1. food and drink
2. food
3. grains and pasta

PART D: How to do more of it
The following chapters provide guidelines for practical actions including protecting dunes
and water quality, managing access, and protecting wildlife along the coast.
You may not need all this information and you certainly don’t need to know it all.
Techniques are constantly changing as we learn more about coastal processes, ecology
and managing human impacts on the coast. Always seek advice.
You must have permission from the land manager before commencing any works or
activities, sometimes assessments and approvals are required.
Chapter 17: Protecting dunes and sandy coastlines
Chapter 19: Protecting water quality
17.1 Coastal dunes and sandy landscapes
17.1 Types of coastal waterways
17.2 Dune terminology
17.2 Threats to coastal waterways
17.3 Geoconservation values of coastal dunes
17.3 Protecting coastal waterways
17.4 Dune blowouts
17.4 Protecting saltmarsh
17.5 To stabilise or not?
17.5 Monitoring coastal waterways
17.6 Remove the destabilising influences
Chapter 20: Protecting wildlife
17.7 Vegetation and sand movement
20.1 Tasmania’s unique coastal wildlife
17.8 Dune-forming fences
20.2 Shorebirds and small sea birds
17.9 Surface stabilisation techniques
20.3 Threats to shorebirds
17.10 Dune reshaping after storms
Chapter 18: Managing access
18.1 Why control access?
18.2 Planning for access management
20.4 Protecting shorebirds
20.5 Penguins, shearwaters and other seabirds
20.6 Protecting shearwaters
Chapter 21: Pests and problems
18.3 How can Coastcare groups get involved?
21.1 Oil spills
18.4 Consultation with community is important
21.2 Marine debris
18.5 Access control measures
21.3 Feral animals
21.4 Marine pests
21.5 Common marine pests to look for
17 Protecting dunes & sandy
coastlines
Coastal dunes, sandy beaches and sand spits are a feature of many Tasmanian coastlines.
Sandy landscapes are generally active landforms subject to a cycle of erosion and
deposition. They are best left to find a natural equilibrium. It is important to seek expert
advice before you decide whether or how to intervene. There is not a lot a Coastcare
group can do about receding shorelines. However human-induced erosion due to vehicle
and pedestrian access, burning, grazing, fire, sand extraction and clearing can be tackled
by Coastcare groups. This chapter provides some information about assessing human
induced erosion of sandy landscapes (predominantly dunes) and what can be done to
help.
17.1
Coastal dunes and sandy landscapes
17.6
Remove the destabilising influences
17.2
Dune terminology
17.7
Vegetation and sand movement
17.3
Geoconservation values of coastal dunes
17.8
Dune-forming fences
17.4
Dune blowouts
17.9
Surface stabilisation techniques
17.5
To stabilise or not?
17.10
Dune reshaping after storms
17.1
Coastal dunes and sandy landscapes
Coastal sand dunes are formed by the transport of sand onto beaches by wave action and then up the beach
by wind. Specialised dune vegetation plays a critical role by trapping windblown sand and allowing foredunes
to grow parallel to the shoreline. The type of vegetation may determine the shape and profile of the dunes.
Loose sand-size grains are easily transported by wind, waves and currents, yet are quickly dropped and
accumulate as soon as these transport mechanisms wane. This makes sandy environments such as dunes,
beaches, sand spits and river mouths extremely dynamic compared to environments dominated by clays,
cobbles or coarser sediments. Natural coastal erosion, longshore drift and tidal currents readily supply and
replenish sand, and sandy landscapes are always changing in response to changes in waves, tides, currents and
fresh water flows. Artificial interruptions to the natural movement of sand can cause many problems.
Climate change scientists currently project a likely sea-level rise of around 80 centimetres by 2100, although
higher rises cannot be ruled out. Sea-level rise will have major implications for the stability of sandy coasts (see
Chapter 3), as will increased storm frequencies. Regional changes in rainfall and wind speed can also be
expected to modify dune systems substantially.
Older dunes may still be found behind the more recent coastal dunes on many parts of the Tasmanian coast,
for example behind Waterhouse Bay in the northeast or Cloudy Bay in the south, and they even occur perched
on top of rocky shores and sea-cliffs in places such as Cape Pillar and Shipstern Bluff on Tasman Peninsula.
These older dune systems are sometimes less susceptible to wind erosion than younger foredunes; however
they are still unconsolidated sand deposits which can erode if inappropriately disturbed.
One of the main considerations is whether the dunes are naturally active. Stabilisation may not be appropriate
if it interferes with natural dune processes, conservation values or Aboriginal heritage sites. Sites of
geomorphological significance are listed on the Tasmanian Geoconservation Database.
17.2
Dune terminology
It is best to avoid the terms ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ dunes and ‘frontal’ dunes as they can be ambiguous.
In some of the older literature dunes have been described as ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ dunes. The terms
‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ have also been used to describe the order of colonisation of coastal plants onto
dune systems. Other texts refer to ‘frontal dunes’ which is difficult to define if the seaward side of the dune
system is fluctuating between building up and eroding.
The following terms are recommended for defining dunes. Technical information on appropriate dune
terminology can be found in Coastal Sand Dunes – Form and Function.
Established and Incipient foredunes
‘Foredunes’ are beach-parallel sand ridges which accumulate at the back of beaches above the High Water
Mark where vegetation captures sand blown off the beach. ‘Incipient foredunes’ are small ephemeral
foredunes that may accumulate above HWM for a few years following major storms, but are occasionally
destroyed by major storms. ‘Established foredunes’ are larger foredunes landwards of incipient dunes, which
generally accumulate at and beyond the limit of even very large storm waves. The seawards slope of
established foredunes may occasionally be scarped by large storms, but the whole dune will only be destroyed
if a change in conditions occurs, such as a significant rise in sea-level.
Parallel dunes (including back-dunes or hind dunes)
Parallel dunes – sometimes known as hind-dunes or back-dunes – are sometimes (but not always) present
where a beach has been prograding (growing) over a long period of time. The incipient foredunes have
persisted to become new established foredunes in front of older established foredunes, which become the
hind- or back-dunes.
Transgressive and parabolic dunes
Established foredunes or parallel dunes that have become exposed to wind erosion, may result in ‘blowouts’
and ‘deflation basins’. In unvegetated dunes, the eroded sand gradually blows landwards, and may have
parabolic or sheet-like forms. These mobilised dunes are known as ‘transgressive dunes’ or ‘parabolic dunes’
and may travel landwards for distances of tens of metres too kilometres before settling down and becoming
stabilised by vegetation.
Beach ridges
Some beaches and foredunes are backed on the land side by a series of lower, shore-parallel sand ridges
known as ‘beach ridges’. These are not true dunes but are low storm-wave berms that rapidly accumulated
one in front of the other during the early phases of beach development.
17.3
Geoconservation values of coastal dunes
This section is adapted slightly from Michael Pemberton’s unpublished notes.
Dunes are naturally unstable features and are arguably the most dynamic landforms in Tasmania, prone to
extremely rapid change. The state has a great diversity of coastal dune types including bay head dunes, river
mouth dunes, parallel dunes, beach ridges, parabolic dunes, headland bypass dunes, cliff top dunes, a barrier
island, bay mouth spits and mid bay spits. Fossil dunes, or the remains thereof, that formed during the Last
Glacial climatic phase are sometimes found inland from the present coast, and in some places even older
coastal dunes from the Last Interglacial phase, 125,000 years ago, are located further inland.
A database of sites with geoconservation significance in Tasmania known as the Tasmanian Geoconservation
database (TGD) is maintained by DPIPWE and includes a variety of coastal dune sites. This information will
assist in the management and protection of unique and representative coastal dunes.
Some sandy coast and dune systems in Tasmania that are recognised for their Geoconservation values (their
importance as landforms) include:



Seven Mile Beach mid bay spit – one of only four mid bay spits in Tasmania, with extensive beach ridge
systems, foredunes and transgressive and parabolic dunes.
Hazards Isthmus, Freycinet National Park – a well-developed and mostly undisturbed tombolo, which is a
sand bar that connects an island to the mainland. It is one of only seven tombolos in Tasmania. Four of
these have been seriously affected by development or by introduced species.
Waterhouse Dunefield – one of the most extensive dune fields in Tasmania, comprising recent and Last
Glacial phase dunes, although dune forming processes have been seriously affected by marram grass, an
introduced species.


Lavinia Point–Cowper Point dunes on King Island – well-developed parallel dunes along a coast that also
has fossil coastal features.
Stephens Bay–Noyhener Beach, southwest Tasmania – headland bypass dunes where sand from one bay
is moving overland to the next bay.
17.4
Dune blowouts
Blowouts do not need treating if they are caused by natural processes and/or are not causing a problem. If a
blowout appears to be caused by human activity or domestic stock, find out whether the blowout is growing or
stabilising by itself. If revegetation is occurring naturally, the blowout may right itself. Blowouts associated
with vehicle tracks, boat ramps or livestock are another matter. Livestock can cause irreparable damage to
dunes, so grazing on dunes should be avoided.
The rule of thumb is that if degradation is occurring it is better to remove the cause of the degradation first
and then consider management options. Keep in mind that most coastal sand blows will eventually stop within
a matter of hundreds of metres from the coast.
Tips for assessing blowouts
When assessing blowouts consider the following:





Wind direction – remember the west, east and north coasts have very different wind regimes.
Amount of vegetation cover – if less than 50% it is probably worth being concerned about.
Look at where sand is being eroded from and deposited to – identify threats and pressures.
Look at the source of the sand supply to assess the stage of the blow. If there is little dry loose sand, the
source of sand may be virtually exhausted. Once the supply of sand is minimal, the blow could slowly stop.
Natural regeneration should occur quite rapidly if native vegetation is nearby as a seed source.
If there is a suitable seed source, leave the blow alone and monitor to see if it rehabilitates naturally. This
is cheaper and more environmentally acceptable than artificial rehabilitation.
How much is the sand moving?
Aerial photos over time can indicate how old a blowout is and whether it is growing or revegetating naturally.
It is quite simple to monitor the rate of blowout movement by placing a row of star pickets or wooden stakes
at 3 to 5 m intervals between the blowout front and its furthest point inland – the active front of the blow.
Every month or so, measure the distance from the active front to the closest picket or stake. This will give
some idea of the rate of movement, which can initially be quite rapid. Natural dune blows monitored in
western Tasmania have moved distances of 6 m in six months.
Normally the rate of movement will slow markedly as sand from the source of the blow is depleted. Once sand
movement stops, natural revegetation will usually occur remarkably quickly.
As a rule of thumb:


if blowouts are remote from infrastructure such as primary access tracks, watering points or buildings, the
best option is to allow the blowout to evolve through its cycle and allow it to revegetate naturally.
revegetate an incipient blowout before it develops.
17.5
To stabilise or not?
It is important to appreciate that dunes are highly mobile landforms and sand blows can occur naturally. Many
plants and animal species and various ecosystems depend on dune movement for their survival.
One of the main considerations in assessing whether Coastcare groups should attempt to stabilise dune
blowouts or other instances of sand mobility is whether the dunes are naturally active or have been unnaturally mobilised by human interference.
Dune stabilisation may not be appropriate if it interferes with natural dune processes, other nature
conservation values or Aboriginal heritage sites. For example some naturally mobile dune systems have been
listed as sites of geomorphological significance on the Tasmanian Geoconservation Database, partly because
they are excellent examples of naturally mobile coastal dune landform systems.
Naturally mobile dunes are sometimes seen as threatening features that are about to consume more
important land. However, past attempts to stabilise dunes have caused problems in adjacent coastal areas,
including increased erosion, sedimentation and invasion of exotic species such as marram grass, which was
previously used to stabilise dunes.
It is better to try to understand the way the coastal sediment system operates and how proposed works may
alter sand movement. Often, with careful planning and assessments of the direction of dune movement and
sand availability, threats from blowing sand can be avoided by planning more appropriate use of nearby land.
In cases where blowouts or dune mobility are determined to be a result of human interference or of concern
for other justifiable reasons, stabilisation may be appropriate. The main methods of stabilising dunes are to:
(1) remove the destabilising pressure; and
(2) obstruct wind erosion.
The goal of dune stabilisation works is to allow vegetation to establish on bare sand areas, thereby binding and
stabilising the sand. Some additional works may be necessary to obstruct wind to encourage vegetation.
Wind can be obstructed with dune-forming fences and/or mulching with brush or geotextiles. These methods
reduce surface wind speed so native vegetation can establish. Seed reaching the site from adjacent vegetation
can germinate and start to bind the sand. If there is no source of seed nearby, the area can be planted with
appropriate native species.
Dune-forming fences (mesh fences or brush fences) are a more permanent method than temporary surface
stablisation techniques such as mulching with brush or geotextiles.
Keep in mind that stabilisation work may not be effective at first try – it may need modification. Above all it
will need to be monitored carefully to ensure success. It is critical to keep a close eye on stabilisation works to
ensure that any dislodged sections are repaired before further damage occurs.
Stabilisation may be appropriate where there is a small blowout or vegetation has been damaged or removed,
leading to erosion. Structures such as mesh fences, brush mulches or geotextiles slow the movement of sand
so that plants can establish and hold the sand in place.
The stabilisation methods (fences, windbreaks and revegetation) should be adapted for the site conditions,
especially the prevailing wind speeds and patterns of wind flow.
Wind flow patterns
The wind speed over and through dunes can accelerate at points where one or more of the following occur:



the wind changes direction
air turbulence increases
wind is funnelled through narrow spaces.
Designer please highlight text
Dune Stabilisation Checklist





Is the dune area naturally mobile or is the erosion caused by human activities or domestic stock?
Are there Aboriginal or geoconservation values that should be left undisturbed?
Is the erosion causing a problem that should be fixed?
What can be done to reduce human impacts or the impacts of domestic stock – access control,
signs/education?
Are dune-forming fences, brush or textiles necessary? Identify prevailing wind direction and wind
speed and work out feasibility, materials, labour, and costs.


