How to Improve Your Study Skills Table of Contents Knowing Yourself as a Learner .......................................................................................... 3 Paying Attention to Details ............................................................................................. 4 Breaking Tasks into Meaningful Chunks ....................................................................... 6 Questioning and Using Cognitive Structures .................................................................. 7 Memory and the Importance of Review ............................................................................. 9 Memory ....................................................................................................................... 9 How Memory Works .................................................................................................. 9 How We Forget and the Importance of Review ....................................................... 10 The Keys to Remembering ........................................................................................... 11 Time Management ............................................................................................................ 12 Using Time Wisely ........................................................................................................... 12 Study Environment ................................................................................................... 13 Reading the Textbook ....................................................................................................... 14 Preview the text......................................................................................................... 14 Preview each chapter ................................................................................................ 15 Ask questions ............................................................................................................ 15 Read for details ......................................................................................................... 15 Recite ........................................................................................................................ 16 Review ...................................................................................................................... 16 Listening and Note Taking................................................................................................ 16 Listening ................................................................................................................... 16 Note-Taking .............................................................................................................. 17 Using Visual Organizers ........................................................................................... 18 Papers ................................................................................................................................ 18 Tests .................................................................................................................................. 20 Before the Test .......................................................................................................... 20 During the Test ......................................................................................................... 20 After the Test ............................................................................................................ 22 Appendix ........................................................................................................................... 23 Cornell Notes ................................................................................................................ 23 Mnemonic Techniques .................................................................................................. 24 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner Just as there are differences in personality, there are differences in the ways that we learn and use information. Some people are quiet and tend to be reflective in the way they process information. Others are "take charge" kinds of people who need to put information to immediate use and to solve problems. Just as we have different preferences and ways of learning, we also change and adjust our learning strategies based on our own development and on the different learning situations in which we find ourselves. By understanding ourselves and becoming more aware of these differences, we become more capable of adjusting to new situations throughout our lifetime as learners. Metacognition or "self- knowing" includes the following aspects of understanding our "learning" selves:     Knowing our learning "style" and how we learn best in different learning situations. Our recognition of differences in learning tasks and our ability to match the appropriate learning strategy to the task. Our ability to monitor whether we are understanding and learning in a given situation or during the performance or a task. When we know that we do not understand, recognizing the problem and identifying a different strategy that will be more appropriate to the learning situation. 1. Knowing our learning "style" and how we learn best in different learning situations. By gaining an awareness of your learning style, you can choose the learning strategies that work best for you. For example, o If you are a visual/right-brained or holistic learner, you might use mapping, drawings, and color-coding as note-taking strategies to make information visual and to capture the main ideas or "big picture". o If you are an auditory learner, you can tape record lectures and ask questions during the lecture to get more information in an auditory format. o If you are "left-brained" and a detail/step-by-step learner, you will want to use an outline or Cornell note-taking system that puts the information in a linear format. You should also consider environmental factors like time of day, temperature, level of sound and size of groupings in which you learn best. Then try to schedule your classes and study sessions around your preferences. 2. Our recognition of differences in learning tasks and our ability to match the appropriate learning strategy to the task. For example, there are different types of reading tasks and different strategies that are appropriate when reading these materials. 