situations. Interventions should help the student to
identify key concepts or elements from previously learned skills that can be
adapted to the new demands or situations.
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Response to Intervention
Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element

Notes
‘Can’t Do/Won’t Do’ Check. The teacher has determined
whether the student problem is primarily a skill or knowledge
deficit (‘can’t do’) or whether student motivation plays a
main or supporting role in academic underperformance
(‘wont do’). If motivation appears to be a significant factor
contributing to the problem, the intervention plan includes
strategies to engage the student (e.g., high interest learning
activities; rewards/incentives; increased student choice in
academic assignments, etc.) (Skinner, Pappas & Davis,
2005; Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004).
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Response to Intervention
Activity: Matching the Intervention to the
St d t Problem
Student
P bl
• Consider these critical aspects of academic intervention:
 Clear and specific problem-identification statement (Conditions, Problem
Description, Typical/Expected Level of Performance).
 A
Appropriate
i t iintervention
t
ti ttargett ((e.g., selected
l t d intervention
i t
ti iis
appropriately matched to Acquisition, Fluency, Generalization, or
Adaptation
p
pphase of Instructional Hierarchy).
y)
 Can’t Do/Won’t Do Check (Clarification of whether motivation plays a
significant role in student academic underperformance).
• Discuss what challenges might arise in applying any of these
concepts
p when pplanningg classroom interventions.
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Response
to Intervention
Incorporating Effective Instructional
Elements
These effective ‘building blocks’ of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They
should be considered when selectingg or creatingg anyy academic intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element

Explicit Instruction. Student skills have been broken down “into manageable and deliberately
sequenced steps” and the teacher provided“ overt strategies for students to learn and practice
new skills” (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008, p.1153).

Appropriate Level of Challenge. The student experienced sufficient success in the academic
task(s) to shape learning in the desired direction as well as to maintain student motivation
(Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008).

Active Engagement. The intervention ensures that the student is engaged in ‘active accurate
responding’
p
g ((Skinner,, Pappas
pp & Davis,, 2005).at
) a rate frequent
q
enough
g to capture
p
student
attention and to optimize effective learning.

Performance Feedback. The student receives prompt performance feedback about the work
completed (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008).

Maintenance of Academic Standards. If the intervention includes any accommodations to
better support the struggling learner (e.g., preferential seating, breaking a longer assignment into
smaller chunks), those accommodations do not substantially lower the academic standards
against which the student is to be evaluated and are not likely to reduce the student
student’ss rate of
learning (Skinner, Pappas & Davis, 2005).
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Notes
Response to Intervention
Verifying Teacher Understanding & Providing Teacher Support
The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a
busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes
that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention.
Critical Item?






Intervention Element
Notes
Teacher Responsibility. The teacher understands his or her responsibility to implement the
academic intervention(s) with integrity.
Teacher Acceptability. The teacher states that he or she finds the academic intervention feasible
and acceptable for the identified student problem.
problem
Step-by-Step Intervention Script. The essential steps of the intervention are written as an
‘intervention script’--a series of clearly described steps—to ensure teacher understanding and
make implementation easier (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao & Hawkins, 2008).
Intervention Training. If the teacher requires training to carry out the intervention, that training
has been arranged.
Intervention Elements: Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable. The teacher knows all of the steps of
the intervention
intervention. Additionally
Additionally, the teacher knows which of the intervention steps are ‘non-negotiable’
non-negotiable
(they must be completed exactly as designed) and which are ‘negotiable’ (the teacher has some
latitude in how to carry out those steps) (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao & Hawkins, 2008).
Assistance With the Intervention. If the intervention cannot be implemented as designed for any
reason (e.g., student absence, lack of materials, etc.), the teacher knows how to get assistance
quickly to either fix the problem(s) to the current intervention or to change the intervention.
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to Intervention
Documenting the InterventionResponse
& Collecting
Data
Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example,
interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress
progress-monitoring
monitoring plan are ‘fatally
fatally
flawed’ (Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004).
Critical Item?
Intervention Element
Notes

Intervention Documentation. The teacher understands and can manage all documentation
required for this intervention (e.g., maintaining a log of intervention sessions, etc.).

Checkup Date. Before the intervention begins, a future checkup date is selected to review the
intervention to determine if it is successful. Time elapsing between the start of the intervention and
the checkup date should be short enough to allow a timely review of the intervention but long
enough to give the school sufficient time to judge with confidence whether the intervention worked.

Baseline. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has collected information about the student’s
b li llevell off performance
baseline
f
in
i th
the id
identified
tifi d area(s)
( ) off academic
d i concern (Witt
(Witt, V
VanDerHeyden
D H d &
Gilbertson, 2004).

Goal. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has set a specific goal for predicted student
improvement to use as a minimum standard for success (Witt,
(Witt VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson,
Gilbertson 2004)
2004).
The goal is the expected student outcome by the checkup date if the intervention is successful.

Progress-Monitoring. During the intervention, the teacher collects progress-monitoring data of
sufficient quality and at a sufficient frequency to determine at the checkup date whether that
intervention is successful (Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004).
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Response to Intervention
References
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological
Consultation, 6(2), 111-123.
Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools.
Routledge: New York.
York
Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Boice, C. H. (2008). Best practices in intensive academic interventions. In A.
Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD: National
Association of School Psychologists.
H i N
Haring,
N.G.,
G LLovitt,
itt TT.C.,
C E
Eaton,
t M
M.D.,
D &H
Hansen, C.L.
C L (1978).
(1978) The
Th ffourth
th R:
R Research
R
h in
i the
th classroom.
l
C l b
Columbus,
OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.
Hawkins, R. O., Morrison, J. Q., Musti-Rao, S., & Hawkins, J. A. (2008). Treatment integrity for academic
interventions in real- world settings. School Psychology Forum, 2(3), 1-15.
Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., & Kalymon, K. M. (2007). Response to intervention: Conceptual and
methodological issues in implementation. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook
of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. New York: Springer.
Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for
responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.
Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Gilbertson, D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral interventions. A systematic
process for finding and eliminating problems. School Psychology Review, 33, 363-383.
Y t W.
Yeaton,
W M.
M & Sechrest,
S h t L.