Is revegetation necessary – what are the appropriate species and spacing of plants (foredune, mid
dune, hind dune)?
What monitoring is needed to check that fences, geotextiles and plants are in place and stabilisation is
occurring?
End highlight
17.6
Remove the destabilising influences
If a dune has started to blow as a result of human pressure or domestic stock, immediately stop or remove the
disturbing influence – otherwise there is no point trying to fix the damage. It may be necessary to reduce and
redirect access to the area.
The area could be left to fix itself by fencing it off and monitoring the result over a period of up to a year, or
less if the site experiences low rainfall. If there is no improvement, then you can take action such as
constructing dune-forming fences or surface stabilisation with brush mulch and planting or direct seeding. The
most important areas of a sand blow to stabilise are the edges.
Foredunes are the least stable of all dunes because they are subject to wave erosion and direct wind attack. A
foredune is essentially a mobile reservoir of sand, which moves between the beach, the nearshore sand bar
and the dune during the cycles of stormy and calm weather. It may not be practicable to stabilise a mobile
foredune. Nevertheless, if the vegetation is being trampled, it may be necessary to redirect foot traffic by by
managing access.
Access tracks to the beach should be carefully aligned to ensure they are oblique to the dominant wind
direction.
Heavily-used tracks should be fenced to confine people to the track. If the track is eroding or steep, it may be
advisable to cover the track with a board and chain track, from the crest of the foredune to the bottom of the
seaward slope (depending on the extent of wave erosion ).
17.7
Vegetation and sand movement
A well-developed vegetation cover reduces sand movement by forcing the wind to rise above the ground
surface. Generally, the higher the percentage of vegetation covering the ground, the more resistant the
surface is to erosion, but this depends on the type of vegetation. Low-growing plants, such as grasses, are
more effective sand stabilisers than trees or shrubs without low branches. This is because 90% of wind borne
sand is transported in the 0.5 m closest to the ground.
In revegetation projects, it is better to have a mix of plants of different height and life form to lift the wind
above the ground. If the wind is elevated to a height where sand grains cannot be transported, grains fall to
the ground and transport is inhibited or sporadic. In other words, planting tall vegetation (over 2 m high) near
the dune front can stop sand moving downwind, and so starve the dune system of sand.
The minimum vegetation cover required to stabilise sand can vary between 30% to 60%, depending on how
exposed the site is to the prevailing wind, the types of vegetation, and the density of planting.
If natural regeneration is slow, plant around the rim of the blowout first and gradually work inwards. Mulch
placed around seedlings may help them survive.
17.8
Dune-forming fences
Mesh and brush fences are useful for small blowouts and areas where stabilisation could take some years. The
fences need to be porous so that sand blows through them rather than piling up in front.
The dune-forming fences should be:




750 mm high on average (0.5 to 1 m)
60% porous to allow the fine particles of sand to penetrate – fine sand holds more water, which will make
it easier for plants to establish
placed at an angle to the prevailing wind (as a rule of thumb, at 90° to the blowout)
placed in an elliptical curve rather than straight onto the wind.
Dune-forming fences along the beachfront are rarely effective in trapping sand unless the prevailing wind
blows straight onto the beach. Fences in this situation are generally only useful to keep people from walking
over the foredune vegetation.
Mesh dune-forming fences
Traditional mesh fences are constructed with to mesh and brush fences, which are being woven synthetic
material similar to shade cloth. The fences are designed to be covered by sand and do not need to be moved if
this happens. Obtain expert advice (via your NRM or community facilitators within your local council, PWS and
NRM regional office) about the appropriate placing of the fences.
The material is usually attached to plain wire stretched between treated pine posts as follows:

Place wooden stakes at 1 to 4 m intervals. Secure the woven cloth at the base by digging it 200 to 300
mm deep in the sand. Secure the cloth to the wire at the top and bottom with a tough string or ring
fasteners. The string can also be tied from the top of one stake to the bottom of the next and again
from bottom to top – forming an ‘x’, which is placed on the downwind side of the cloth (to withstand
strong winds).

Construct the fences at intervals of 5 to 10 m, depending on wind direction and strength and the
slope on the dune.

Secure both ends of the fence in areas of stable vegetation.
CAPTION: Mesh dune-forming fence. Diagram courtesy NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation
(Coastal dune management: a manual of coastal dune management and rehabilitation techniques, Coastal
Unit, DLWC, Newcastle, 2001).
Brush dune-forming fences
Brush fencing can be constructed with branches of tea-tree or other woody coastal scrub.
Push the branches deeply into the sand, pack them tightly together and secure with wire fencing.
Brush fences can be constructed similar to the mesh fences described above. The scrub is placed in rows
between two vertical stakes about 300 to 400 mm apart at 1 m intervals.
Construction of brush windbreaks (or fences) to stabilise blowouts is ineffective if they are placed too far apart
or are too porous (porosity less than 20%). Brush windbreaks are more effective if designed aerodynamically
and to cater for the local prevailing wind patterns, keeping in mind that only 10% of wind-borne sand rises
more than 0.5 m above the ground surface.
The extent of the area protected behind the windbreak is related to:



the height of the windbreak
porosity of the windbreak
wind speed
The distance between fences depends on the protection generated by the height of the brush fence. For
example, a 10 m high windbreak with a porosity of 50% protects the leeward area to a distance that is
equivalent to about 5x the height (so 50 m is sheltered behind the windbreak).
The distance protected by a 1 m brush fence is 2.5x the height (2.5 m), because a lower windbreak gives less
protection from wind. A windbreak of 0.5 m protects a distance equal to 2x the height (1 m).
The distance protected by a windbreak reduces with increasing wind speed (which increases the rate of
erosion). A margin needs to be included in the construction and placement of windbreaks to allow for high
wind speeds. A coastal geomorphologist can provide advice.
A 50–60% porosity of the brush fence is important, as sand needs to flow through the barrier, rather than build
up on the windward side and inundate it.
Planting native grasses between the fences allows the fences to be fed by eroding sand while reducing the rate
of erosion to an acceptable level. Increasing the density of planting initially is more costly in terms of time,
fertiliser and number of plants, but the outcome is more ground cover in a shorter time period. Grass planted
at intervals of 3 per square metre takes 1–2 years to establish a ground cover of 30%, and 3 years for a ground
cover of 60%.
17.9
Surface stabilisation techniques
Brush mulches
Brush mulching with slashed branches provides an immediate stabilising cover suitable for small areas. Avoid
laying brush too thickly, so plants can grow up through it. Brush has the advantage of discouraging grazing of
the new vegetation by rabbits and wallabies. It also stops trampling by people. Brush can be laid by itself or in
the areas between sand fences.
Try to use local native dune scrub. Remove only small branches, not the entire plant and if possible cut brush
with ripe seed to assist revegetation. This may require some planning to coincide with fruiting. Otherwise,
prunings of eucalypts, tea-tree and paperbark are suitable. It may be possible to obtain these from the local
council’s pruning programs (ensure species are locally native, not Australian natives or other exotic plants.
Cut scrub into lengths of 600–1000 mm and lay it in rows with stems facing into the prevailing wind. Push the
butt ends 150–300 mm into the sand to stop the brush blowing away. One layer is plenty but place the
branches so that the rows overlap slightly to provide a 60–80% cover.
Geotextiles
Textiles help to stabilise the sand and retain water. However, they quickly become covered with sand if there
is a lot of sand movement. Geotextiles can be expensive and easily vandalised so are only recommended for
difficult sites or where urgent repairs are needed. The edges need to be pegged down well to stop the wind
from dislodging the material and should be secured by placing at least 1 metre into stable vegetation on either
side.
Jute mesh is one of the best geotextiles and relatively cheap. It allows light through and plants can grow
through it. Jute mesh breaks down after a few years but will last longer if it is placed as a double or even triple
layer. Two layers are generally best. It is important to check regularly that the jute is not becoming loose. It
may be necessary to replace old decaying material if revegetation is very slow.
17.10
Dune reshaping after storms
The steep faces of foredunes carved by severe storms are unstable and can be hazardous to beach users.
Eventually the dune face will slump to a more stable shape and on beaches which are not progressively
receding a new dune front slope will accumulate naturally from sand blown off the beach. Until this happens
it may be necessary for land managers to erect warning signs or temporary fences to protect the public.
If public risk is particularly high, your land manager may assess the need to use machinery to cautiously slump
the seaward face of the dune to create a more stable dune profile. Specialist advice from a coastal
geomorphologist, supervision of the works, and the protection of Aboriginal heritage values and surrounding
vegetation during the works are all important considerations. Work closely with your land manager to
minimise any unnecessary impact on works that your group has undertaken in the area.
18 Managing access
18.1
Why control access?
18.2
Planning for access management
18.3
How can Coastcare groups get involved?
18.4
Consultation with community is important
18.5
Access control measures
18.1
Why control access?
Access to the coast is important but can also be harmful to values such as coastal vegetation, dunes, wildlife
and Aboriginal heritage. The land manager is responsible for managing access to the coast and providing safe
access where appropriate. Community groups and volunteers can get involved in access management but this
should always be in partnership with their local land manager. As it is the land manager who will need to
maintain the access and will be liable for any problems.
Unrestricted access can cause enormous damage to the fragile coastal vegetation and soils, sensitive sites and
wildlife. Controlling access to degraded areas gives nature a chance to heal itself. Walkways or other track
hardening, fences and signs can be used to direct people away from sensitive coastal vegetation, unstable
dune areas and wildlife. A carefully-sited viewing platform can keep people off such areas while giving them
the chance to look at a splendid view or an interesting site, such as a shearwater colony.
ALERT: Before any works take place in coastal areas, seek advice about the presence of Aboriginal
heritage sites, or sensitive plants and animals such as shorebirds. It is important that any works
do not impact on other values. Approvals and assessments may be required.
18.2
Planning for access management
It is important that access to the coast meets the needs of the community and users. However, accessways
require careful planning to ensure public safety, and to protect coastal values.
Like any structure, coastal accessways require ongoing maintenance and this must be considered as part of the
planning. There is no single design or method of construction that can be recommended for access
management because coastal environments and user groups vary from site to site. Sea level rise and storm
frequency projections mean that hard structures may not always be appropriate on coastal foreshores.
ALERT: Access control can be one of the most controversial issues for Coastcare projects.
Community awareness and support is critical – otherwise fences, tracks and other structures will
be ignored or even destroyed.
Any access, tracks or structures will be the ongoing responsibility of the land manager. The Tasmanian Coastal
Works Manual provides detailed advice for land managers about things to consider when managing access on
the coast and a comprehensive list of other resources and planning requirements.
The design and construction of accessways and other structures must be appropriate for the particular site
conditions, such as the prevailing wind direction and types of usage. Consider aesthetics too – curved lines are
sometimes more attractive than straight ones. Materials that blend into the environment, especially for
intrusive structures such as viewing platforms and toilets, are best.
Providing new access or changing existing tracks should involve consultation with the local community and
user groups. Consider if multi-use tracks or disabled access is appropriate.
Many coastal areas contain important Aboriginal heritage sites. Assessments may be required for new
structures to ensure coastal values and Aboriginal heritage are protected.
There may be threatened vegetation communities or species and wildlife such as nesting shorebirds or
penguins that would be disturbed by works on the foreshore. Time your works to avoid significant wildlife
events such as shorebird and penguin breeding seasons, if present at your site.
Climate change and sea level rise must be considered when planning for any infrastructure along the coast.
Your local council can access the latest IPCC predictions and seek advice from the Tasmanian Government. It is
important that tracks do not destabilize coastal areas through removal of vegetation, channelling water or
increasing wind erosion.
Approvals and Australian Standards
You will need to get permission from the land manager, local council, PWS or Crown Land Services for any
infrastructure works. You may even require a Development Application (DA). Fences generally do not need a
DA but you must seek advice from the land manager about public hazard and risk management issues.
Major works must be constructed by properly qualified contractors with public liability insurance or by the
land manager’s staff. The works will need to meet the planning requirements of the land manager.
The structure design and materials must meet the Australian Standards, available from your land manager or
qualified contractors. This helps to meet public safety and liability insurance obligations too.
The Australian Standard AS 2156.1 helps land managers to decide what class of access they will provide as this
determines the design and materials to be used and how much maintenance will be required.
Maintenance
All structures require regular monitoring and maintenance to remove hazards such as splinters, to repair
broken sections and check whether the structures are being undermined or buried in sand. Fences need to be
checked after storms.
A detailed maintenance plan should be developed by the land manager before construction detailing full
responsibilities for all works. This should be assessed and updated immediately after works are completed. The
land manager will need to allocate funds or apply for a budget to maintain the access into the future
Even simple access tracks require ongoing monitoring and maintenance to identify erosion problems, trip
hazards, obstructions and overall condition of the access.
GOOD IDEA: If there is little money to maintain infrastructure choose the most cost effective
access option that requires the least amount to maintain it. There is no point having the best
looking viewing platform if in five years no one has any money to maintain it or carry out
engineering inspections.
18.3
How can Coastcare groups get involved?
There are a number of ways your group can support the land manager to improve access management. Such
as:

Keeping records of the ways that tracks and access points are used by the community to help inform
any changes to access.

Monitoring existing infrastructure for damage or maintenance requirements. You might like to
consider entering into a maintenance agreement with the land manager through programs such as
Wildcare’s Adopt-a-Track (see Sources and resources at the end of this chapter).

Providing information to the community about coastal values and the impacts of unrestricted access.

Working in partnership with the land manager to undertake access management works.