3 o o o o When you read literature, you identify the theme and how the author expands on that theme through the use of story, characters, setting, action, etc. When you read a science textbook, you read for important details: critical concepts, definitions of important terms, examples or applications, etc. When read math word problems, you identify the problem and then determine which processes and calculations will give you the solution to the problem. When you come to a new kind of task or problem, you go through the following steps: 1. Identify what kind of task it is by scanning your memory for a similar task. 2. Once you have found a match to the new task or problem, determine the strategies you used to complete the original task. 3. Apply the same strategies to the new task. 3. How we monitor whether we are understanding and learning in a given situation or task. As we apply learning strategies to tasks, we should continuously check the effectiveness of the process by evaluating our progress in completing the task; and the outcome or understanding by asking ourselves the following questions: o What is this about? (Can I put this information in my own words? Explain it to someone else?) o Does the answer (or outcome) make sense? o How am I doing? When I am unable to answer the questions above, I might ask: o o What could I do to make this process more effective? What other strategies might work more effectively? 4. When we know that we do not understand, recognizing the problem and identifying a different strategy that will be more appropriate to the learning situation. If we are unable to explain our new learning, or complete a practice problem applying this learning, we may need to find another strategy that will work more effectively. For instance, if you are unable to understand a passage after reading it, you may need to read it again, slowly. Look up words you do not know. Paying Attention to Details Based on information gained from new technologies and recent research on the brain, we know that we use the entire brain when processing information. In spite of this fact, learners seem to fall into one of two camps. Some tend to be "right brained," showing a preference to learn and process information simultaneously and focusing on the big picture and relationships between ideas. Others tend to be "left brained" and learn and 4 process information in a sequential, step-by-step fashion, while focusing on details. But just as we need to see with both of our eyes in order to capture all of the nuances of an image, we need to gather information from both "big picture" and "detail" perspectives in order to fully understand. Like a puzzle, you don't get the "whole picture" until you have all the pieces. If you tend to be a "big picture" learner, you should be aware that you may miss important details when you read, take notes, and study. You may "jump to conclusions" in your eagerness to look for patterns and relationships. In a similar way, if you tend to focus on details, you may not recognize the relationships between ideas that are also critical to full understanding. If you "can't see the forest for the trees," you may find it difficult to understand where the information is heading. The implication is that we should strive for a balance between these two styles of learning. We should seek ways to get information from the opposite "brain," by practicing ways to get all the information we need and/or by working with others who tend to be strong in the opposite style. The following are some techniques that can help to strengthen both styles of learning: If you are "Left Brained" (detailed, step-by-step, linear)       To get the big picture, develop a map of each course and chapter of your text. This will help you to see where the details fit in and to determine which details are most important. Write summaries (in your own words) for each topic covered in your text and lectures. At the end of each chapter or unit, develop flash cards or Cornell notes to identify the most important information on one side and the details on the other side of the card. Use questions at all cognitive levels and visual organizers to help yourself process information more deeply and to see the relationships between important concepts. Use maps to help yourself identify the most important information for reviewing and for test preparation. Use maps to help yourself organize your thinking before you start writing. If you are "Right Brained" (big picture, simultaneous, holistic):    Annotate text and take lecture notes, focusing on important details by using Cornell notes. Number or bullet the details to draw your attention to them. For each lecture you attend or chapter you read, develop flash cards that identify the most important terms and concepts. Write main ideas on one side and details on the other. Use questions at all cognitive levels to quiz yourself and to be sure that you have considered the important details. 5    Review flash cards or Cornell notes to prepare for tests and exams. Use maps to help with preliminary organization for writing essays. Be sure that you include sufficient details to back up your ideas. Use Cornell notes or other outlining techniques for organizing longer papers. Survey the whole test before you start answering questions. Develop a test-taking strategy to maximize your efforts. Be sure to read all questions thoroughly and to provide sufficient detail in your answers Breaking Tasks into Meaningful Chunks Think of your brain as a giant file cabinet. As you take in new information, you want to be sure that it goes into the appropriate "file folder." (Otherwise it will get "lost in space.") In order to do this, you first need to think about the information. What do you already know about it? If you already have a "file" on this information, add the new information to it. If not, start a new "file" that is labeled appropriately so that you'll be able to find it later. "Chunking" is a lot like filing. The idea is that you want to open only one "file" at a time, so that you can stay focused and "file" the information easily. This process will save time and it will also help you to understand better and to remember more effectively. Some basic principles of "chunking" include:  Break up study into 45 minute to 1 hour "chunks," focusing on one subject at a time. This is the maximum time most people can stay attentive.  Break up reading or study by units of information (chapters/topics). This way, your attention will be focused on a topic for easier filing and retrieval.  As you read, annotate text in order to better understand and label the information you are processing for future reference.  After lectures and reading, add new information to maps or outlines so that it is "filed" appropriately.  