L (1981).
(1981) Critical
C iti l dimensions
di
i
in
i the
th choice
h i andd maintenance
i t
off successful
f l ttreatments:
t
t
Strength, integrity, and effectiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 156-167.
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52
Response to Intervention
Activity: Using the Academic Interventions
‘C iti l Components’
‘Critical
C
t ’ Checklist
Ch kli t
In your teams:
• Discuss the Academic Interventions ‘Critical
Components’
p
Checklist.
• How might your school use this checklist to
improve the quality of your building
building’ss
interventions at Tiers 1, 2, and/or 3?
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Response to Intervention
RTI: Best Practices
in Mathematics
Interventions
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
National Mathematics
Advisory Panel Report
13 March 2008
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55
Response to Intervention
Math Advisory Panel Report at:
htt //
http://www.ed.gov/mathpanel
d
/ th
l
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56
Response to Intervention
2008 National Math Advisory Panel Report: Recommendations
• “The
The areas to be studied in mathematics from pre-kindergarten
pre kindergarten through
eighth grade should be streamlined and a well-defined set of the most
important topics should be emphasized in the early grades. Any approach
that revisits topics year after year without bringing them to closure should
be avoided.”
• “Proficiency with whole numbers, fractions, and certain aspects of geometry
andd measurement are the
h foundations
f d i
for
f algebra.
l b Of these,
h
knowledge
k
l d off
fractions is the most important foundational skill not developed among
American students.”
• “Conceptual understanding, computational and procedural fluency, and
problem solving skills are equally important and mutually reinforce each
other. Debates regarding
g
g the relative importance
p
of each of these
components of mathematics are misguided.”
• “Students should develop immediate recall of arithmetic facts to free the
“working
working memory”
memory for solving more complex problems
problems.”
Source: National Math Panel Fact Sheet. (March 2008). Retrieved on March 14, 2008, from
http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final-factsheet.html
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57
Response to Intervention
An RTI Challenge: Limited Research to Support
E id
Evidence-Based
B dM
Math
th IInterventions
t
ti
“… in contrast to reading,
reading core math programs that are
supported by research, or that have been constructed
according to clear research-based
research based principles
principles, are not
easy to identify. Not only have exemplary core
programs not been identified
identified, but also there are no
tools available that we know of that will help schools
analyze core math programs to determine their
alignment with clear research-based principles.” p. 459
Source: Clarke, B., Baker, S., & Chard, D. (2008). Best practices in mathematics assessment and intervention with elementary
students. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 453-463).
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58
Response to Intervention
Profile of Students With Significant Math Difficulties
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5
5.
6.
7.
Spatial organization.
organization The student commits errors such as misaligning numbers in columns
in a multiplication problem or confusing directionality in a subtraction problem (and
subtracting the original number—minuend—from the figure to be subtracted (subtrahend).
Visual detail. The student misreads a mathematical sign
g or leaves out a decimal or dollar
sign in the answer.
Procedural errors. The student skips or adds a step in a computation sequence. Or the
student misapplies a learned rule from one arithmetic procedure when completing another,
different arithmetic procedure.
proced re
Inability to ‘shift psychological set’. The student does not shift from one operation type
(e.g., addition) to another (e.g., multiplication) when warranted.
Graphomotor The student’s
Graphomotor.
student s poor handwriting can cause him or her to misread
handwritten numbers, leading to errors in computation.
Memory. The student fails to remember a specific math fact needed to solve a problem.
(The student may KNOW the math fact but not be able to recall it at ‘point
point of performance
performance’.)
.)
Judgment and reasoning. The student comes up with solutions to problems that are
clearly unreasonable. However, the student is not able adequately to evaluate those
responses to gauge whether they actually make sense in context.
Source: Rourke, B. P. (1993). Arithmetic disabilities, specific & otherwise: A neuropsychological perspective. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 26, 214-226.
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59
Response to Intervention
“Mathematics
M th
ti iis made
d off 50 percentt fformulas,
l
50 percent proofs, and 50 percent
imagination.”
–Anonymous
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60
Response to Intervention
The Elements of Mathematical
Proficiency: What the Experts Say…
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Response to Intervention
5 Strands
St d off M
Mathematical
th
ti l
Proficiency
5 Bi
Big Id
Ideas in
i Beginning
B i i
Reading
1. Understanding
1. Phonemic Awareness
2. Computing
p g
2. Alphabetic
p
Principle
p
3. Applying
3. Fluency with Text
4. Reasoning
4. Vocabulary
5. Engagement
g g
5. Comprehension
p
Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping
children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study
Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for
Education Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences
Education,
and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Source: Big ideas in beginning reading.
University of Oregon. Retrieved September 23,
2007, from http://reading.uoregon.edu/index.php
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62
Response to Intervention
Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency
1.
Understanding: Comprehending mathematical concepts,
operations, and relations--knowing what mathematical
symbols diagrams
symbols,
diagrams, and procedures mean
mean.
2
2.
Computing: Carrying out mathematical procedures,
procedures such
as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers
flexibly,
y, accurately,
y, efficiently,
y, and appropriately.
pp p
y
3.
Applying:
pp y g Beingg able to formulate pproblems
mathematically and to devise strategies for solving them
using concepts and procedures appropriately.
Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study
Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and
Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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63
Response to Intervention
Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency (Cont.)
4.
Reasoning: Using logic to explain and justify a solution to
a problem or to extend from something known to
something less known.
5.
Engaging: Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful, and
doable—if yyou work at it—and beingg willingg to do the
work.
Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study
Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and
Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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64
Response to Intervention
Math Computation: Building
Fluency
Fl
Jim Wright
www interventioncentral org
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Response to Intervention
"Arithmetic is being able to count up to twenty
without taking off your shoes."
–Anonymous
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66
Response to Intervention
Benefits of Automaticity of ‘Arithmetic Combinations’
(Gersten, Jordan, & Flojo, 2005)
• There is a strong correlation between poor retrieval of
arithmetic combinations ((‘math
math facts
facts’)) and global math
delays
• Automatic recall of arithmetic combinations frees up
student ‘cognitive capacity’ to allow for understanding of
higher-level
higher
level problem
problem-solving
solving
• By internalizing numbers as mental constructs, students
can manipulate those numbers in their head,
head allowing for
the intuitive understanding of arithmetic properties, such
p y and commutative pproperty
p y
as associative pproperty
Source: Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., & Flojo, J. R. (2005). Early identification and interventions for students with mathematics
difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 293-304.