Working in partnership with the land manager to develop plans and strategies for access
management and seeking funds to assist land managers to implement these plans.
SHARING STORIES: Beer Barrel Beach one of the favourite swimming areas at St Helens. The native coastal
vegetation at the site is diverse and healthy. The local Coastcare group wanted to keep it that way. The car
park has been modified with advice from Aboriginal Heritage Officers to protect a midden from further
damage, erosion on the ‘lookout’ is being actively managed and signs installed to highlight local values and
suggest ways people can help to protect the area.
18.4
Consultation with community is important
Access management often means closing or improving some tracks that are causing problems and changing
others to match the needs of the community or user groups so it is important to consult with people who
might be affected and to gain community support.
Regaining public access
In some areas private landholders have, over time, restricted public access to the coast with structures such as
fences. Reopening public access is a sensitive issue. Removal of fences and other illegal structures is a matter
best dealt with by the land manager when a property changes hands.
It is a good idea for land managers and Coastcare groups to keep an eye on what properties are being sold and
make sure the real estate agent and new owners are aware of which land is public. Encourage real estate
agents to inform prospective buyers that public access will be restored when the property is sold. A new
owner is more likely to accept the changes.
In some places, landholders have built environmentally insensitive accessways across public land. These can be
altered or closed when a property is sold.
SHARING STORIES: Non-fencing access control using trail markers at Southern Beaches
The Southern Beaches Landcare/Coastcare group in south-east Tasmania was frustrated with the degradation
of the foreshore due to informal tracks and encroachments affecting the dunes, headlands and cultural and
natural heritage.
The group consulted broadly with the local community and worked closely with the local council to develop a
passive approach to access management. Rather than fencing off areas of the dunes, they used bollards
painted in different colours and with different bird images (painted by a local artist) to denote the different
tracks.
The attractive track-marking has made it easy for people to ‘stick to the track’, protecting the dunes without
the need for fencing, thereby minimising infrastructure and ongoing maintenance. This low-impact solution
does not interrupt peoples’ enjoyment of the beach or impede the free movement of native animals and the
dynamic movement of sand.
The group wanted to give something back to the community and make it easy for people to do the right thing.
The local community has embraced the track marking and appreciate the convenience of being able to find
‘their’ track home through the dunes.
The implementation of this project has reduced the ad-hoc development of tracks through the foreshore and
enabled the natural regeneration of degraded areas.
Recreational vehicle tracks
On some beaches vehicle access is required for launching boats, in other areas vehicles may be accessing the
beach for fishing, camping, recreation and touring. Some beaches permit access but even where access is
permitted inappropriate use can cause damage.
Vehicles on beaches and dunes can threaten wildlife such as beach nesting shorebirds, destroy dune
vegetation leading to blowouts and erosion and spread weeds and soil borne diseases.
Controlling erosion caused by 4-WD vehicles, quad bikes and trail bikes driving over dunes is difficult. One
approach is to encourage drivers to use one main track and then rehabilitate the other tracks. It may be
advisable to upgrade and stabilise the main track to attract users, because most 4-WD drivers prefer good
tracks. It is preferable to minimise the number of times vehicle tracks cross over dune crests and areas
exposed to the prevailing winds. Dune hollows and hind dune areas are the best places to put tracks provided
the soil is well-drained.
It is important to consider the ‘group dynamics’ of the users. In some places used by local people and visiting
clubs, track work done by one group may be seen as outsiders trying to restrict the locals or long term users. It
is important to include local people in projects wherever possible.
SHARING STORIES: Tracks at Trial Harbour
The Trial Harbour community on the remote western coast of Tasmania was keen to combat increasing coastal
degradation caused by off-road vehicles travelling to their favourite fishing or surfing spot. When the main
track became too bogged or eroded, drivers created new tracks, causing serious track braiding which damaged
the vegetation and created massive dune blowouts. Uncontrolled camping and clearing of vegetation, damage
to Aboriginal sites, littering and effluent runoff made the problem worse. The land management authority
tried prohibiting access through the dunes and rehabilitating the affected areas but people but kept on driving
through.
Residents and surfers joined forces in 1998 to form the Trial Harbour Coastcare Group and received Coastcare
funding. After one good quality road was constructed down the dunes everyone used it and revegetating the
other areas became achievable. Blowouts have been rehabilitated, excess tracks closed, stable beach access
provided and responsible behaviour promoted.
This part of the coast is also a special place to the Aboriginal community. The Coastcare group worked with the
Aboriginal community to protect Aboriginal heritage by placing geotextile on the road where artefacts had
become exposed.
‘The group has attempted to educate the users of the Trial Harbour area through an interpretation sign as
well as community involvement in the rehabilitation and conservation works. There has been a marked
change in attitude of regular visitors and residents, all of which participate in or are aware of the group’s
activities,’ Tim Callaghan, Trial Harbour Coastcare Group.
18.5
Access control measures
There are a range of access control measures. Your land manager will have access to information about
legislation and planning obligations and best practice techniques. Below are some brief ideas for access control
measures that you can use as a foundation for talking with your land manager. Use this information as a basis
for further research about techniques being used in other parts of Tasmania or Australia. See Sources and
resources at the end of this chapter for a list of other manuals and guidelines where you will find more
information.
GOOD IDEA: Simple structures such as bollards, posts, treated pine logs and boulders can be used
to define access-ways and protect sensitive sites.
ALERT: Any work on the coast using tools or machinery has the potential to spread weeds and
diseases, and in some areas to disturb Acid Sulfate Soils. Take precautions to minimise the risk.
Seek expert advice.
Signage
Signs are a good option for managing access. Signs can be used to direct people to the correct and provide an
opportunity to share messages about why access is being controlled. Signs will usually form part of a broader
management approach that may include track improvement, closure and fencing. Most local councils and land
managers will have a sign policy or strategy to guide the use of signs. More information about using signs and
sign design is included in PART C.
Track surfaces and materials
To reduce wind erosion, access tracks to the beach should be narrow and carefully aligned to ensure they are
oblique to the dominant wind direction
In well-protected areas with little traffic, often no additional surface is required. In some areas, a natural sandy
track is the most attractive surface if it is not exposed to wind erosion. In busier areas, a protective surface is
often necessary to reduce wind and water erosion and to improve public safety.
Drystone walls can be used to shore up the path where slopes are steeper. Gravel paths can be built to allow
rain to run off. Free-draining crushed rock and boulders can be used to define the edges of the path. Generally
gravel is most suitable on fairly level paths.
Rock and gravel for walkways and lookouts are cheaper than high maintenance timber structures. Good
examples can be seen at Waterloo Point, Swansea and Redbill Point, Bicheno.
SHARING STORIES: Shearwater burrows and Aboriginal sites at Swansea’s Waterloo Point were being damaged
by uncontrolled access. A gravel path, small viewing platform and interpretation signs were constructed to
direct people away from the sensitive areas.
Track erosion control
Erosion is likely to occur along sand tracks that are poorly protected from the wind. Erosion can be reduced by
realigning the track, planting bushes to block the wind, or laying board and chain walkways to stop the sand
from blowing away.
Water erosion of sand or gravel paths is likely to be a problem on steep slopes especially in high rainfall areas
or where water is channeled onto the track. Good design is paramount to minimising erosion and reducing
maintenance, such design will be unique to each site but may involve the use of contour banks, grade dips,
grade reversals and optimal slopes.
Designer highlight text please
Acid sulfate soils
Acid sulfate soils (ASS) are naturally occurring soils that contain iron sulfides. When the soils are exposed to
oxygen the oxidation of the sulfides causes sulfuric acid to be produced which can runoff into waterways.
Seawater is a rich source of sulfates and as a result in Tasmania there are extensive areas of ASS along the
coast.
The installation of infrastructure in coastal environments is at risk of disturbing ASS which will corrode metals
and can impact on the environment. Indicators of ASS include (but are not limited to) cloudy-green water, a
rotten egg smell, iron staining in waterways and gooey black sediments in waterways.
Small scale works are unlikely to disturb large areas but any ASS disturbance could affect the works themselves
or cause localised contamination. Large scale works, such as developments, in ASS areas require a
management plan.
More information about ASS is available in the resources listed in Part E. Seek specialist advice from DPIPWE if
you uncover or suspect ASS.
End highlight
Steps, stairs, boardwalks and sand ladders
Steps and sand ladders are especially expensive and require high maintenance. They are not suitable in all
situations – discuss the best option with the land manager.
The spacing of steps should be appropriate for the slope and the class of track. Steps, boardwalks and ladders
on sand dunes need to be non-rigid and free to move. On eroding beaches, a separate ‘sacrificial’ lower
section on steps and stairs can save money – only the lower section will be damaged by storm surges, and this
can be replaced. Technical drawings for steps and stairs are in the Coastal specification management manual
(Greenskills Inc, 2010).
Heavily-used tracks on steep dunes can be protected by laying a board and chain track or sand ladder from the
crest to the bottom. Sand ladders are flexible and can be adjusted to the changing dune profile. They can be
suitable for pedestrian and/or vehicular tracks.
Ladders work best if erosion is mainly by walkers or wind rather than waves. The design and placement
depends on the site. If possible place a sand ladder at the site where erosion is least.
Protect the edges of board and chain tracks with scrub, jute mesh or similar materials and use other access
control measures, such as fencing, to encourage people to stay on the track.
Many sand ladders are not well designed – typical problems include slats that are too close or too far apart,
ladders too steep to climb, and sand eroding away at the bottom so it’s impossible to get on or off the ladder.
Hardwood boards will outlast treated pine and are less inclined to warp and become hazardous.
The boards can become covered with sand quite quickly so inspect them regularly to see whether they need to
be lifted or replaced.
SHARING STORIES: The sturdy steps installed by the Swansea Coastcare Group at Nine Mile Beach are pinned
so they can move as the steep sand bank erodes. The top step is firmly bolted to a post on each side. A blue
pole marks each entrance so people can easily find safe access to the beach – a good idea on a long beach
where it’s easy to miss the path.
ALERT: Shorebirds and seabirds nest between 1 October – 31 March (some penguin colonies are
active year-round) so it is important to contact BirdLife Tasmania and Wildlife experts such as
local PWS staff before any works are undertaken.
Viewing platforms
It is particularly important that viewing platforms are designed and constructed to the safety standards so that
they are not a hazard to visitors.
Viewing platforms can be interesting and attractive structures if they are well-designed to suit the site, they
are best integrated with existing structures such as steps and boardwalks.
Fences
Fences may need to be constructed along foredunes and hind dunes to keep people off the vegetation. Fences
are sometimes desirable to confine traffic along accessways. There are a number of designs or techniques that
could be used. Fences require a lot of maintenance so it is always preferable to use other methods wherever
possible to control access.
Specialised fences can be used to trap sand and help the rebuilding of dunes. Refer to Chapter ?? Dune
Management.
Fences are not recommended on the sea front as they are likely to be damaged or washed away by storms and
become hazardous.
Fencing should not restrict wildlife movement, unless of course this is the reason for installing the fence. There
are specific fencing techniques for protecting wildlife such as penguins.
Fencing is a specialized task, there are many techniques and materials available. Some fencing contractors
offer workshops to train community groups on fencing techniques. The Tasmanian Coastal Works Manual
provides more information and guidelines for fencing in coastal areas.
A simple ‘dripline’ fence is a single wire covered in black poly pipe tubing looped between posts. It provides a
reasonably attractive psychological barrier rather than a physical barrier.
19 Protecting coastal waterways
Tasmania’s convoluted coastline of coves, bays and river mouths boasts diverse and
abundant coastal wetlands, lagoons, saltmarshes and estuaries.
Much of the work Coastcare groups do on the land already contributes to protecting the
health of coastal waterways, but there are some water specific activities that Coastcare
volunteers can get involved in too.
17.1
Types of coastal waterways
17.2
Threats to coastal waterways
17.3
Protecting coastal waterways
17.4
Protecting saltmarsh
17.5
Monitoring coastal waterways
19.1
Types of coastal waterways
Coastal wetlands and estuaries offer a diverse range of habitats with varied salinity levels (from brackish to
saline) and support unique communities of plants and animals which are specially adapted to life at the margin
of the sea.
Estuary and coastal wetlands protect shorelines from the impacts of storms, wind, waves, tides and currents.
They provide a physical barrier that slows down storm surges and tidal waves and wetland plants bind the
shoreline together, resisting erosion by waves.
Estuaries are semi enclosed coastal waterways influenced by both freshwater and marine systems. A number
of estuaries in Tasmania support extensive seagrass beds which are important fish nurseries and stabilise
coastal sediments. The most extensive of which occurs at Robbins Passage in north-west Tasmania.
Wetlands include lagoons and saltmarshes. Ephemeral wetlands are only wet for short periods of time and can
remain dry for very long periods.
Saltmarshes contain species that tolerate high soil salinity and periodic inundation by marine or brackish
water. They filter water from the land before it reaches the sea which makes them a crucial ‘link’ between
terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Many migratory and resident shorebirds rely on them as resting and
feeding grounds.
Coastal waterways are diverse but all face threats from: erosion from in appropriate stock, pedestrian and
vehicle access; pollutants; vegetation destruction; and sea level rise.
Ramsar Wetlands
Many of our coastal wetlands and estuaries have been recognised for their additional special values. These
include several Ramsar wetlands recognised for their migratory bird values, such as Pitt Water-Orielton
Lagoon, and Moulting Lagoon.
Management of Ramsar wetlands is in accordance with the duties and obligations of signatories to the
convention and is presently undertaken through the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation
Act 1999.
National guidelines for Ramsar Wetlands are currently being developed by the Australian Government to
provide a framework for Ramsar Convention implementation in Australia and provide jurisdictions and other
interested parties with clear guidance on the management of Ramsar sites.
There are 89 Tasmanian wetlands listed on The Directory of Important Wetlands Australia (DIWA). These
wetlands have been identified largely because of their ecological significance and include D’Arcys Lagoon
(Bruny Island), Oyster Cove, Earlham Lagoon (near Orford), Calverts Lagoon (South Arm) and Goulds Lagoon
and Murphys Flat (on the Derwent River). DIWA wetlands have no specific legislative protection.
Saltmarshes