Write a summary after you complete each "chunk" of reading or at the end of your lecture notes, so that you can check your understanding and clarify what you have learned. This assists the way you "label" your information "files," and it will be easier to determine which "file" to open when you come across new information.  Look for connections and relationships between ideas-- categories, similarities/differences, cause/effect, etc. Using visual organizers and asking questions at all cognitive levels will help you to do this. By chunking your reading and other study tasks, you will find that new information will make more sense. This is because you will be connecting it to what you already know 6 about the subject. You will also be better able to make the connections you need to make with other information that will help you to thoroughly understand and learn. Questioning and Using Cognitive Structures By asking yourself questions before, during, and after you read or take class notes, you can help yourself in a number of ways. Asking the right questions can help you to:      Identify your goals and to focus your attention. Determine what you already know (or don't know) and thereby concentrate on getting the information you need. Monitor your understanding and when you don't understand, determine other strategies or get help. "Chunk" information for better understanding and retrieval. Check your work by asking: "Does this make sense?" But there's a lot more to questioning that you need to know. There are approximately six "levels of cognition" or thinking. You need to understand information at all of these levels in order to learn and to prepare for tests thoroughly. Shown in order of least difficult to most challenging, they are: 1. Knowledge - to identify or recall information. Most of the information found in textbooks is written at the knowledge level-- providing facts and supporting details (including examples and some applications). Matching, true-false and many multiple choice test questions are written at this level. You show that you have obtained this knowledge when you answer the questions: o Who, what, when, where, how? o Define a term. o Describe a process. 2. Comprehension - to organize and select facts and ideas. When you summarize information, or are able to make inferences from what you have read or heard, you are functioning at the comprehension level. Fill-ins, shortanswer, and most multiple choice questions are written at this level. Questions that help to demonstrate your comprehension include: o Retell in your own words… o What is the main idea of…? 3. Application - to use facts, rules, principles. Lab and problem-oriented courses such as math, science, engineering, or psychology as well as occupation-related courses like computer science or medical assisting, often utilize this level of thinking both in class and during tests. 7 Questions that help to demonstrate your ability to apply course content might include: o How is … an example of …? o How is … related to …? o Why is … significant? Most essay tests are designed to evaluate your understanding at the highest levels of cognition. However, not all textbooks or lectures teach the information at these levels. If you want to be fully prepared for tests and exams, you must ask yourself questions to help yourself to think at these cognitive levels as listed below: 4. Analysis - to separate a whole into component parts. Questions that assess your ability to analyze include: o What are the parts or features of …? o Classify … according to … o Outline/diagram/web … o How does … compare/contrast with …? o What evidence can you give (list) for …? 5. Synthesis - to combine ideas to form a new whole. Questions that assess your ability to synthesize include: o What would you predict/infer from …? o What ideas can you add to …? o How would you create/design a new …? o What might happen if you combined … with …? o What solutions would you suggest for …? 6. Evaluation - to develop opinions, judgments, or decisions. Questions that demonstrate your ability to evaluate include: o Do you agree …? o What do you think about …? o What is most important …? o Prioritize … o How would you decide about …? o What criteria would you use to assess …? You can help yourself to process information at all of these levels of cognition by asking yourself questions at each of these levels, and by using visual organizers to help yourself to "see" these kinds of relationships. 8 Memory and the Importance of Review Memory "We remember what we understand; we understand only what we pay attention to; we pay attention to what we want." - Edward Bolles The statement above, made by a specialist in the study of memory, sums up this page on memory and the philosophy behind much of this web site on study skills.    We insure more effective learning and memory when what we study and learn matches with and contributes to our career and educational goals. When we know how we learn best in terms of our learning style and preferences and are able to apply appropriate study techniques, we are better able to attend to, take in, and process information in various learning situations. When we fully understand information (at all cognitive levels), we are better able to remember information. By using elaboration strategies such as summarizing, questioning, and using visual organizers, we "deep process" information in a way that assists and insures understanding. As a result, we are better able to appropriately "file" and to retrieve information, and thus, assure memory of the information. How Memory Works Human memory works on two different levels: short term memory and long term memory. Short term memory includes what you focus on in the moment, what holds your attention. Most people can only hold about 7 items of information in short term memory at any given moment (like a phone number). To learn information so that you can retain and recall it, you must transfer it from short term to long term memory. Long term memory includes all the information that you know and can recall. In many ways, it becomes a part of you. Once information becomes a part of your long term memory, you'll have access to it for a long time. There are two ways to move short term memory to long term memory: rote learning and learning through understanding. Rote learning means learning through repetition, which is mechanical and requires little understanding (learning multiplication tables). Learning through understanding involves learning and remembering by understanding the relationships among ideas and information (remembering main ideas and supporting details from a lecture because you understand the concepts and relationships between ideas). Both types of learning and memory are useful and often are used together. For example, in history, you need to relate facts (like dates) which you memorized by rote to your understanding of historical concepts (like the Civil War) which you remembered by understanding the information. 