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67
Response to Intervention
Associative Property
• “within an expression containing two or more of
th same associative
the
i ti operators
t iin a row, th
the
order of operations does not matter as long as
th sequence off th
the
the operands
d iis nott changed”
h
d”
• Example:
–(2+3)+5=10
– 2+(3+5)=10
Source: Associativity. Wikipedia. Retrieved September 5, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative
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68
Response to Intervention
Commutative Property
• “the ability to change the order of something
without
ith t changing
h i th
the endd result.”
lt ”
• Example:
– 2+3+5=10
– 2+5+3=10
Source: Associativity. Wikipedia. Retrieved September 5, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative
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69
Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: Learn Unit (Heward, 1996)
The three essential elements of effective student learning include:
1. Academic Opportunity to Respond. The student is presented with
a meaningful opportunity to respond to an academic task. A question posed by
the teacher, a math word problem, and a spelling item on an educational computer
‘Word Gobbler’ game could all be considered academic opportunities to respond.
2. Active Student Response. The student answers the item, solves the problem
presented, or completes the academic task. Answering the teacher’s question,
computing the answer to a math word problem (and showing all work), and typing
in the correct spelling of an item when playing an educational computer game are
all examples of active student responding.
responding
3. Performance Feedback. The student receives timely feedback about whether his
or her response is correct—often with praise and encouragement. A teacher
exclaiming ‘Right! Good job!’ when a student gives an response in class, a student
using an answer key to check her answer to a math word problem, and a
computer message that says ‘Congratulations! You get 2 points for correctly
spelling this word!” are all examples of performance feedback.
Source: Heward, W.L. (1996). Three low-tech strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group
instruction. In R. Gardner, D. M.S ainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. W. Eshleman,& T. A. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior
analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp.283-320). Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.
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70
Response to Intervention
Math Intervention: Tier I or II: Elementary & Secondary:
Self Administered Arithmetic Combination Drills With Performance
Self-Administered
Self-Monitoring & Incentives
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The student
Th
t d t iis given
i
a math
th computation
t ti worksheet
k h t off a specific
ifi problem
bl ttype, along
l
with
ith
an answer key [Academic Opportunity to Respond].
The student consults his or her performance chart and notes previous performance. The
student is encouraged to try to ‘beat’
beat his or her most recent score.
score
The student is given a pre-selected amount of time (e.g., 5 minutes) to complete as many
problems as possible. The student sets a timer and works on the computation sheet until
g [[Active Student Responding]
p
g]
the timer rings.
The student checks his or her work, giving credit for each correct digit (digit of correct
value appearing in the correct place-position in the answer). [Performance Feedback]
The student records the day’s score of TOTAL number of correct digits on his or her
personal performance chart.
The student receives praise or a reward if he or she exceeds the most recently posted
number of correct digits.
Application of ‘Learn Unit’ framework from : Heward, W.L. (1996). Three low-tech strategies for increasing the frequency of active student
response during group instruction. In R. Gardner, D. M.S ainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. W. Eshleman,& T. A. Grossi
(Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp.283-320). Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.
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71
Response to Intervention
Self-Administered Arithmetic Combination Drills…
Reward Given
Reward Given
Reward Given
Reward Given
No Reward
No Reward
No Reward
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72
Response to Intervention
Cover-Copy-Compare:
M h Computational
Math
C
i l Fluency-Building
Fl
B ildi IIntervention
i
The student is given sheet with correctly completed
math problems in left column and index card.
F eachh problem,
For
bl
th
the student:
t d t
–
–
–
–
–
studies the model
covers the model with index card
copies the problem from memory
solves the problem
uncovers the correctly completed model to check answer
Source: Skinner, C.H., Turco, T.L., Beatty, K.L., & Rasavage, C. (1989). Cover, copy, and compare: A method for increasing
multiplication performance. School Psychology Review, 18, 412-420.
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73
Response to Intervention
Math Computation: Problem Interspersal Technique
• The teacher first identifies the range of ‘challenging’
challenging problem-types
(number problems appropriately matched to the student’s current
instructional level) that are to appear on the worksheet.
• Then the teacher creates a series of ‘easy’
easy problems that the
students can complete very quickly (e.g., adding or subtracting two 1digit numbers). The teacher next prepares a series of student math
computation
p
worksheets with ‘easy’
y computation
p
pproblems
interspersed at a fixed rate among the ‘challenging’ problems.
• If the student is expected to complete the worksheet independently,
‘challenging’ and ‘easy’ problems should be interspersed at a 1:1
ratio (that is, every ‘challenging’ problem in the worksheet is preceded
and/or followed by an ‘easy’ problem).
• If the student is to have the problems read aloud and then asked to
solve
l th
the problems
bl
mentally
t ll andd write
it down
d
only
l the
th answer, the
th
items should appear on the worksheet at a ratio of 3 ‘challenging’
problems for every ‘easy’ one (that is, every 3 ‘challenging’ problems
are preceded and/or followed by an ‘easy’
easy one).
one)
Source: Hawkins, J., Skinner, C. H., & Oliver, R. (2005). The effects of task demands and additive interspersal ratios on fifthgrade students’ mathematics accuracy. School Psychology Review, 34, 543-555..
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74
Response to Intervention
Building Student Skills in
Applied Math Problems
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.orgg
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Response to Intervention
How Do We Reach Low-Performing Math
Students?: Instructional Recommendations
Important elements of math instruction for low-performing
students:
t d t
–
–
–
–
“Providing teachers and students with data on student
performance
performance”
“Using peers as tutors or instructional guides”
“Providingg clear,, specific
p
feedback to pparents on their children’s
mathematics success”
“Using principles of explicit instruction in teaching math
concepts and procedures
procedures.”” pp. 51
Source: Baker, S., Gersten, R., & Lee, D. (2002).A synthesis of empirical research on teaching mathematics to lowachieving students. The Elementary School Journal, 103(1), 51-73..