Coastal saltmarshes are dynamic ecosystems that support salt tolerant plants and are heavily influenced by
tidal movement.
Saltmarshes supply nutrients to the estuary to support a large diversity of invertebrates and birds (particularly
migratory species). They are important nursery areas for a range of marine animals, provide key buffers
against storm surges and sea level rise and retain carbon.
Saltmarshes are relatively uncommon along the exposed and turbulent open shorelines of the west and southwest coast, however, the numerous marine embayments and estuaries of east and south-east Tasmania
support a number of important saltmarshes.
Some relatively small areas of salt-tolerant plants associated with saltmarshes also occur perched on rocky
shores and at the back of beach dunes which front higher energy swell waves (e.g. Calverts Beach, South Arm)
19.2
Threats to coastal waterways
Despite the ecological and economic importance of waterways, estuaries and wetlands they are among the
most threatened and undervalued ecosystems in the world. Over half of the world’s rivers and wetlands have
been destroyed and in Tasmanian over 50% of wetlands have been impacted by catchment disturbance and
land clearing (SOE 2009).
Close to a half of Tasmania’s saltmarshes have already been lost or degraded due to land use impacts, sporadic
management attention and lack of awareness of the important values provided by these habitats (Pralahad &
Pearson 2012).
Most of Tasmania’s major cities and towns are situated on estuaries and rivers. Their beauty and protected
waters are ideal for tourism, fisheries, aquaculture, shipping and industry. Consequently many have been
significantly impacted by human use and development.
Coastal waterways are threatened by pollution and sediment loads from land clearing, road building and
pollution from industry, stormwater and wastewater.
Removal of catchment water for irrigation, industry and drinking, along with the damming of inflowing rivers
have significantly altered the natural water flows.
Many structures (e.g. drains, culverts, weirs, groins, levees, embankments) obstruct or alter freshwater or tidal
flows and the movement of fish and aquatic fauna between estuaries and inland waterways.
Loss of vegetation buffers; the introduction of weeds, diseases; feral pests; inappropriate access by livestock,
horses and recreational vehicles; and the dumping of rubbish are common local problems.
Climate change and sea level rise such as increasing variability of in-flows, inundation, saltwater intrusion,
storm surges and increasing temperature will all impact on coastal waterways. In addition, future works to
manage sea level rise such as the building of levees/embankments has the potential to further exacerbate the
pressures on these sensitive areas.
19.3
Protecting coastal waterways
Much of the work to protect and rehabilitate coastal waterways and wetlands involves activities that
Coastcare groups commonly undertake, such as managing weeds and restoring vegetation and the techniques
described throughout the handbook apply to waterways too.
Care groups play a vital role as the ‘eyes’ and ‘ears’ of coastal waterways and are often the first to notice
changes or to see illegal or damaging activities and initiate action.
Monitoring changes is the most important activity that Coastcare volunteers can undertake and there a re a
range of monitoring techniques and tolls (suitable for coastal waterways) described in Appendix ***
In some case fencing may be necessary to keep horses, livestock and recreational vehicles out of waterways
and the surrounding vegetation. Fencing will not only control access but may prevent dumping of soil, rubbish
and chemicals.
Riparian vegetation provides a buffer around waterways. When revegetating aim for a minimum buffer of
50m.
Designer highlight text please
Best practice for working in coastal waterways, wetlands and estuaries
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Leave logs, branches, twigs, leaf litter, rocks and stones. They provide food and habitat for a range of
wildlife and help to slow water flows which can reduce erosion and recharge groundwaters.
Protect vegetation buffers. When planning revegetation activities, consider nearby feeder creeks and
work to stabilise creek banks first as they are most prone to erosion.
Undertake works when shorebirds are not nesting and after migratory birds have left for the year.
Avoid wherever possible bird feeding, nesting and roosting areas.
Minimise the risk of introducing weeds and waterborne pest and diseases. Ensure your footwear,
tools and other equipment are CLEAN and DRY before you enter a site.
Minimise ground disturbance and control sediment erosion during any works
Work with local authorities to raise awareness of water quality and pollution sources.
Handweed where possible and avoid using herbicides in or near waterways. Where required, use
those approved for use around waterways with ideally paint or drill application.
Check all footwear and equipment before you leave an area. Wherever possible brush off any mud,
soil or debris and leave at the site. Otherwise dispose of any debris in the sewerage system.
Never move water, soil, gravel, aquatic plants or animals (e.g. frogs, mudeyes, fish, eels) from one site
to another.
Wherever possible avoid bringing in soil, gravel and fill for rehabilitation activities. If essential, then
source material from a quarry that has been certified within the last 12 months as “Phytophthorafree” or arrange a weed and disease survey to provide certification.
Use gumboots and PVC waders. Felt-soled or neoprene waders/boots are made of dense material
that stays wet for a long time and increases the risk introducing pests and diseases.
End highlight
Consider the catchment
A whole of catchment approach is best. Changes in land management, such as fencing stock from waterways
and riparian areas and managing erosion hotspots can make significant improvements in water quality and
habitat downstream. Collaborative projects between landowners, managers and community groups can
address catchment issues.
When assessing the risks to local waterways consider all possible sources of pollutants and nutrients such as:
stormwater; golf courses; septic tanks; sewerage plants; sediment from housing development; oil and heavy
metals from streets and car-parks; industry effluent/run-off; and dumped chemical and waste e.g. car tyres.
All industry is regulated by Council (Level 1 activities) or Environment Protection Agency (EPA) (Level 2
activities) and their operations subject to legislation to protect the environment (including waterways). Many
are required to monitor discharges as a part of their license to ensure that nutrients and other pollutants are
maintained at acceptable levels. Outfalls from wastewater treatment plants are monitored by Water
Authorities. Data is available from Council, EPA and Water Authorities if you have concerns.
SHARING STORIES: The Tranmere-Clarence Plains Land & Coastcare Group have prepared many submissions
about a local development and worked directly with the local landowner/developer. Subsequently the
development proposal now includes the allocation of conservation areas, walking tracks and a future
conservation fund.
Often the best management practice is to ‘leave alone’. Work with land managers, owners and developers to
retain any existing coastal waterways and wetlands in an undisturbed condition.
SHARING STORIES: New Town Rivulet Catchment Care Group – A catchment approach
Since the New Town Rivulet Catchment Care Group formed in 1996 the rivulet has been transformed. It was
once viewed as a ‘drain” to transport stormwater into New Town Bay as rapidly as possible and thus prevent
flooding in urban areas. As a result water quality in the rivulet was very poor. Banks were eroded and
dominated by weeds and there was little local pride or presence in the Rivulet.
Members of the New Town Rivulet Catchment Care Group observed illegal dumping of industry effluent into
the Rivulet. The group has been crucial to ensuring that local industry is adequately regulated to ensure any
effluent is disposed of through the sewerage system rather than into the Rivulet.
Monitoring of macro-invertebrates is providing evidence that the health of the rivulet has improved. It is now
a place of recreation and wildlife with many community and school groups involved in a range of education
and rivulet rehabilitation programs.
In line with best practice the group has worked progressively from the top of the catchment down towards
New Town Bay. The success of the Group is a result of “knowing’ their catchment, having a clear vision and
priorities and continuing to build positive relationships with Council, industry and the community.
The development of The Stormwater Management Plan: A Model for Hobart Regional Councils: A focus on the
New Town Rivulet Catchment in 2004 by the Derwent Estuary Program (DEP) in consultation with key land
managers, industry and the community has become the foundation for collaborative management.
The Group’s future focus is gradually turning to the mouth of the catchment, New Town Bay. Here it is planned
that vegetated swales and buffer zones will replace the concrete lined channel to further clean and disperse
stormwater before it enters the Bay.
19.4
Protecting saltmarsh
Saltmarshes should be managed as part of the estuary or wetland system as a whole. Management requires an
understanding of both land based pressures and sea based pressures and the specialised habitats saltmarshes
provide. There are, however lots of activities that Coastcare groups can undertake to contribute to the
protection of these highly specialised environments.
GOOD IDEA: Get to know your saltmarsh, invite a botanist or expert to give you a guided tour and
help you identify your local species.
Works to protect saltmarsh should focus on the removal of threats or disturbance and then, where feasible,
the maintenance or restoration of natural flows.
Saltmarshes are extremely vulnerable to trampling and disturbance. Unrestricted access by walkers, bike
riders, vehicles and grazing animals increases soil erosion, introduces weeds and changes the topography and
hydrology of saltmarsh flats.
IMPORTANT: A change in topography (e.g. caused by wheel ruts) can change the species
composition. Wheel ruts persist for many years and regeneration may require infilling and
levelling.
Work with land managers to fence and gate access points (such as fire trials) and erect signage explaining the
importance of saltmarsh.
Be on the lookout for the dumping of any material (soil, gravel, rubbish) that may interfere with freshwater or
tidal flows moving in and out of the saltmarsh. If concerned contact local authorities.
Litter can smother saltmarsh and be a hazard to foraging and roosting wildlife. Regularly remove litter and
check saltmarshes after storms, floods and spring tides.
Protecting tidal flows and tidal channels within saltmarshes ensures that tidal water, organic matter and
nutrients are moved between the marsh and coastal waters.
Where tidal flushing is being reinstated in a saltmarsh leave any native plants (that have colonised as a result
to less saline conditions) in place. They will die but their root system will help prevent erosion while the
saltmarsh is establishing.
Sea level rise and saltmarshes
If saltmarsh vegetation is to survive climate change and sea level rise (SLR) it will need space to retreat inland
to remain within its optimal tidal range. Modelling of projected SLR indicates that approximately 75% of
coastal saltmarshes in southern Tasmania have either ‘some’ or ‘sufficient’ room to move landwards (Pralahad
& Pearson 2012).
Grasslands behind saltmarsh provide an ideal situation for landward migration and any grazing pressure should
be minimised to allow for this. As stormwater canal walls, sea walls and foreshore retaining walls behind
saltmarsh come to the end of their life it is recommended that they either be removed and the bank
revegetated, or new structures incorporate saltmarsh plantings.
The LIST provides LiDAR mapping (modelling of future SLR in local areas) that can identify potential saltmarsh
migration pathways and refugia. Seek expert advice about where local saltmarsh communities might retreat
to.
Revegetating saltmarsh
Most saltmarsh species will colonise a disturbed area from an adjacent marsh and this is the ideal method. It is
cheap, involves minimal disturbance and a low risk of introducing weeds, pest and disease. Re-establishment
time will depend on the amount of seed reaching the site (often spread by tidal flows) and weather (e.g.
ideally free of storm surges).
Non-vegetated areas within or adjacent to saltmarshes such as salt scalds/flats and marsh pools form an
integral part of the saltmarsh ecosystem. There is also an extensive algal community that lives on the
uppermost layers of the saltmarsh substrate, (including the tidal channels and marsh pools) which break down
organic matter and provide nutrients for the saltmarsh and marine ecosystems. It is important to ensure these
areas are also protected from any disturbance.
Designer highlight text please
Best practice for working in saltmarshes
In addition to the best practice considerations for all coastal wetlands, the following applies to saltmarshes.
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When revegetating saltmarsh, leave the marsh surface and the root mat intact as much as possible.
Plant local species according to the pattern of salinity and drainage conditions. If possible replicate
the patterns of vegetation present.
Minimise trampling in saltmarshes as this creates changes in soil elevation and hydrology. Where
available use existing boardwalks or paths. Work in tidal areas only at low tide (when land is above
water) to minimise disturbance.
End highlight
SHARING STORIES: Tranmere - Clarence Plains Land & Coastcare Protection and Rehabilitation of Rokeby
Saltmarsh
Tranmere - Clarence Plains Land & Coastcare provides an excellent example of a group actively championing
and managing a saltmarsh. The group has developed an informal management agreement with the land owner
and has undertaken fencing, weed control and established a vegetative buffer zone.
Because of their regular presence in the area and good working partnership with Council, when issues have
arisen (including disturbance of the saltmarsh by trail bikes and horses and the illegal dumping of car tyres)
they are promptly addressed. In 2012 vegetation mapping of the saltmarsh highlighted changes that would
otherwise have gone unnoticed and funding was secured for further rehabilitation.
The group actively promotes their work and the values of the saltmarsh at community events such as the
Seafarers Festival and church activities. Local schools are involved in rehabilitation and regular visits to the
saltmarsh. The group is also actively involved in promoting the cultural heritage of the area, including
Aboriginal history and the Rokeby Historic Trail. Involving the community in both the natural and cultural
values of the area aims to build local pride and a desire to be involved.
Their saltmarsh work has been so successful that planning approval for development in the area requires that
the saltmarsh be managed in partnership with the Coastcare group. Furthermore, a conservation fund to
manage the saltmarsh must be established should the land be sold.
Stormwater & Water Sensitive Urban Design
It is useful to identify and monitor areas where stormwater outlets are polluting coastal waters. As well as
being a source of detergents, rubbish and oil and petrol from roads, such outlets can cause siltation. All these
factors can degrade marine life in the intertidal
GOOD IDEA: It is always cheaper and more effective to reduce and control stormwater at the
source. Work with Council to educate the community about how to dispose of household wastes
appropriately (such as leftover paints, cleaners, engine oil, concrete and vegetation waste).
Most Councils monitor stormwater quality (especially during/after rainfall events) to ensure acceptable levels
of sediment, nutrient and other pollutants are maintained. If you are concerned contact your local Council.
Reports are available on stormwater monitoring for the Greater Hobart, Derwent Valley and Huon Valley
Councils on the DEP website (“Stormwater Monitoring”).
Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) is the design of urban water infrastructure to minimise environmental
impacts and optimise efficient water use. WSUD often creates habitat and attractive landscape features too.
Many Councils have engineers or other staff who have completed WSUD training on how to design and
construct appropriate stormwater treatment options. The Tasmanian Coastal Works Manual also has
information on drainage and stormwater management.
SHARING STORIES: Enhancing the Local Environment while Controlling Erosion and Stormwater - Bellerive Bluff
Land and Coastcare Group
Bellerive Bluff Land and Coastcare Group has been working for 12 years and was the recipient of the 2011
Tasmanian Urban Landcare Award.
Prior to their work, weeds overran the site and stormwater overflows along Victoria Esplanade were common
creating a hazard to drivers and pedestrians. Much of the foreshore was becoming eroded and degraded
through stormwater run-off. Their aim was to use natural vegetation, landscaping and ponds to slow the
movement of stormwater through the landscape, to trap pollutants and sediment before it reached the