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76
Response to Intervention
Developing Student
Metacognitive Abilities
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Response to Intervention
Importance of Metacognitive Strategy Use…
“Metacognitive processes focus on self-awareness
of cognitive knowledge that is presumed to be
necessary for effective problem solving, and they
direct and regulate
g
cognitive
g
pprocesses and
strategies during problem solving…That is,
successful problem solvers, consciously or
unconsciously
i l (depending
(d
di on ttaskk ddemands),
d ) use
self-instruction, self-questioning, and self-monitoring
to gain access to strategic knowledge
knowledge, guide
execution of strategies, and regulate use of
strategies
g and pproblem-solvingg pperformance.” pp. 231
Source: Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on the mathematical problem
solving of middle school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
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78
Response to Intervention
Elements of Metacognitive Processes
“Self-instruction helps students to identify and
direct the problem
problem-solving
solving strategies prior to
execution. Self-questioning promotes internal
dialogue
g for systematically
y
y analyzing
y g pproblem
information and regulating execution of cognitive
strategies. Self-monitoring promotes appropriate
use off specific
ifi strategies
t t i andd encourages students
t d t
to monitor general performance. [Emphasis added].”
p 231
p.
Source: Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on the mathematical problem
solving of middle school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
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79
Response to Intervention
Combining Cognitive & Metacognitive Strategies to Assist
Students With Mathematical Problem Solving p.
p 44
Solvingg an advanced math pproblem independently
p
y
requires the coordination of a number of complex skills.
The following strategies combine both cognitive and
metacognitive
t
iti elements
l
t (M
(Montague,
t
1992
1992; M
Montague
t
&
Dietz, 2009). First, the student is taught a 7-step
process for attacking a math word problem (cognitive
strategy). Second, the instructor trains the student to
use a three-part
p self-coachingg routine for each of the
seven problem-solving steps (metacognitive strategy).
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80
Response to Intervention
Cognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving Approach
In the cognitive part of this multi-strategy intervention, the student learns an explicit series
of steps to analyze and solve a math problem. Those steps include:
1 Reading the problem.
1.
problem The student reads the problem carefully
carefully, noting and attempting
to clear up any areas of uncertainly or confusion (e.g., unknown vocabulary terms).
2. Paraphrasing the problem. The student restates the problem in his or her own words.
3. ‘Drawing’
g the p
problem. The student creates a drawingg of the pproblem,, creatingg a
visual representation of the word problem.
4. Creating a plan to solve the problem. The student decides on the best way to solve
the problem and develops a plan to do so.
5 Predicting/Estimating the answer.
5.
answer The student estimates or predicts what the answer
to the problem will be. The student may compute a quick approximation of the answer,
using rounding or other shortcuts.
6. Computing the answer. The student follows the plan developed earlier to compute the
answer to
t the
th problem.
bl
7. Checking the answer. The student methodically checks the calculations for each step
of the problem. The student also compares the actual answer to the estimated answer
g
between the two
calculated in a pprevious stepp to ensure that there is ggeneral agreement
values.
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81
Response to Intervention
Metacognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving Approach
The metacognitive component of the intervention is a threepart routine that follows a sequence of ‘Say’, ‘Ask, ‘Check’. For
each of the 7 problem-solving steps reviewed above:
• The student first self-instructs by stating, or ‘saying’, the
purpose of the step (‘Say’).
• The student next self-questions by ‘asking’ what he or she
intends to do to complete the step (‘Ask’).
• The
Th student
t d t concludes
l d the
th step
t by
b self-monitoring,
lf
it i or
‘checking’, the successful completion of the step (‘Check’).
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82
Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
St t
Strategy
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83
Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
St t
Strategy
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84
Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
St t
Strategy
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85
Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
St t
Strategy
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86
Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
St t
Strategy
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87
Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
St t
Strategy
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88
Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
St t
Strategy
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89
Response to Intervention
Applied Problems: Pop Quiz
7-Step Problem-Solving:Process
11.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Reading the problem.
problem
Paraphrasing the
problem.
‘Drawing’
Drawing the
problem.
Creating a plan to
solve the problem.
Predicting/Estimating the answer.
Computing the
answer.
Checking the answer.
Q:
“To move their
theread
Romans
over
Directions:
Asarmies,
a team,
the built
following
50,000 miles of roads. Imagine driving all those miles!
problem.
Atdriving
your tables,
apply
thefirst
7-step
Now
imagine
those miles
in the
gasolinegasoline
problem-solving
bl
l
i
(
(cognitive)
iti
)
strategy
t
t
to
t
driven car that has only three wheels and could reach
problem.
As per
youhour.
complete each
acomplete
top speedthe
of about
10 miles
step
ofe ythe
problem,
apply
For
o sa
safety's
s sa
sake,
e, let's
e s bbring
g aalong
othe
g a‘Say-Askspa
sparee tire.
e Ass
Check’
Tryspare
to with
you
drivemetacognitive
the 50,000 miles,sequence.
you rotate the
the
other tires
that all7four
tireswithin
get thethe
same
complete
thesoentire
steps
time
amount
of wear.
Canexercise.
you figure out how many miles
allocated
for this
off wear eachh titire accumulates?”
l t ?”
A: “Since
Since the four wheels of the three
three-wheeled
wheeled car
share the journey equally, simply take
three-fourths of the total distance (50,000
miles) and you
you'llll get 37
37,500
500 miles for each tire.
tire ”
Source: The Math Forum @ Drexel: Critical Thinking Puzzles/Spare My Brain. Retrieved from
http://mathforum.org/k12/k12puzzles/critical.thinking/puzz2.html
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90
Response to Intervention
Activity: Tier 1 Interventions
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Response to Intervention
Interventions
•
•
•
•
•
•
General Reading Ideas: pp. 7-11
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills: pp. 25-26
General Math Ideas: pp
pp. 12-16
Specific Math Intervention Scripts: pp. 28-39
General Writing Ideas: pp
pp. 16
16-20
20
General Study/Organizational Skills: pp. 21-24
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92
Response to Intervention
Tier I Intervention Menu: Activity
• Select one academic area from the
previous slide and review the ideas
presented.
• Select at least ONE core instructional
strategy or Tier 1 intervention that you
your g
grade-level,,
believe that all teachers in y
department, or school should have in their
Tier 1 ‘toolkit’.
• Be prepared to report out.
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93
Response to Intervention
RTI: Writing
Interventions
Jim Wright
www interventioncentral org
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Response to Intervention
"IfIf all the grammarians in the
world were pplaced end to end,, it
would be a good thing."
– Oscar Wilde
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95
Response to Intervention
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007).
Writing next: Effective strategies
to improve writing of adolescents
in middle and high schools – A
report to Carnegie Corporation of
New York. Washington, DC
Alliance for Excellent Education.
Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/
WritingNext.pdf
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96
Response to Intervention
The Effect of Grammar Instruction as an Independent Activity
“Grammar instruction in the studies reviewed [for the Writing Next
report] involved the explicit and systematic teaching of the parts of
speech and structure of sentences. The meta-analysis found an
effect for this type of instruction for students across the full range of
ability,
bilit bbutt …surprisingly,
i i l thi
this effect
ff t was negative…Such
ti
S h fifindings
di
raise serious questions about some educators’ enthusiasm for
traditional grammar instruction as a focus of writing instruction for
adolescents….Overall, the findings on grammar instruction suggest
that, although
g teachingg ggrammar is important,
p
alternative pprocedures,
such as sentence combining, are more effective than traditional
approaches for improving the quality of students’ writing.” p. 21
Source: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education.
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97
Response to Intervention
Elements of effective writing instruction for adolescents:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Writing Process (Effect Size = 0.82): Students are taught a process
for planning
planning, revising
revising, and editing
editing.
Summarizing (Effect Size = 0.82): Students are taught methods to
identify key points, main ideas from readings to write summaries of
source texts.
texts
Cooperative Learning Activities (‘Collaborative Writing’) (Effect
Size = 0.75): Students are placed in pairs or groups with learning
activities that focus on collaborative use of the writing process.
Goal-Setting (Effect Size = 0.70): Students set specific ‘product
ggoals’ for their writingg and then check their attainment of those selfgenerated goals.
Source: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
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98
Response to Intervention
Elements of effective writing instruction for adolescents:
5.
6.
7
7.
8.
Writing Processors (Effect Size = 0.55): Students have access to
computers/word processors in the writing process.
process
Sentence Combining (Effect Size = 0.50): Students take part in
instructional activities that require
q
the combination or embeddingg of
simpler sentences (e.g., Noun-Verb-Object) to generate more
advanced, complex sentences.
Prewriting (Effect Size = 00.32):
32): Students learn to select,
select develop,
develop or
organize ideas to incorporate into their writing by participating in
structured ‘pre-writing’ activities.
Inquiry Activities (Effect Size = 0.32): Students become actively
engaged researchers, collecting and analyzing information to guide the
ideas and content for writing assignments.
assignments
Source: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
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99
Response to Intervention
Elements of effective writingg instruction for adolescents:
9.
Process Writing
g ((Effect Size = 0.32):
) Writingg instruction is taught
g in a
‘workshop’ format that “ stresses extended writing opportunities, writing
for authentic audiences, personalized instruction, and cycles of writing”
(Graham & Perin
Perin, 2007; pp. 4)
4).
10. Use of Writing Models (Effect Size = 0.25): Students read and
discuss models of good writing and use them as exemplars for their
own writing.
11. Writing to Learn Content (Effect Size = 0.23): The instructor
incorporates writing activities as a means to have students learn
content material.
Source: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
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100
Response to Intervention
"The
The difference between the
right
g word and the almost right
g
word is the difference between
lightning and the lightning bug."
– Mark Twain
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101
Response to Intervention
"Your
Your manuscript is both good
and original.
g
But the ppart that is
good is not original, and the part
that is original is not good."
– Samuel Johnson
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102
Response to Intervention
Selected Writing Interventions
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Response to Intervention
Use Selective Proofreading
With Highlighting of Errors
To prevent struggling writers from becoming
overwhelmed by teacher proofreading corrections,
corrections
select only 1 or 2 proofreading areas when correcting
a writing assignment.
assignment
1. Create a student ‘writing skills checklist’ that inventories key writing
competencies (e
(e.g.,
g grammar/syntax
grammar/syntax, spelling
spelling, vocabulary
vocabulary, etc
etc.).
)
2. For each writing assignment, announce to students that you will
grade the assignment for overall content but will make proofreading
corrections on only 1-2 areas chosen from the writing skills
checklist. (Select different proofreading targets for each assignment
matched to common writingg weaknesses in yyour classroom.))
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104
Response to Intervention
Use Selective Proofreading
With Highlighting of Errors: Cont.
Cont
3. To prevent cluttering the student’s paper with potentially
discouraging teacher comments and editing marks:
a. underline problems in the student’ text with a highlighter and
b. number the highlighted errors sequentially at the left margin of
the student paper.
c. write teacher comments on a separate feedback sheet to
explain the writing errors
errors. Identify each comment with the
matching error-number from the left margin of the student’s
worksheet.
TIP: Have students use this method when proofreading their own
text.
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105
Response to Intervention
Selective Proofreading With
Highlighting of Errors
Jimmy Smith
Dec 1, 2006
Mrs. Richman
Spelling; Run-on
Run on and incomplete
sentences
1
Rewrite this run-on sentence as two separate
sentences.
2
Not clear. Rewrite. Consider starting the sentence
with ‘The concept of …’
1
2
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106
Response to Intervention
"A
A ratio of failures is built into
the process of writing.
writing The
wastebasket has evolved for
a reason."
– Margaret Atwood
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107
Response to Intervention
Sentence Combining
Students with poor writing skills often write sentences that lack
‘syntactic maturity’. Their sentences often follow a simple,
stereotyped format. A promising approach to teach students use of
di erse sentence structures
diverse
str ct res is through
thro gh sentence combining.
combining
In sentence combining, students are presented with kernel sentences
and given explicit instruction in how to weld these kernel sentences
into more diverse sentence types either
– by using connecting words to combine multiple sentences into
one or
– by isolating key information from an otherwise superfluous
sentence and embedding that important information into the base
sentence.
Sources: Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining: A sentence-level writing intervention. The Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471.
Strong, W. (1986). Creative approaches to sentence combining. Urbana, OL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skill & National Council of Teachers of English.