estuary and create a place of natural beauty and habitat.
The group worked with Clarence Council, Tasmanian Polytechnic, Mckillop College and Conservation
Volunteers to test water quality and design and construct the bio-retention ponds and associated drainage
system.
The project took 4 years to complete and involved many hurdles, including failure of the initial ponds and
drains to deal with downpours which eroded pathways and landscaping. After much observation (sometimes
during a downpour) to understand the hydrodynamics, the group reinforced the dam wall and installed french
drains across the slope redirecting and further slowing water flows.
Sheer tenacity, and a willingness to learn by trial and error made this project a huge success. They have now
turned their attention to the major pond and stormwater outlet establishment below the King/Victoria
Esplanade intersection.
19.5
Monitoring coastal waterways
Many Coastcare groups are interested in monitoring water quality. To gain an understanding of the health of
your waterway it is valuable to monitor a range of indicators such as water quality, macro-invertebrates and
vegetation (within and adjacent to waterways). Refer to Chapter 12: Monitoring and Evaluation for
information on planning a monitoring program.
Monitoring can be extremely useful to determine the current condition of a waterway and to alert land
managers should changes occur over time. Monitoring will detect changes in condition that may occur slowly
and not otherwise be noticed. Monitoring can also assess the progress of rehabilitation activities and indicate
the need for changes in management.
GOOD IDEA: Select monitoring sites that are easy to access and cause minimal impact.
When assessing changes in ‘condition’ of a waterway over time, regular monitoring of a combination of
physical and ecological indicators is best. For example, estuarine monitoring may involve water quality
monitoring (including turbidity/total suspended solids) in combination with the percent seagrass cover to
assess the impact of soil erosion.
Monitoring saltmarsh vegetation can be very useful to detect slow changes over time and assess any
rehabilitation work. The Vegetation Condition Assessment provides benchmarks for monitoring saltmarsh
vegetation communities. A simple transect monitoring method for monitoring saltmarsh vegetation is
described in the Waterwatch Australia National Technical Manual – Module 7 Estuarine Monitoring.
When a one-off indicative snapshot of ‘condition’ is required then assessment of macro-invertebrates and
photos or mapping of vegetation cover are valuable.
Water quality
Water quality measures the physical and chemical properties and functioning of the water, including levels of
pollutants. This is particularly important after rainfall events when sediment and pollutants may be washed
into waterways. Results however can be very variable depending on tide, location, season and weather. Water
quality monitoring is time consuming and can be costly. Results can be difficult to interpret and may not help
identify what on-ground management is required.
For water quality data to be meaningful it should generally be collected at least monthly (across all seasons) as
well as during and after rainfall and flood events. A consistent and accurate method using good quality (often
expensive) equipment is required. Dissolved oxygen monitoring provides useful information but requires
expensive (regularly calibrated) equipment and a strict regime of accurate measurements.
Turbidity, conductivity and temperature are the water quality parameters most successfully used by volunteer
groups. They can provide a very basic indicator of water quality and indicate when more detailed monitoring
may be worthwhile. Turbidity in particular can indicate the presence of other pollutants. Information on each
of these parameters can be found in the Waterwatch Tasmanian Reference Manual which also lists the
recommended indicators for different monitoring purposes.
SHARING STORIES: The Tranmere-Clarence Plains Land and Coastcare Group have one committed volunteer
responsible for water quality monitoring, including during and after rainfall events. They have been monitoring
the Clarence Plains Rivulet (using turbidity, conductivity, temperature, pH and nutrients) above the tidal limit,
for four years. Frequency of monitoring depends on weather, but generally they monitor once about every 2
weeks to 4 months.
They use a Dilmah Water Quality Monitoring Kit which has basic equipment, including a turbidity tube,
thermometer, colorimeter for nitrogen and a simple probe for conductivity. They initially had advice on
calibrating the equipment and while accuracy with this type of equipment is not perfect, the data provides
useful information including changes as a result of rainfall.
The rivulet flows into the Rokeby saltmarsh and is very important in maintaining the health of the saltmarsh.
Development is planned along the rivulet and the group has successfully recorded the baseline water quality
(before additional development occurs) of the rivulet. The information gathered has helped to raise awareness
of the value and condition of the rivulet and that the local community cares about this area.
Monitoring will enable them to document (and if necessary act on) any changes associated with future
development. Their advice to other groups is “you need a basic understanding of science to undertake water
quality monitoring, however consistency of where, when and how you monitor is the most important
ingredient to success” [PHOTO]
SHARING STORIES: Port Esperance Coastcare Group drives change in local industry.
Port Esperance Coastcare group consistent water quality monitoring of a local lagoon has changed the
management practices of the nearby aquaculture industry
Over the past 4 years the Port Esperance Coastcare Group has worked to rehabilitate a local hidden treasure,
Roaring Beach Lagoon. The lagoon, once a popular and picturesque spot for swimming, kayaking and boating
had become overrun with weeds, was often stagnant and prone to algal blooms. The combined effect of
drought and the construction of several dams on Roaring Creek (upstream of the lagoon) had severely reduced
freshwater inflows. The dumping of rubbish had introduced weeds, sediment and other contaminants.
With support from Council, the lagoon and surrounds were cleared of rubbish (including discarded roading
material and weeds), revegetated with local plant species and landscaped. Funding was secured to purchase
water quality monitoring equipment and training provided. A key objective of the monitoring was to indicate
that the community was interested in the management of their local waterway.
The work has galvanised support from a growing number of residents and provided an avenue to express their
appreciation of the area. Work has focused on monthly water quality monitoring, rehabilitating the lagoon
surrounds and documenting the native fauna present.
Monitoring results were presented to staff from Huon Aquaculture. As a result their management practices
changed to include regular water releases from the upstream dam, particularly when dissolved oxygen levels
are low. The company is looking to restore an environmental flow which mirrors the flow of Roaring Creek,
upstream of the dams.
While monitoring (especially of dissolved oxygen) proved to be much more difficult than anticipated by the
group, their perseverance has paid off. The water releases combined with moderate rainfalls over recent years
and rehabilitation of the vegetation buffer zone around the lagoon has seen the health of the lagoon improve
considerably. Fish and eels are now numerous and waterbirds and many more mammals are returning. More
than ninety species of birds have been observed in the area.
Macro-invertebrates and other aquatic animals
Because of their varied life cycles and limited mobility, macro-invertebrates (seen by the naked eye) are the
most reliable biological indicator for the condition of waterways and need only be collected twice a year
(spring and autumn) to provide useful data. They indicate for example, the short to long term impact of
pollution at a site and give an idea of available habitat and water quality. They are cheap and relatively easy to
assess once initial training on collecting and identifying animals is undertaken.
Simple identification tools/charts enable a ‘rough’ assessment to be undertaken with no training required.
Refer to the Waterwatch Tasmanian Reference Manual.
GOOD IDEA: New Town Rivulet Catchment Care Group, have found monitoring of macroinvertebrates to be a powerful tool to get a snapshot of the change in condition of the rivulet over
time and to educate the community about the habitat values of their local waterway.
A reliable method exists for assessing macro-invertebrate in freshwater rivers and creeks (AUSRIVAS), and a
method is currently being developed for wetlands, including coastal lagoons.
Methods are also available for assessing other animal life in estuaries, these include crab burrows, snails (rocky
shores) and shorebirds. See Chapter 20 and Appendix ***Monitoring Tools.
Vegetation and buffer zones
Vegetation is important both in providing habitat and other resources for animals living in and around
waterways, and protects water quality by acting as a buffer from surrounding land uses. Initial assessment of
vegetation cover can be very helpful in determining potential problems, and regular monitoring (every few
years, or more often if major changes are occurring) can detect changes.
The physical features, type and extent of vegetation and organic litter within and adjacent to waterways can all
be assessed.
Monitoring Saltmarsh
A simple transect monitoring method for saltmarsh vegetation is described in the Waterwatch Australia
National Technical Manual – Module 7 Estuarine Monitoring. The Vegetation Condition Assessment is another
useful tool for monitoring saltmarsh vegetation communities (see benchmarks for saline aquatic herbland
(AHS), saline sedgeland/rushland (ARS), succulent saline hearbland (ASS)) however it requires someone trained
in the method to determine the vegetation type and conduct the assessment.
A southern Tasmania coastal saltmarsh database is available from NRM South. The database covers most
catchments where saltmarshes have been recorded: Derwent Estuary-Bruny, Huon, Little Swanport, Pitt
Water-Coal, Prosser, Swan-Apsley and Tasman. Data includes mapping of the current extent of saltmarsh, the
potential future extent under ‘sea level rise’ (SLR) conditions. It also includes key environmental and
management information.
20 Protecting wildlife
The coastal environment supports birds and other animals that are specially adapted for
life on the coast but ill-equipped to survive elsewhere. Coastal wildlife can be threatened
by people, dogs, cats, litter, pollution and loss of habitat. Protecting local wildlife and
their habitats is a rewarding activity for many Coastcare groups.
It is also important to ensure that other Coastcare activities do not have unforeseen
impacts on coastal wildlife. Sometimes weeds provide important shelter for native
animals, a staged approach and expert guidance are essential for managing weeds that
are providing habitat for wildlife.
20.1
Tasmania’s unique coastal wildlife
20.7
Protecting little penguins
20.2
Shorebirds and small sea birds
20.8
Working in penguin habitat
20.3
Threats to shorebirds
20.9
Recreation and wildlife
20.4
Protecting shorebirds
20.10
Fishing and boating guidelines
20.5
Penguins, shearwaters and other seabirds
20.11
Helping injured wildlife
20.6
Protecting shearwaters
Much of the information in this chapter has been adapted from the Tasmanian Coastal Works Manual
20.1
Tasmania’s unique coastal wildlife
Tasmania’s areas of natural coastline support diverse and important coastal wildlife. Tasmania is home to
breeding shorebirds, penguins and shearwaters and provides habitat for a number of visiting migratory birds.
A number of seal species visit our shores and New Zealand and Australian fur seals regularly haul out on
offshore islands. Whales migrate along the coast and sadly sometimes strand on our beaches. Many mammals
inhabit coastal vegetation, with small mammals such as echidnas, bandicoots and bettongs quite common in
some coastal areas even among built-up communities. Many marine species are endemic to Tasmanian waters
and a number of marine protected areas around Tasmania provide some protection to these unique
temperate marine animals.
Threatened species
All Tasmanian species are protected under the Nature Conservation Act 2002 and marine species are
protected under the Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995. Some species are listed as threatened
and are further protected by the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. Some of these threatened species
have recovery plans or threat abatement plans.
Tasmania has more than 35 threatened fauna species including the white-bellied sea eagle, fairy tern, and New
Zealand fur seal. Many are protected by the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Act
1999.
IMPORTANT: It is an offence to take a threatened species without a permit. Take includes kill,
injure, catch, damage, destroy, collect and can include the destruction of critical habitat for a
threatened species.
Designer highlight text please
Plan to protect
Identify all coastal species in the area when planning activities. Will your activity impact on these species?
Works to protect one species could result in impacts to another.
Identify any threatened species. Search the EPBC database and the lists on the DPIPWE website. Are
assessments and approvals required? Seek expert advice and be sure to follow any recovery plans.
Time your activities carefully to minimise impacts on wildlife. (ie avoid working on shorebird breeding beaches
during October to March when birds are breeding).
Minimise damage to habitat during any works and rehabilitate afterwards, plan to monitor and follow-up to
ensure rehabilitation is successful.
Ensure all people participating in activities (ie volunteers, contractors etc) are aware of any sensitive species or
habitat.
End highlight
20.2
Shorebirds and small sea birds
Shorebirds are coastal birds that breed on beaches and forage on the shoreline and in wetland areas. Plovers,
sandpipers, curlews and oystercatchers feed on coastal mudflats, estuaries, beaches and tidal reefs. Small
seabirds such as little and fairy terns are also considered here, due to their nesting behaviour on sandy
beaches.
Some shorebirds live here all year-round, while others are regular migrants that travel from their breeding
grounds in the northern hemisphere to spend the summer in Tasmania. These migratory birds need to feed
and replenish their fat reserves for the long return journey. Altering habitat or disturbing the birds reduces
their opportunities for feeding and resting, which could delay or prevent successful migration.
Hooded plovers, pied oystercatchers and the endangered little terns and fairy terns nest just above high water
mark on dunes, beaches and spits. They are especially vulnerable to disturbance during their summer breeding
season and are having a hard time finding safe places due to the increasing use of beaches for walking,
running, dog walking, horse riding and driving. These activities threaten eggs and newly hatched chicks, which
are so well camouflaged that they are almost impossible to detect on the sand.
IMPORTANT: Observations and sightings of uncommon or rare shorebirds such as hooded plovers,
fairy terns, little terns and migratory waders are of great interest to BirdLife Tasmania. Reports of
the number of birds and their location would be appreciated. Survey forms are available.
Many shorebirds and small terns such as the fairy tern and little tern are listed as threatened species in the
Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. Others such as hooded plovers, are rapidly decreasing in breeding
numbers through much of Tasmania. Threats are common to all species of shorebird and tern and include
destruction/loss of habitat due to coastal development and disturbance (poor breeding success) from
recreational activities such as horse riding and vehicles on breeding beaches.
Resident shorebirds
Many Tasmanian beaches are important nesting areas for resident shorebirds and seabirds between 1 October
and 31 March each summer. Shorebird eggs are laid in shallow scrapes in the sand. They are hard to spot and
can be easily squashed by vehicles or underfoot.
Young chicks are flightless for up to seven weeks (depending on species) and will run to the dunes, nearest
vegetation or water to hide. Nests are small (around 10cm for plovers, smaller for terns) and well
camouflaged. Nest are typically located at the base of foredunes, above high water mark and wrack, but can
also be in light vegetation.
Tasmania’s supports four resident shorebirds: Australian pied oystercatcher (Haematopus longirostris), sooty
oystercatcher (Haematopus fuliginosus), hooded plover (Thinornis rubricollis) and red-capped plover
(Charadrius ruficapillus).
Little terns and fairy terns, although strictly seabirds, are included in shorebird protection programs because
they nest on beaches and are subject to the same threats acting on shorebirds. Caspian terns (Hydroprogne
caspia formerly Sterna caspia) also breed on Tasmanian beaches but nests are rarely seen.
Designer highlight text please
Signs that nesting shorebirds are present