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108
Response to Intervention
Formatting Sentence Combining Examples
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109
Response to Intervention
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110
Response to Intervention
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111
Response to Intervention
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112
Response to Intervention
Interventions to
Help Study Skills
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Response to Intervention
Homework Contract
Intended Purpose:
Thi homework
This
h
k contract
t t intervention
i t
ti ((adapted
d t d
from Miller & Kelly, 1994) uses goal-setting, a
written
itt contract,
t t andd rewards
d to
t boost
b t student
t d t
completion (and accuracy) of homework.
St d t also
Students
l learn
l
the
th valuable
l bl skills
kill off
breaking down academic assignments into
smaller,
ll more manageable
bl subtasks
bt k andd setting
tti
priorities for work completion.
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Response to Intervention
Homework
C t t
Contract:
Form
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Response to Intervention
Homework Contract
1. Parents are trained to be supportive ‘homework
coaches’.
h ’
2. The parent creates a homework reward system for
the child.
3. The pparent negotiates
g
the homework contract
program with the child.
4 The parent and child fill out the Daily Homework
4.
Contract.
5 The parent checks the child
5.
child’ss homework completion
completion,
delivers nightly & weekly rewards.
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Response to Intervention
Homework Contract:
Ti & Troubleshooting
Tips
T bl h ti
• If th
the parentt fifinds
d th
the H
Homeworkk C
Contract
t t program
too burdensome, have an afterschool program
i l
implement
t it.
it
• The teacher may choose to monitor homework
completion and send a note home to the parent, who
provides the reward.
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Response to Intervention
Homework Contract:
Ti & Troubleshooting
Tips
T bl h ti
• If th
the parentt fifinds
d th
the H
Homeworkk C
Contract
t t program
too burdensome, have an afterschool program
i l
implement
t it.
it
• The teacher may choose to monitor homework
completion and send a note home to the parent, who
provides the reward.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Guided Notes: Helping
p g
Students to Master
Course Content
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Guided Notes
• Description: The student is given a copy of notes
summarizing content from a class lecture or assigned
reading. Blanks are inserted in the notes where key
facts or concepts should appear. As information is
covered during lecture or in a reading assignment, the
student writes missing content into blanks to complete
the guided notes. Guided notes promote active
engagement during lecture or independent reading,
provide
id full
f ll andd accurate
t notes
t ffor use as a study
t d guide,
id
and help students to identify the most important
information covered (Heward,
(Heward 2001)
2001).
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121
Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Guided Notes: Recommendations
• Keep guided note entries brief. Shorter guided note entries
promote student understanding of content as well as or better
than longer entries (Konrad, Joseph & Eveleigh, 2009). Also,
short entries can increase student motivation to write in
responses.
• Distribute entryy items throughout
g
the gguided notes. Guided
notes help to promote active student engagement during lecture
or reading (Heward, 2001). When entry items are distributed
evenly throughout the guided notes, they require higher rates of
active student responding (Konrad, Joseph & Eveleigh, 2009),
which can both promote mastery of content and increase levels
of on-task behavior.
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123
Response to Intervention
Guided Notes: Recommendations
• Verify student completion of notes. To ensure that students are
actively engaged in completing guided notes
notes, the instructor can
occasionally collect and review them for accuracy and
completeness (on a random and unpredictable schedule).
• Have students tally notes-review sessions. Guided notes are a
ppowerful tool for reviewingg course content. Students can be
encouraged to write a checkmark on the cover of a set of
completed guided notes each time that they review them
(Lazarus, 1996). These tallies assist students to monitor
whether they have adequately reviewed those notes in
preparation for quizzes and tests.
tests
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124
Response to Intervention
Guided Notes: Recommendations
• Fade the use of guided notes. As the class becomes more
proficient at note-taking,
note taking the instructor can gradually 'fade'
fade the
use of guided notes by providing less pre-formatted notescontent and requiring that students write a larger share of the
notes on their own (Heward, 1996).
• Give students responsibility
p
y for creatingg gguided notes. Teachers
may discover that they can hand some responsibility to their
students to prepare guided-notes. For example, as a
cooperative-learning exercise, a group of students might be
assigned a chapter-section from a biology text and asked to
compose a set of guided notes based on its content
content. The
teacher can then review and edit the notes as needed.
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125
Response to Intervention
‘Big
Big Ideas’
Ideas in Student Behavior
Management
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Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: Similar Behaviors May Stem from Very
Different ‘Root’ Causes
Ca ses
(Kratochwill, Elliott, & Carrington Rotto, 1990)
• Behavior is not random but follows purposeful patterns.
patterns
Students who present with the same apparent ‘surface’
surface
behaviors may have very different ‘drivers’ (underlying
reasons)) that explain whyy those behaviors occur.
A student’s problem behaviors must be
carefully
f ll identified
id tifi d andd analyzed
l d to
t
determine the drivers that support them.
Source: Kratochwill, T. R., Elliott, S. N., & Carrington Rotto, P. (1990). Best practices in behavioral consultation. In A. Thomas
and J. Grimes (Eds.). Best practices in school psychology-II (pp. 147=169). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of School
Psychologists..
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127
Response to Intervention
Factors Influencing the Decision to Classify as
‘B h i ll Disordered’
‘Behaviorally
Di d d’ (Gresham, 1992)
Four factors strongly
g y influence the likelihood that a student
will be classified as Behaviorally Disordered:
•
•
•
•
Severity: Frequency and intensity of the problem
behavior(s).
Chronicity: Length of time that the problem behavior(s)
h
have
been
b
di
displayed.
l d
Generalization: Degree to which the student displays
the pproblem behavior(s)
( ) across settings
g or situations.
Tolerance: Degree to which the student’s problem
behavior(s) are accepted in that student’s current
social setting.
setting
Source: Gresham, F. M. (1992). Conceptualizing behavior disorders in terms of resistance to intervention. School Psychology
Review, 20, 23-37.
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128
Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: Behavior is a Continuous ‘Stream’
(Schoenfeld & Farmer,
Farmer 1970)
• Individuals are always performing SOME type
of behavior: watching the instructor,
instructor sleeping
sleeping,
talking to a neighbor, completing a worksheet
((‘behavior stream’).)
• When students are fully engaged in
academic behaviors, they are less likely to get
off-task
ff t k andd di
display
l problem
bl bbehaviors.
h i
• Academic tasks that are clearly understood, elicit student
interest provide a high rate of student success
interest,
success, and include
teacher encouragement and feedback are most likely to
effectively ‘capture’ the student’s ‘behavior stream’.
Source: Schoenfeld, W. N., & Farmer, J. (1970). Reinforcement schedules and the ‘‘behavior stream.’’ In W. N. Schoenfeld
(Ed.), The theory of reinforcement schedules (pp. 215–245). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
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129
Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: Academic Delays Can Be
aP
Potent
t tC
Cause off B
Behavior
h i
Problems
(Witt Daly,
(Witt,
Daly & Noell
Noell, 2000)
Student academic problems cause many
school
h l bbehavior
h i problems.
bl
“Whether
“Wh
th [a
[ student’s]
t d t’ ] problem
bl iis a bbehavior
h i problem
bl or an
academic one, we recommend starting with a functional
academic assessment,, since often behavior problems
p
occur
when students cannot or will not do required academic work.”
Source: Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., & Noell, G. (2000). Functional assessments: A step-by-step guide to solving academic and
behavior problems. Longmont, CO: Sopris West, p. 13
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130
Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: Be Proactive in Behavior Management
(Martens & Meller, 1990)
• Teachers who intervene before a student
misbehaves
i b h
or when
h th
the misbehavior
i b h i hhas nott yett
escalated have a greater likelihood of keeping
th student
the
t d t on ttaskk andd engagedd in
i learning.
l
i
ABC Timeline
A
B
C
Source: Martens, B.K., & Meller, P.J. (1990). The application of behavioral principles to educational settings. In T.B. Gutkin &
C.R.Reynolds (Eds.), The handbook of school psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. 612-634). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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131
Response to Intervention
ABC: The Core of Behavior Management
“....at the core of behavioral interventions is the
three-term contingency consisting of an antecedent,
b h i andd consequence.””
behavior,
“… subsequent
q “…which
some
yp
“Thattois,
, then
mosttype
may
behavior
y be maintained
is
if it is followed
of environmental
by
believed
an event
to (i.e.,
occur…”
that is pleasurable or reinforcing
an antecedent)
…”
(i.e., consequence).”
A
B
C
Source: Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., & Sokol, N. G. (2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions used in natural settings to
reduce challenging behaviors: An analysis of the literature. Education & Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130. p. 113.
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132
Response to Intervention
ABC: Events as Antecedents
‘Discriminative
Discriminative Stimulus’:
Stimulus : An antecedent can become
associated with certain desired outcomes and thus ‘trigger’
pproblem behaviors.
The student stares at the
Example:
A student
student
sent toisthe
If the consequence
qp
associated
with the is
behavior
paper
pis given
for aThe
moment—then
areinforcing
math
th computation
t tistudent,
office-allowing
ffithen
ll antecedent
i escape
from
f
for the
the
or trigger
tears
it up.
worksheet
can servetoto complete.
signal (discriminate) that
is
thereinforcement
task.
coming
coming.
A
B
C
Source: Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., & Sokol, N. G. (2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions used in natural settings to
reduce challenging behaviors: An analysis of the literature. Education & Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130. p. 113.
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133
Response to Intervention
Antecedent Strategies to Manage Behavior:
P
Proactive
ti Changes
Ch
tto th
the E
Environment
i
t
“Antecedent interventions typically involve some type
of environmental rearrangement. ”
Source: Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., & Sokol, N. G. (2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions used in natural settings to
reduce challenging behaviors: An analysis of the literature. Education & Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130. p. 113.
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134
Response to Intervention
Advantages of Antecedent Strategies vs. ‘Reactive
Approaches’
11. Can prevent behavior problems from occurring
2. Are typically ‘quick acting’
3 Can result in an instructional environment that
3.
better promotes student learning
Source: Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the
Schools, 44, 65-75.
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135
Response to Intervention
Selecting Rewards That
Motivate:
Tips
p for
Teachers
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Response to Intervention
Praise: Effective…and Underused
Praise can be an efficient way to raise the compliance
le el of whole
level
hole groups
gro ps or individual
indi id al st
students.
dents
However, studies show that praise is seldom used
with general education students and is used even
less often with special-needs students (Kern &
Clemens, 2007).
Source: Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the
Schools, 44, 65-75.
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137
Response to Intervention
How to Structure a Praise Statement
“Research has demonstrated that behavior-specific
praise or that which specifically identifies the
praise,
particular desirable behavior the student is
performing is most effective in promoting appropriate
performing,
behavior.” (Kern & Clemens, 2007). [Emphasis added]
Source: Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the
Schools, 44, 65-75.
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138
Response to Intervention
What if the Student Does Not Respond to Praise?
Students
St
d t sometimes
ti
ddo nott respondd tto praise,
i especially
i ll in
i
large-group settings. If so, consider these suggestions:
1
1.
2
2.
3
3.
Be sure that your praise is authentic
authentic. For example,
example praise only those
aspects of a student’s work or behavior that are truly praise-worthy.
Otherwise the student may find the praise to be phony and aversive.
Deliver the student praise in private conversations or in written
format. The discrete delivery of praise can reduce or prevent
potential public embarrassment.
F low-performing
For
l
f i students,
t d t praise
i effort
ff t as wellll as product.
d t Whil
While
a struggling writer may write an essay that does not merit high
praise, for example, the teacher may instead praise the amount of
time
i that
h the
h student
d was willing
illi to put iinto the
h composition
i i andd also
l
point out how the current writing product shows improvements over
the student’s own previous writing attempts.
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139
Response to Intervention
Tying Reward Schedule to Student’s Stage of the Instructional
Hi
Hierarchy
h (Daly, Martens, Barnett, Witt, & Olson, 2007)
• During acquisition of a skill and early stages of fluencybuilding provide reinforcement (e.g.,
building,
(e g praise
praise, exchangeable
tokens) contingent upon on-task behavior (time-based
reinforcement). This approach avoids ‘penalizing’ students
for slow performance.
performance
•
During later stages of fluency-building, change to
reinforcement
i f
t based
b d on rate
t off performance
f
(
(accuracybased contingency). This approach explicitly reinforces high
response
p
rates.