Nests are (relatively) easily located by behaviour of birds (calls etc.) and their footprints in sand
leading to/from the nest.
Nesting birds may distract you; pied oystercatchers will make alarm calls to their partners and chicks,
some will fly at you.
Terns will ‘attack’ you, swooping low over your head, calling and appearing very ‘excited’ – actually
very agitated and distressed.
End highlight
Migratory shorebirds
Many coastal areas in Tasmania are important feeding and resting sites for migratory shorebirds avoiding the
harsh northern hemisphere winter of the Arctic tundra.
Every year from September to March a number of migratory bird species visit our shores and rest and
replenish fat reserves for their long migration back to breeding grounds in the northern hemisphere.
Sites such as Ralphs Bay, Robbins Passage in the north-west, Moulting Lagoon on the east coast and Pittwater–
Orielton Lagoon in the south-east are very important migratory bird habitats.
Migratory birds travel on an established route known as the East Asian – Australasian Flyway. Birds on the
flyway make an annual migration of over 25 000km, some flying for more than 10 000km non-stop.
All migratory shorebirds are listed in the Australian Government’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation Act 1999 and under international migratory bird agreements and the Ramsar Convention.
Migratory Bird Agreements
Australia is a signatory to the Japan-Australia Migratory Birds Agreement (JAMBA), the China-Australia
Migratory Birds Agreement (CAMBA) and the Republic of Korea-Australia Migratory Birds Agreement
(ROKAMBA).
These international bird agreements have been established to help achieve important conservation outcomes
for migratory birds. They are bilateral agreements between two countries and more work is needed to
influence conservation outcomes across their migratory path (flyway) which extends through multiple
countries.
In Australia all migratory bird species listed in these bilateral agreements are protected under the
Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
Table 20.1 Migratory bird species that make the annual migration to Tasmania during the northern hemisphere
winter. Taken from Tasmanian Coastal Works Manual (Page & Thorp, 2010)
Common name
bar tailed godwit
caspian tern
curlew sandpiper
Scientific name
Limosa lapponica
Hydroprogne caspia formerly
Sterna caspia
Calidris ferruginea
International bird agreements
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
eastern curlew
fleshy-footed shearwater
great knot
greenshank
grey plover
grey-tailed tattler
Latham’s snipe
lesser golden plover
lesser sand plover
pectoral sandpiper
red-necked stint
ruddy turnstone
short-tailed shearwater
terek sandpiper
Numenius madagascariensis
Puffinus carneipes
Calidris tenuirostris
Tringa nebularia
Pluvialis squatarola
Tringa brevipes
Capella hardwickii formerly
Gallinago hardwickii
Pluvialis dominica
Charadrius mongolus
Calidris melanotos
Calidris ruficollis
Arenaria interpres
Puffinus tenuirostris
Xenus cinereus
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA
Ramsar Convention
Many important migratory bird habitats are protected under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971).
Australia is a signatory to the intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for international
cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
20.3
Threats to shorebirds
Shorebirds are especially vulnerable to disturbance and habitat loss. Development of coastal areas and
increased recreation on beaches are threatening these unique and special birds. Many threats to shorebirds
can be reduced by changing our behavior.
Shorebird eggs and chicks are extremely camouflaged and are easily trampled by walkers, horses and vehicles
on beaches. Particular human activities such as taking 4WD vehicles and horses onto beaches can be
devastating to nesting shorebirds.
Nesting birds will see people approaching from a distance of 100m or more (long before you see them) and
will leave their nests, eggs and chicks. Exposed eggs and chicks will cook on hot sunny days, and chill on
cool/wet day; both result in breeding failure. Terns may abandon the colony if disturbed, so it is critical to
avoid disturbing nesting adults.
Exposed eggs and chicks are vulnerable to predation by gulls and forest ravens and possibly currawongs. All
dogs are predators of both chicks and eggs.
Disturbance and predation by feral or uncontrolled animals such as dogs, cats and foxes threaten shorebirds
and seabirds. Domestic and feral cats kill high numbers of birds every year. Even well-behaved dogs, if they are
allowed to run off-lead, are a threat. Just the sight of a dog can be enough to frighten and disturb birds from
their feeding and nesting sites.
Shorebirds also face threats from climate change impacts. Sea level rise and increased storm frequency will
result in the modification of suitable breeding beaches. Tidal flats and wetland areas that are used as feeding
and resting sites will be modified by coastal erosion and inundation.
20.4
Protecting shorebirds
Shorebirds have a better chance of breeding successfully if we encourage people to walk on wet sand away
from the upper beach. We can do this by spreading the word about shorebirds and why they are such a special
part of Tasmania’s coastline. Signage and information brochures can help to alert local residents and visitors to
the bird values in the area and foster a sense of appreciation for these unique animals.
Another good strategy is to erect simple temporary ‘fences’ with garden stakes and baling twine to provide at
least a 20 m buffer zone around each nest. These fences are cheap and easy to install, and easy to replace or
relocate if taken by high tides.
Any fencing needs to be undertaken with caution as it draws attention to the nest, so education and
awareness-raising is essential. At popular events such as surf carnivals, temporary fencing works best when
volunteers or land management staff can be on hand to watch over the sites and inform beach users about
shorebird values and threats. Contact the land manager and Aboriginal Heritage Tasmania before erecting any
sort of fence.
Unfortunately hooded plover chicks can run quite a way along the beach, so fences offer only partial
protection.
Caption: A simple temporary fence and sign helps to protect nests.
Consider providing artificial shelters for breeding birds and their young. Techniques can be found in A practical
guide for managing beach-nesting birds in Australia.
Designer highlight text please
Don’t disturb the birds
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Time works to avoid shorebird breeding season if possible (sometimes the best time to manage
weeds clashes with the shorebird season).
Minimise time spent working in breeding territory or close to nest, eggs and chicks, to reduce adults’
times off nests, eggs and chicks.
Avoid disturbing nesting birds at night, to prevent eggs chilling: beach sands cool rapidly at night and
eggs left unattended will fail.
Assume that nests, eggs and chicks are present even if you haven’t found them: reduce your time at
the top of the beach to the minimum time required to remove weeds or undertake works.
Travel along the tide line, preferably limiting intense activities to low tide to keep people away from
nesting birds.
Avoid damage to the dune landscape that may affect the profile of the dunes and make it difficult for
young birds to seek shelter.
End highlight
Monitoring shorebirds
BirdLife Tasmania undertakes annual monitoring of shorebird numbers and breeding success. Your group
might want to get involved and can assist by providing information to BirdLife Tasmania when working in
shorebird areas.
Useful data includes:



reports of nesting shorebirds and small terns, including GPS data and estimates of numbers
reports of migratory shorebirds – estimates of numbers/species
evidence of entanglement – photographs.
BirdLIfe Tasmania can provide data sheets and bird identification guides, and possibly assist in the
identification of carcasses.
IMPORTANT: Remember. DO NOT disturb birds when you are collecting data.
20.5
Penguins, shearwaters and other seabirds
Seabirds feed and spend most of their time at sea but they come ashore to nest. Short-tailed shearwaters and
little penguins nest in burrows excavated in stable sand dunes. Penguins will use almost any shelter to nest
under, even structures made by humans. Shearwater colonies are also present on some headlands. You can
help them breed successfully by staying clear to avoid frightening birds and damaging their shallow nesting
burrows.
Gulls, most terns, albatrosses, white-breasted sea eagles, black-faced cormorants and other seabirds seek
safety by nesting on islands. They should be left alone during the breeding season (usually spring and
summer).
Silver gulls are becoming a pest in urban areas. They pollute water supplies and are displacing terns from their
breeding sites. Signs can be put up to educate people not to feed them.
20.6
Protecting shearwaters
Short-tailed shearwaters (Puffinus tenuirostris) are migratory seabirds that breed on headlands around
Tasmania from September to April. They make an annual round trip of about 30 000km between the Arctic and
south eastern Australia.
About 18 million shearwaters arrive in Tasmania each year to breed and adult birds return to the same burrow
throughout their lifetime. Like penguins, chicks remain in the burrow whilst the parents feed at sea. Colonies
are found on headlands along the coast including the islands in Bass Strait.
Designer highlight text please
Incredible journey
Short-tailed shearwaters fish at sea and are often seen in large groups known as rafts. The parents return each
night to their chicks in the burrow to feed them. Before the chicks have matured, the parents leave them to
begin the annual migration to the Arctic and the chicks remain in the burrow for a further month. The chicks
do not feed, but live off their fat reserves whilst they grow their flight feathers. When they are ready the chicks
leave their burrow and then incredibly they make their first journey to the Arctic completely unguided without
their parents. If they survive they will return to the same colony to breed.
End highlight
Shearwaters are vulnerable to habitat destruction here in Tasmania and other threats along their migratory
route. Livestock have destroyed colonies and soil erosion after fire or from recreational vehicles can severely
damage suitable colony sites. Up to 50 000 birds drown annually in gill net fisheries in the North Pacific.
Whilst in their burrows, the chicks are vulnerable to attack from dogs, cats and now foxes. Burrows are fragile
and can easily collapse if walked on.
The shearwaters are an important part of contemporary Aboriginal culture. Chicks are harvested annually from
their burrows for their prized meat and oil. The Aboriginal community, in collaboration with DPIPWE staff,
manages the harvest and strict controls are in place to prevent overharvesting, including season limits.
20.7
Protecting little penguins
Tasmania and our offshore islands support breeding colonies of little penguins. These seabirds hold a
fascination for many people, perhaps in part because they have adapted to nest in semi urban areas. However
this also puts them at risk from traffic, dogs and cats and destruction of burrows.
ALERT: Cats, both domestic and wild, kill large numbers of birds and small mammals. Even a well
fed pet is likely to hunt if allowed to wander.
Understanding their life cycle is important when working around penguin habitat to minimise disturbance.
Life cycle of little penguins
Little penguins breed in colonies that can vary in size from a few birds to over a thousand. Nests may vary from
a scrape under vegetation, amongst rocks and even under buildings. Birds breed annually between August and
February, but in eastern Australia the usual clutch of two eggs may be laid as early as May or as late as
November.
Male penguins return to either renovate old burrows or to dig new ones between May and August depending
on the food availability and other factors of the season. Noisy male courting displays greet arriving female
penguins. Although only one mate is chosen, they may not be their sole partner for life.
In successful years, two clutches might be reared in one season, which is unusual among penguins. The
penguin pair share incubation shifts of usually 1–2 days and hatching takes place within 33–37 days. About
60% of the eggs successfully hatch.
When 5 weeks old, the chicks are left unguarded by parents and at night can be seen outside burrows waiting
to be fed by both parents.
Within another 2 or 3 weeks they are ready to move to the sea, where they will grow to maturity. These young
birds may return to their original colonies to breed when they are about 2 years old.
Once chick rearing is complete adult birds return to the sea to feed for about 15–21 days before returning to
commence moulting.
Penguins usually moult between February and April. Moulting can take up to 15 days when old feathers are
shed and new feathers are grown. During this time birds remain their entire time on land in their burrows
living off their food reserves. The penguins are particularly vulnerable at this time at risk of starvation or
predation.
Caption: Moulting penguins can look abnormal, but should be left alone unless in danger.
20.8
Working in little penguin habitat
If you are unsure whether penguins are present in the area when you plan to work, contact the local NRM or
community facilitators within your local council, PWS and NRM regional office.
There are a number of resources for guiding works in little penguin habitat to help land managers and
community groups adopt best practice techniques. Seek expert advice and see sources and resources at the
end of this chapter.
Develop a plan of action and incorporate best management practices to ensure sufficient habitat protection
for little penguins is available at all times.
Designer highlight text please
Plan works in penguin habitat carefully
Plan works carefully. Consider all of the issues and uses associated with the area to ensure problems can be
solved in a strategic and comprehensive way.
Consider:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
presence or absence of little penguins
timing of works
revegetation planning, such as staged removal of weeds and ensuring that adequate habitat is
always available. Identify vegetation types used by penguins for their habitat
-native coastal species
-introduced species
-species where penguin habitat occurs
safe use of chemicals for weed control
installing artificial burrows or igloos.
penguin fencing
public works, infrastructure and maintenance required
8.
9.
vegetation maintenance such as mowing and slashing
other recreational uses such as camping and overnight parking of campervans and caravans
End highlight
Are there penguins?
Telltale signs of penguins being present are well-worn runways, evidence of scats (white faecal matter in 3–5
cm streaks), footprints and the noise they make at night. Feathers can be seen around the entrance of burrows
or resting spots during the moulting time. Many times penguins can be smelt (a fishy odour) before they’re
found. Depending on the time of the year checks should be carried out more than once, just in case an
absence of birds on first inspection may be falsely taken as no presence of birds.
IMPORTANT: Before starting any work in an area it is important that the site is checked by a Parks
and Wildlife Officer or authorised penguin biologist. They can determine the presence of birds and
their lifecycle stage. Planned works must be approved and may need to be adapted to minimise
disturbance.
Timing of works
It is important to ensure that there is minimal disturbance to the birds at all times especially during the
breeding and moulting seasons (generally August to April). There is a very small window of opportunity to
undertake works (revegetation, weeding and construction).
IMPORTANT: The best months for works in penguin habitat are from May to July as long as the
birds have finished raising chicks and have completed their moult. Avoid working in and around a
penguin colony during nesting, breeding and moulting times of the year.
Recent survey results have found that not all birds leave the coast during the months of May–July and there
are always some birds present for a variety of reasons. As a general rule the more mature birds can start
breeding at the beginning of June and can produce two clutches. This is totally dependent on seasons and food
supply. Birds have been found to be still raising chicks as late as April in some breeding seasons. Breeding is
not synchronous throughout the colony but can be quite variable.
Revegetation in penguin habitat
Penguins nest under introduced species especially types that offer cover and protection such as cape ivy,
boxthorn, boneseed, blackberry and mirror bush.
Weed removal must be gradual and needs to be undertaken simultaneously with revegetation to ensure
sufficient nesting habitat is provided at all times. Plan your revegetation from May to July, again depending on
the absence or presence of penguins.
If the majority of vegetation providing habitat for a penguin colony is introduced species then careful longterm planning must be undertaken.
For revegetation, it is highly recommended that indigenous coastal species be used from seed collected in the
local area. Species should reflect native species growing in the area.
IMPORTANT: Coastal wattle (Acacia sophorae) may not be suitable in southern Tasmania, where
the lower branches tend to sprawl over the ground, putting down roots to form a tangled thicket
difficult for penguins to walk through.
Where boxthorn is present, and used for nesting, gradually remove by cutting and painting with herbicide
leaving the dead skeleton in place wherever possible. This retains the root system and the branches, which
continue to provide valuable habitat for the penguins and maintains soil stability. Tetragonia can be planted to
grow over the dead boxthorn to provide further cover.
Use of chemicals
Checks need to be made that no penguins are present prior to spraying weeds. If chemicals are used, they
should be specific to the weed(s), with minimal harm to other plants and fauna present, such as frogs.
Artificial burrows or igloos
These can be used as last resort where there is insufficient natural nesting habitat, or if the habitat is degraded
(e.g. by coastal erosion). They should be camouflaged with dead vegetation and native creepers such as
Tetragonia. Consult your local NRM or community facilitators within your local council, PWS and NRM regional
office, Wildlife Management staff within DPIPWE or Parks and Wildlife Officers for information on these
alternatives.
Penguin fencing
If penguins need to be kept away from roads, effective barriers can be made from 25 mm chicken mesh
fastened to fencing wire with ring fasteners and strained tightly between star pickets. The easiest way to strain
the fence is back to a picket stay. Safety caps must be placed on top of star pickets to protect people.
The key to good penguin fencing is to have a skilled supervisor.
The fence should be built with 600 mm high mesh that is buried 100 mm into the ground – or in hard ground,
turn up the lower 100 mm (toward the sea) and weigh it down with rocks or pin it down very securely. Another
way to deal with changes in slope is to partly cut the mesh, bend it to suit the slope and overlap the cut ends,
securing them by folding them into the fence.
Penguin fencing constructed by volunteers at one location had to be redone because it wasn’t inserted deeply
into the ground, and penguins could dig under it.
The fence should end at some structure or natural feature that the birds cannot get past, or you could angle
the last section of the fence back towards the sea, well past the nesting area. Brace the corners of the fence,
and where it changes direction, with short sections of star picket and pegs secured by wiring. To deal with
unevenly sloping ground, insert a post at each change of slope, cut the mesh at the post and attach another
piece of mesh.
Pedestrian openings should ideally be away from penguin areas but if this is not possible, fit a small gate
(constructed by a local metal fabricator) to exclude dogs.
Keep the fence clear of vegetation or objects that the birds can use as platforms to hop over it – penguins are
quite athletic. If any birds get stuck on the wrong side of the fence, provide a temporary ramp of rocks or
boards so they can escape.
SHARING STORIES: Keeping penguins on the safe side
Little penguins live and breed along the narrow coastal strip between Cooee and Camdale in northwest
Tasmania in a highly urbanised environment. The penguins were being killed while crossing the busy Bass
Highway and railway line to find nesting sites. With Coastcare funding and help from the Burnie City Council,
Green Corps and Conservation Volunteers Australia, the Cooee to Camdale Coastcare Group erected a
continuous fence for 2.2 kilometres to restrict the penguins to the seaward side of the railway line. The group
regularly monitors the numbers of penguins and chicks in the area and maps their burrows. Fifty artificial
burrows have been installed to provide extra nesting habitat.
Public works, infrastructure and maintenance
When Councils or other agencies need to undertake works, due care must be taken if penguins are nesting
nearby. The Parks and Wildlife Service must be contacted so that the area can be investigated for the presence
of little penguins and management advice provided. Avoid leaving rock or gravel within or adjacent to penguin
colonies. Ensure that any debris from work activities is removed
IMPORTANT: Ensure gravel or works debris is not piled up along roadsides or along railways as
these obstacles impede penguins trying to cross.
Mowing and slashing
Before mowing or slashing, check that there are no penguins in grassy areas near bushes or rocks. If the grass
is high, check the whole area. The Parks and Wildlife Service must be contacted so that the area can be
investigated for the presence of little penguins and management advice provided.
Overnight parking of campervans and caravans
It is recommended that campervans and holiday homes be kept away from overnight stops in little penguin
colonies, as quite often penguins' nightly activities, such as feeding chicks, are interrupted.
20.9
Recreation and wildlife
Highlight text
Tips to protect wildlife
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Use existing tracks and don’t walk on sand dunes to avoid treading on nesting shorebirds or destroying
penguin burrows.
Stay at least 50 m away from wildlife – fleeing from people uses up precious energy needed to rear their
young.
Walk on wet sand on beaches from 1 October to 31 March to avoid disturbing nests.
Keep your dog on a lead and well away from the upper beach in the spring–summer breeding season.
Even friendly dogs can frighten birds from their nests.
Avoid taking your 4-WD vehicle onto dunes, where it may destroy feeding or nesting birds. Where vehicles
are permitted, drive on wet sand.
Leave seaweed, driftwood and piles of shells on the beach – they camouflage nests and feed and shelter
sandhoppers and other small animals.
Do not feed wildlife. Human food scraps can harm wildlife and encourage seagulls to hang around in pest
proportions.
Take your litter away with you – plastics and hooks can be ingested by mammals and seabirds. Animals
starve or birds may regurgitate litter when they feed chicks.
Pick up any marine debris you see on the beach and dispose of it safely. Wildlife can become entangled in
nets and other rubbish.
Don’t bury scraps from cleaning fish because seabirds or dogs will uncover them.
Don’t leave fishing tackle such as line and hooks at the beach or on jetties – they can entangle wildlife and
even kill them. People could step on them too.
Excessive bait gathering takes food away from wildlife, so only take what you need.
Look at but don’t touch rock pool and other intertidal life – these fascinating creatures no longer exist in
some places due to collection for bait and food.
Keep your cat inside at night to avoid predation on birds and small marsupials. Desex your cat so it doesn’t
produce unwanted kittens.
Ensure your dog does not roam and hunt, kill or stress penguins and other wildlife.
Find out where you are allowed to take your dog by contacting your local council or PWS office. A 'No
dogs' sign may mean birds are nesting on or near the beach.
Reduce vehicle and boat speeds, don’t beach your craft on sandbanks near shorebirds and stay well away
from flocks of birds.
End highlight text
20.10
Fishing and boating guidelines
Fishing regulations help to reduce over-fishing. Check the regulations, as they change often. They are available
from Service Tasmania and fishing outlets and on the DPIPWE website. See sources and resources at the end of
this chapter.
GOOD IDEA: The Wild Fisheries Branch of DPIPWE promotes responsible and sustainable fishing
practices through the Fishcare Tasmania program. Volunteers conduct fisheries education in
schools, fisheries awareness events, patrols and responsible fishing clinics.
Fishing is not permitted in marine reserves, which are like underwater national parks.
When fishing, take care to protect birds from fishing lines and hooks. If you hook a bird, take it to a vet or call
the Wildlife Hotline. Take care not to lose tackle, which can entangle wildlife.
Some fishing places have facilities for cleaning fish. Otherwise clean your fish at home. Don’t bury remains
because they will be uncovered by the tide, seabirds or dogs.
Allow seal and seabirds to breed in peace by not landing near colonies or rookeries. Some islands are
designated Nature Reserves set aside for seabird breeding and other wildlife values. In general, people cannot
visit Nature Reserves that have been declared ‘restricted areas’ by a management plan. Permission must first
be obtained by writing to the Director of the Parks and Wildlife Service and is usually granted only for
educational or research purposes. This helps to control and monitor access to sensitive sites and assists in their
management.
Migrating humpback or southern right whales may be seen May to July and September to November. Avoid
alarming whales by going slowly and keep at least 100 m away. Whale watching guidelines are available from
PWS and DPIPWE.
Motorised boats can increase shoreline erosion in susceptible waterways, particularly when driven at high
speed. There are regulations about boat speeds, enforced by Marine and Safety Tasmania (MAST).
Boats, including kayaks, enable access to less populated coastlines. People using boats should take extra care
to minimise any disturbance to the wildlife and habitat when visiting offshore islands or remote shorelines.
There are information brochures available to guide boat users about minimising impact on coastal values.
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Take home all rubbish, including food scraps.
Use existing campsites and tracks whenever possible.
Do not drag boats or kayaks through undisturbed vegetation.
Use a fuel stove for cooking.
Bury human waste, consider disposal at sea or taking it with you.
Avoid using soap or detergents. Beach sand is an excellent alternative for cleaning cookware.
Do not disturb wildlife, keep 100m from whales in your boat, do not walk through bird colonies or
rookeries.
20.11
Helping injured wildlife
Wildlife can be injured by road accidents, entanglement in marine debris, oil spills, attacks form dogs or cats,
boating accidents or sadly sometimes through cruelty. Sometimes animals are left orphaned.
The best thing you can do for injured or resting wildlife is to keep people and dogs away while you phone the
local Parks and Wildlife Service, the Wildlife Hotline or a vet.
Seabirds are the most likely animal to be found injured or orphaned on the shore.
Injured or orphaned animals
With smaller wildlife, if you cannot get professional help in the first 24 hours, and feel confident you can help,
you could follow the procedures on the DPIPWE website. Most of our wildlife is protected and can only be
rehabilitated with a permit available from DPIPWE.
Before attempting to capture the animal, look for physical signs of injury or illness, such as a hanging wing or
drooping head, this information may help the vet or wildlife officer identify the problem.
A frightened animal may attack with claws, wings, beak or teeth so do not try to rescue it unless you feel it is
safe for all concerned. If you are not confident, leave the animal alone and seek assistance.
Prepare a box suitable for transport before capturing the animal. This could be a cardboard box with punched
air holes and lined with newspaper, old towels or a blanket.
A gentle confident approach towards the animal is best. Most animals can be captured by throwing an old
towel or blanket over them. Wrap the animal securely in the towel (a bird’s wings should be folded close to
the body) or place marsupials in a clean hessian sack or pillowslip and tie up the end. Echidnas are best
transported in a clean, plastic rubbish bin.
Place the animal in the prepared box and keep it in a quiet, dark, draught-free environment until you can get