•
As fluency increases, maintain high rates of performance
through intermittent reinforcement
reinforcement, lottery
lottery, etc
etc.
Source: Daly, E. J., Martens, B. K., Barnett, D., Witt, J. C., & Olson, S. C. (2007). Varying intervention delivery in response to intervention:
Confronting and resolving challenges with measurement, instruction, and intensity. School Psychology Review, 36, 562-581.
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140
Response to Intervention
Selectingg a Reward: 3-Part Test
•
Do teacher, administration, and parent find the
rewardd acceptable?
t bl ?
•
IIs th
the rewardd available
il bl (conveniently
(
i tl andd att an
affordable cost) in schools?
•
Does the child find the reward motivating?
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141
Response to Intervention
Creating a Reward Menu
Conduct a reinforcer survey to create a ‘Reward Menu’.
Menu’
1.
The teacher collects a series of feasible classroom ideas for possible
student reinforcers, writing each idea onto a separate index card. This
serves as a master ‘reinforcer deck’ that the teacher can reuse.
2. The teacher meets with the student individually to review the reward ideas
i th
in
the master
t reinforce
i f
ddeck.
k Th
The student
t d t states
t t whether
h th hhe or she
h ‘likes’
‘lik ’
each reinforce idea ‘a lot’ , ‘a little’ or ‘not at all’ and the teacher sorts the
reinforcer cards accordingly
g y into separate
p
ppiles. The reinforce ideas that
the student selected as ‘liking a lot’ will be used to create a customized
reinforcer menu for the student.
3 Whenever the student meets teacher-established
3.
teacher established criteria to earn a reward,
reward
that student selects one from the reinforce menu.
pp
to be losingg its reinforcingg ppower,, the teacher
4. If the reward menu appears
can repeat the steps above with the student to update and refresh the
reward menu.
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142
Response to Intervention
Rewards: Activity
Pair off & discuss…
•
How your school can use rewards to support
behavioral interventions…
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143
Response to Intervention
‘Defensive Behavior
g
The Power
Management’:
of Teacher Preparation
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: A Method to Avoid Power
St
Struggles
l
‘Defensive management’
g
((Fields, 2004)) is a teacherfriendly six-step approach to avert student-teacher
power struggles that emphasizes providing proactive
instructional support
pp to the student,, elimination of
behavioral triggers in the classroom setting,
relationship-building, strategic application of defusing
techniques when needed, and use of a ‘reconnection’
reconnection
conference after behavioral incidents to promote
student reflection and positive behavior change.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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145
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
1. Understanding the Problem and Using Proactive
Strategies. The teacher collects information--through
direct observation and perhaps other means--about
specific instances of student problem behavior and the
instructional components
p
and other factors
surrounding them. The teacher analyzes this
information to discover specific ‘trigger’ events that
seem to set off the problem behavior(s) (e.g., lack of
skills; failure to understand directions).
The instructor then adjusts instruction to provide
appropriate student support (e.g., providing the
student with additional instruction in a skill; repeating
directions and writing them on the board).
board)
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
www.interventioncentral.org
146
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
2. Promoting
g Positive Teacher-Student Interactions.
Early in each class session, the teacher has at least
one positive verbal interaction with the student.
Throughout
g
the class pperiod,, the teacher continues to
interact in positive ways with the student (e.g., brief
conversation, smile, thumbs up, praise comment after
a student remark in large
large-group
group discussion, etc.). In
each interaction, the teacher adopts a genuinely
accepting, polite, respectful tone.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
www.interventioncentral.org
147
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
3. Scanning for Warning Indicators. During the class
session, the teacher monitors the target student’s
behavior for any behavioral indicators suggesting that
the student is becoming frustrated or angry. Examples
of behaviors that precede non-compliance or open
d fi
defiance
may include
i l d stopping
t i work;
k muttering
tt i or
complaining; becoming argumentative; interrupting
others; leaving his or her seat; throwing objects
objects, etc
etc.).
)
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
www.interventioncentral.org
148
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
4. Exercising Emotional Restraint. Whenever the student
begins to display problematic behaviors, the teacher
makes an active effort to remain calm. To actively monitor
his or her emotional state, the teacher tracks physiological
cues such as increased muscle tension and heart rate, as
wellll as ffear, annoyance, anger, or other
th negative
ti
emotions. The teacher also adopts calming or relaxation
strategies that work for him or her in the face of
provocative student behavior, such as taking a deep
breath or countingg to 10 before responding.
p
g
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
www.interventioncentral.org
149
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
5. Using Defusing Tactics. If the student begins to escalate
to non-compliant, defiant, or confrontational behavior (e.g.,
arguing, threatening, other intentional verbal interruptions),
the teacher draws from a range of possible descalating
strategies to defuse the situation. Such strategies can
i l d private
include
i t conversation
ti with
ith th
the student
t d t while
hil
maintaining a calm voice, open-ended questions,
paraphrasing the student’s
student s concerns
concerns, acknowledging the
student’s emotions, etc.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
www.interventioncentral.org
150
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
6. Reconnecting with The Student. Soon after any in
in-class
class
incident of student non-compliance, defiance, or
confrontation, the teacher makes a point to meet with the
student to discuss the behavioral incident, identify the
triggers in the classroom environment that led to the
problem,
bl
andd bbrainstorm
i t
with
ith th
the student
t d t tto create
t a
written plan to prevent the reoccurrence of such an
incident Throughout this conference
incident.
conference, the teacher
maintains a supportive, positive, polite, and respectful
tone.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
www.interventioncentral.org
151
Response to Intervention
Activity: Defensive Behavior Management
In your teams:
• Discuss the Defensive Behavior Management
framework.
• How can you use a framework like this as a
tool to help general
general-education
education teachers to
better manage student behaviors?
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Response to Intervention
Group Activity: Offer Advice to a Troubled Classroom
At your tables:
• View the video clip of the teacher’s
interaction with Ryan in the middle school
classroom
• Use the six-step defensive behavior
management framework
f
k to come up with
ih
ideas to recommend to this teacher to help
her to manage Ryan’s
Ryan s behavior more
effectively.
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Response to Intervention
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