professional advice or assistance.
Designer highlight text please This could possibly be repeated at the start of the chapter if
there is room.
Wildlife Emergency Contacts
WILDLIFE HOTLINE: 6233 6556 (24 hrs)
WHALE HOTLINE: 0427 WHALES (0427 942 537)
This is a 24 hr monitored service for calls of all marine mammal sightings and strandings.
RSPCA: 6244 3033 or 1300 139 947
BONORONG WILDLIFE HOTLINE (southern areas): 6268 1184 (24 hrs)
Provided by Bonorong Wildlife Sanctuary.
End highlight
Whales
Whales and dolphins are protected under the National and State legislation detailed in section 20.1 and
further protection is provided by the Whales Protection Act 1988. Please report any whale or other unusual
mammal sightings to the local PWS office or the Wildlife or Whale Hotline.
Whales and dolphins are known to strand on Tasmanian beaches. Strandings can be of a single animal (usually
the case for dolphins and baleen whales) or a mass stranding of a large pod (often long-finned pilot whales or
sperm whales).
It is not clearly understood why whales strand but much has been learned about helping stranded whales.
Mass strandings require a coordinated approach and teams of experts. The animals must be released together,
if released individually they will often restrand.
If you come across a stranding notify the Whales Hotline immediately. Provide details of the exact location, the
number of animals, their size, their condition, their species (if you can) and any other useful information.
Helping whales is extremely dangerous. One of the greatest risks is finding yourself pinned by a whale that has
been rolled in the surf, or being knocked out by a tail fluke or fin, so never assist whales that are partially
submerged without the presence of wildlife authorities.
Whales on the beach will overheat quickly. Before authorities arrive you can attempt to keep them cool.
ALERT: Always put your own safety first. Be cautious of sudden movements of the tail or fins.
Carefully dig holes for the flippers so they are hanging free. Allow holes to fill with water to assist with cooling.
The large surface areas of the flippers are important for regulating temperature. Cover the body with wet
towels or seaweed and keep wetting the animal down.
IMPORTANT: Do not cover the blowhole or allow water to go down the blowhole.
Designer highlight text please
Wildcare Inc coordinates a group of first response whale rescue teams made up of trained volunteers that can
be called on to assist in the event of a stranding. Members of the team are contacted by Wildlife authorities in
the event of a stranding.
You can join Wildcare Inc and register your interest. You will receive information about the next available
whale rescue course.
End highlight
Seals
All seals are wholly protected and the Australian and New Zealand fur seals are threatened species.
Seals regularly come ashore (haul out) for a number of reasons and are not necessarily injured. They may just
be resting. Keep a safe distance, seals have a powerful bite and can inflict painful injuries and carry a number
of diseases. They can whip their head around surprisingly quickly.
Sick or injured seals sometimes haul up on beaches. Seals are curious creatures and can end up with rope,
fishing net or packing straps wrapped around their necks. These entanglements often lead to a slow painful
death as the animal grows and the debris gradually strangles it.
If you come across a seal hauled up on the beach keep people and dogs away and report it to the Wildlife or
Whales Hotline.
Oiled animals
Treating oiled seabirds and wildlife is highly specialised and requires training. If you discover oiled seabirds or
mammals contact the Wildlife Hotline.
There may be opportunities for volunteers to participate in caring for oiled animals in the unfortunate event of
an oil spill, but training would be provided first.
Injured or moulting penguins
If you find an injured penguin, contact the Parks and Wildlife Service or Wildlife Management staff within
DPIPWE. Remove the danger if possible or guard it from danger. If you must transport the penguin, wear
gloves and handle carefully as they can bite. Place in a cardboard box and keep in a cool, secure, quiet place.
Do not handle or try to feed the penguin. Make sure it is not simply a moulting penguin.
It is easy to mistake a moulting penguin for a sick bird. In late summer and autumn penguins come ashore to
moult. Usually these birds are standing alone in a sheltered area and can look quite ‘scruffy’. They may be
outside their usual haunts because moulting comes on so suddenly. Moulting is a short-term intense process
for penguins – the feathers literally fly off the bird.
Penguins are typically plump at the start of moult, with dull feathers sticking out from the body. They often
appear hunched and miserable. They may have large patches of old feathers missing with clean new feathers
emerging.
A moulting penguin is best left alone. If it is threatened by dogs or people contact the nearest PWS office or
DPIPWE wildlife hotline. If you must move the penguin to safety, take care as they can bite.
Sometimes other species of sub-Antarctic penguins come ashore in Tasmania to moult. Report all sightings to
DPIPWE staff on the Wildlife Hotline.
Stranded shearwaters
Short-tailed shearwaters are the most numerous birds found washed up on beaches from February to May
each year, typically after a storm. At this time, chicks have fledged and are getting ready to migrate but cannot
fly very well, so they end up on beaches and roads.
They should be placed in a box (DO NOT attempt to feed them) and released at night at a beach, preferably
from an elevated site, as they struggle to take off from the ground. You can also contact the nearest PWS
office or field centre, or Wildlife Management staff in DPIPWE.
Helping scientific research – reporting leg bands and carcasses
Dead animals found on the coast such as birds, whales, dolphins and seals, may be of scientific interest.
Contact the museum, PWS or DPIPWE. The latter is interested in receiving details of all animals found dead on
beaches, including albatrosses and other ocean birds, and any unusual deaths of seabirds. Reports of sightings
of animal entanglements and animals with tags are welcome.
If you find a bird with a band, wing tag, or some other marking, the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme
(ABBBS) would like to hear about it. If the bird is dead, ABBBS would like you, if possible, to take the band off
and send it to them with information about the locality and the bird’s condition.
Details about how to do this and an online reporting form are available from their website. See Sources and
resources at the end of this chapter.
21 Pests and problems
Much of the work Coastcare groups do on the land already contributes to protecting the
health of coastal waterways, but there are also some water specific activities that
Coastcare volunteers can get involved in.
21.1
Oil spills
21.2
Marine debris
21.3
Feral animals
21.4
Marine pests
21.5
Common marine pests to look for
21.1
Oil spills
Oil spills in the coastal environment can range from small levels of contamination from recreational boats to
large-scale spills from commercial operations.
All oil spills can impact on wildlife, fisheries, coastal and marine habitats and human health. Commercial and
recreational resources in coastal communities are also affected. In the case of large-scale events these impacts
can be widespread and long-term.
Managing oil spills requires a coordinated approach. Procedures for combating oil spill pollution are contained
within the Tasmanian marine oil pollution contingency (TASPLAN). Tas ports oil spill contingency plans are
localised plans for specific ports where an oil spill occurs within port boundaries.
Report any oil spills to the 24 hour response number 1800 005 171.
Oiled wildlife require specialised treatment. Contact the Wildlife Hotline. See Chapter 20.
21.2
Marine debris
Litter looks unsightly, can leach chemicals and toxins into waterways and poses a hazard to people recreating
and living on the coast. Litter floating in the ocean and coastal waterways is a major threat to coastal wildlife.
Waste transported in the marine environment is known as marine debris. It may be land-based waste that has
been blown or washed into the ocean or it may have been dumped, discarded or lost from ships and boats.
This waste includes micro-plastics from pre-production pellets (nurdles) or plastic breaking down; land-based
litter; lost fishing nets or other fishing equipment; and even remnants of synthetic textiles from our clothing
entering our waterways and oceans.
Marine debris can entangle and drown penguins, seals and other marine animals. Many seabirds will ingest
plastics which will either poison them or lead to starvation. Turtles mistake floating plastic bags for jellyfish
and ingest them. Whales have been found with kilograms of rubbish in their stomachs. Floating litter can even
transport invasive species into new areas.
One of the best things we can do for wildlife and our coastal environment is dispose of our litter wisely and to
pick litter up from the beach.
The Australian Government has listed marine debris as a ‘key threatening process’ in the Environment
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and a threat abatement plan was generated in
2009.
Many Coastcare groups get involved in Clean-Up Australia Day events to help raise awareness of the litter
issue and involve their local communities in a coastal clean-up. 16, 000 tonnes of rubbish collected in 2012 as
part of Clean-up Australia Day events.
Some groups are paid by their council to conduct regular beach clean-ups.
Monitoring marine debris, such as plastic bottles, washed up on the beach is a great way to involve students in
the coastal waste story.
Monitoring programs seem to come and go but it is always worthwhile checking what other organisations and
institutions are doing about monitoring and collecting marine debris so that you can link in and provide any
data you collect to a broader program.
SHARING STORIES: Beachwatch.
Cradle Coast NRM launched a Beachwatch program in 2012 and 22 beaches in the Cradle Coast area are now
monitored for marine debris by Beachwatch volunteers. Volunteers include members of other care groups and
school students. Twice yearly clean-ups are coordinated and the rubbish is sorted and data collected. Data can
be viewed by anyone on the Cradle Coast NRM website. The data is also shared with the Tangaroa Ocean Care
Society who use the information to trace materials to their source and campaign for changes to manufacturing
and packaging.
21.3
Feral animals
Controlling feral animals is difficult and requires expertise. Consult your land manager if feral animals are a
problem in your area.
Feral animals such as rabbits and roaming domestic cats and dogs are major threats to wildlife in many coastal
areas. Monitor feral animals in sensitive habitats and alert authorities to new problems. Unusual pests such as
ferrets and mainland tortoises should be removed and reported to DPIPWE Wildlife staff.
Rabbits
Rabbits compete with browsing marsupials for grasses, and with shearwaters and penguins for burrows.
Rabbits eat the seedlings of native plants and set off erosion and weed infestation by digging for plant roots.
Although rabbits are a nuisance control must only be undertaken by authorities. It is dangerous to lay poison
and ferrets (whilst good rabbit hunters) are a threat to wildlife if they escape.
Cats and dogs
Cats and dogs are responsible for the decline of many native animal populations, especially small marsupials
and breeding seabirds like penguins.
Coastcare groups can help to raise awareness in their local communities of the threats posed by uncontrolled
domestic cats and dogs. Feral cats will mate with domestic cats so encourage owners to neuter their cats.
Roaming dogs can devastate bird colonies and even well behaved dogs will destroy a shorebird nest if they
come across one on the beach.
In some areas feral cats are a significant problem. The Tasmanian Cat Management Act 2009 and the Cat
Management Regulations 2012 allow for the humane handling and control of unidentified, stray and feral cats.
Intensive cat trapping has proved very successful in saving the penguin colony at Bicheno in the past. Trapping
commenced before the bird breeding season and traps were monitored every 24 hours and cats dispatched to
a vet for humane disposal.
Foxes
Foxes have recently entered Tasmania. Foxes are a most serious threat to nesting penguins and shorebirds and
small marsupials.
To give us the best chance of controlling foxes, please report any signs of a fox to the Fox Taskforce by calling
the FOX HOTLINE on 1300 369 688.
Foxes are the size of a small dog but are mainly nocturnal. They range in colour from grey-black to orange to
very red, usually with a white tip on their tail.
Foxes can be detected by certain signs; for example, if a fox eats a seagull, it leaves the wings. Foxes mark a
food source such as a penguin colony by dropping a scat about 2 cm wide and twirled up at the end. If you find
a potential fox scat, put it in a clean paper bag (without touching it directly) and phone the Fox Taskforce who
will do DNA testing.
Adult foxes have a similar footprint to small dogs. The best way to tell them apart is the hard triangular ridge
on the ball of the fox foot.
21.4
Marine pests
Some fish, invertebrates and algae have been introduced into Tasmanian waters either intentionally for
aquaculture, or accidentally from ships (ballast water) or as a by-catch of aquaculture specimens.
Not all introduced species have a significant impact on our marine life. However, many have the capacity to
displace or prey on native marine animals and plants. These species are known as marine pests.
Significant marine pests in Tasmania include toxic algae, wakame seaweed, the european green crab, pacific
oyster, new zealand screw shell and the northern pacific seastar.
Learn how to identify marine pests, look-out for new incursions of marine pests or species showing an
abnormal change in abundance. Report any new sightings of marine pests (or suspect species) to DPIPWE on
1300 368 550 or the Marine Pest Hotline on 0408 380 377.
Your group might like to organise a marine pest ‘clean-up day’ with the local community. Coastcarers cleared
hundreds of northern pacific seastars from Browns Rivulet, Kingston before they could spread into the sea.
To collect or trap noxious marine pests (such as the northern pacific sea star) you need a special marine pest
permit from the Marine Resources Group in DPIPWE. Never transport live specimens of marine pests from one
place to another.
Any marine pests caught in traps under permit should be euthanased and their bodies sealed in plastic bags
and disposed of at a registered tip site. Keep in mind that any leakage from this bag into a waterway could
spread microscopic eggs and larvae.
The University of Tasmania has an interactive website Redmap, inviting the Tasmanian community to spot, log
and map marine species that are uncommon in Tasmania, or along particular parts of our coast.
Boats, diving and fishing equipment should be washed thoroughly above high tide level before leaving an area
to minimise dispersal.
Feral oysters
The introduced commercial pacific oyster has recruited to shorelines along Tasmania’s north and south east
coasts. Their sharp-edged shells are a nuisance and sometimes a hazard to beachgoers.
Some Coastcare groups are interested in ongoing removal of feral pacific oysters from their shorelines. It is
possible to eliminate the oyster from local areas but it requires ongoing monitoring and follow-up as new
larvae are brought in on the currents.
Teams of volunteers collect the feral oysters for disposal or smash the shells on the rocks with tools. Permits
are not required but permission from the land manager is essential. This will most likely be Crown Land
Services.
Feral oysters should not be eaten. Keep in mind that disposal can be expensive. Smashing the shells might be
preferable but care must be taken to ensure that no sharp edges are left on the rocks.
ALERT: Personal protective equipment, including heavy duty gloves, safety glasses, and sturdy
footwear should always be worn when using tools to smash or remove osyters.
Due to the labour intensive work and the need to complete the activities quickly during a low tide, groups
often enlist the help of a team of additional volunteers such as a Conservation Volunteers Australia team.
SCAT has produced an information sheet for groups interested in removing feral oysters, Reclaiming the coast
from the pacific oyster: A guide to controlling pacific oysters in your coastal area.
SHARING STORIES: Coastal leader driving change in feral oyster management. Lindsay James is a dedicated
advocate for feral oyster management. Lindsay commenced work to remove feral oysters from the coastlines
of the Tasman Peninsula in the 1990’s. Since this time, Lindsay has collected records of locations and amounts
removed and demonstrated that within defined areas it is possible to get rid of and maintain oyster-free
stretches of our coastline. Over the years, Lindsay’s passion and advocacy has garnered support from funding
bodies, oyster growers, volunteer providers and marine researchers. Lindsay’s talks and demonstrations have
inspired other Coastcare groups in southern Tasmania to remove feral oysters from their shorelines and kept
the issue in the spotlight for over a decade.
21.5
Common marine pests to look for
Knowing how to identify marine pests can help to prevent their spread in Tasmanian waters. Photos and
information are available online at the National Introduced marine Pest Information System (NIMPIS) These
have descriptions of pests and similar native species.
The illustrations in this section are reproduced with the kind permission of Adele Fletcher and the Tasmanian
Marine Naturalists Association from the field guide Between Tasmanian tide lines.
Be aware that some pest species look similar to native species.
Japanese seaweed, wakame (Undaria pinnatifida)
This edible seaweed has a single green-brown frond up to 1 m long with a distinctive ruffle at the base of its
stem. The stem extends into the blade as a broad midrib. It occurs around the southeast coast including the
entrance to the Derwent River Estuary, Fortescue Bay on the Tasman Peninsula, and the Mercury Passage and
Georges Bay, both on the east coast.
European green crab (Carcinus maenas)
This grey-green crab has a carapace up to 70 mm wide, with three teeth between the eyes and four notches
along each side. It is found under stones and in crevices on sheltered rock, mud and sand, at and just below
low tide. It is an active predator and may present a threat to a number of native species. It differs from native
crabs in having five well-defined spines on both sides of the upper carapace (shell), starting at the eye.
It is important to monitor the coastline and to report any new localities of this crab, as it has spread from the
north of the state down the east coast as far as Blackman Bay near Marion Bay. So far it has not invaded the
southeast of Tasmania, but all care should be taken with transferring equipment and water to southern areas.
Piecrust crab (Cancer novaezelandia)
This orange-brown crab with large claws has an oval carapace up to 90 mm wide with indentations around the
margin that resemble marks in a piecrust. It may have been accidentally introduced from New Zealand and can
be found throughout the southeast of Tasmania to Eaglehawk Neck. It has also been recorded from Port Davey
and Devonport.
New Zealand or rosy screw shell (Maoricolpus roseus)
These long, pointed screw shells are a reddish-brown when alive, but quickly wear away to a purplish colour
when dead. The smaller native screw shell (Gazameda gunnii) is becoming rare. Its colour is off-white to light
brown and it is smaller (up to 56 mm rather than 90 cm). Their massive numbers are a serious threat to native
sand-living species by competition for food and space.
Accidentally introduced from New Zealand, they have spread at an alarming pace throughout the southeast
and east coasts of Tasmania. They have crossed Bass Strait and can now be found as far north as Sydney
Harbour.
New Zealand seastar (Patiriella regularis)
This is a small greenish-brown, five-armed seastar up to 7 cm across that was accidentally introduced from
New Zealand. It occurs in huge numbers in sheltered waters and competes for food and space with native
small seastars (which are greener or green-blue and less than 3 cm wide).
It occurs extensively around the southeast of Tasmania, but does not seem to have spread further.
Northern pacific seastar (Asterias amurensis)
The tips of this seastar’s five arms are pointed and turn upwards when alive. The body is usually yellow-orange
often blotched with purple, especially near the ends of the arms. The average size is 20 cm. In summer they
move down to deeper water so are not as notable as in winter.
Take care not to mistake this pest for the native eleven-armed seastar, with arms that lack up-turned tips. This
pest occurs in huge numbers in the Derwent River estuary, as well as in the D’Entrecasteaux Channel, Huon
River Estuary, Frederick Henry Bay, Norfolk Bay, and the Mercury Passage (in scallop spat bags). They have
been sighted on the northern east coast of Tasmania. The latest estimates of these seastars in Port Phillip Bay,
Victoria, stand at 150 million.
Do not break off arms as they can regenerate into new seastars.