9 How We Forget and the Importance of Review Four major theories on forgetting include: 1. Fading. According to the fading theory, the trace or mark a memory etches into your brain is like a path you make in the woods when you continually walk along the same route. If you don't take that same path, it eventually becomes overgrown until it disappears. In the same way, facts that you learn are forgotten when you don't review them. A famous study on forgetting textbook materials compared the percentage of material remembered after different intervals of time. The results were as follows: After 1 day After 7 days After 14 days After 21 days After 28 days After 63 days 54% was remembered. 35% was remembered. 21% was remembered. 18% was remembered. 19% was remembered. 17% was remembered. Remembering what you have heard in lectures is even more difficult to recall because you are not able to slow down, pause, reflect, or to reread unless you take excellent notes! In a study on recall after listening to a seminar, students forgot more than 90% of the points from the lecture after 14 days! The conclusions to be made from these studies? o o Without review, most information will be lost from memory. The best time to review materials is within a day or two after the material has been read or presented in lecture. The best way to study for a quiz or test is to keep the memory fresh on an ongoing basis. If you wait to review the information till the night before the test (let's say after 28 days), you will have forgotten 81% of the material and will have to study a lot longer to be sufficiently prepared for the test. 2. Retrieval. According to this theory, a forgotten fact hasn't faded, it has been misplaced in the "file cabinet" of your mind. Whether the information has disappeared completely, or has been lost, the result it the same-it has been forgotten. The key to avoiding retrieval problems is to label and file information correctly. You can also assist your memory by studying in "meaningful chunks." 10 3. Interference. This theory is based on the principle of limited space. As you keep adding new information, a conflict develops between the old and new information over the space available. The key to avoiding this problem is to look for connections and relationships between ideas so that they can be "filed together" or combined. Ask yourself, "What do I already know about this?" or any of the "cognitive questions." 4. Interactive interference. When you are learning a great deal of information at one time, you tend to remember best what is read or presented first and last. The rest gets lost in the shuffle. To avoid this problem, study one subject at a time, in meaningful chunks. Your attitude can also affect how well you learn and remember. You can "shut out" information if you consider it boring or if you don't like the subject. To avoid this type of interference, set learning goals before you begin to read or study. Link your study goals to your long-term career and educational goals. If you have chosen goals that match your personal strengths and interests, you will be able to get through even the most difficult and uninteresting classes because they are important steps in helping you to meet your goals. The Keys to Remembering You can learn to remember more effectively if you learn and use the four keys described below. Each one helps you to enter information into your long term memory. 1. Choose to remember. Be interested. Pay attention. Want to learn and know. What you want is an important part of learning. When people are interested and want to learn, they learn and remember more effectively. 2. Visualize or picture in your mind what you wish to remember. For many people, a mental picture or visualization is clearer and easier to remember than words. For each major concept that you want to remember, create a mental picture and then look at it carefully for a few seconds. Once you've seen it clearly, you'll probably be able to recall it. 3. Relate the ideas and information you wish to remember to each other and to ideas and information you already know. When you relate information to other information, you create a chain of memories which lead to one another. When you label an information chain or group of ideas, you create a kind of "file" that makes it easy to locate and remember the information. 4. Repeat what you wish to learn until you overlearn it. Say it in your own words. Even though you've already learned something, go over it one more time. Research shows that the time you spend on overlearning and putting ideas into your own words will pay off by making recall easier and more complete. 11 "We remember what we understand; we understand only what we pay attention to; we pay attention to what we want." - Edward Bolles Time Management Most students find that their greatest challenge in adjusting to college life and to succeeding in the classroom is in managing their time effectively. This is especially true for community college students who often work long hours. Adult students deal with the additional issues of child care and family and home responsibilities. When evaluating your schedule, or how you spend your time, you also need to consider your goals and priorities. What is most important in your life, right now-- your family, friends, school, hobbies, or other activities? As you look at how you spend your time, ask yourself if this matches your priorities. Even though attending class and completing assignments is a top priority for most students, many find that they are not allowing enough time for their studies. On the average, students should spend about 2 hours of study for each hour of class time. For example, if you are carrying 12 credits in a semester, you should allow 24 hours per week for study (this includes time for reading, writing papers, preparing projects, and for test preparation). If you are finding it difficult to locate the time you need to study, or that there are conflicts among the various demands on your time, you may need to give greater consideration to your goals. By getting clear on your goals, it will be easier to decide how to spend your time. You'll find that you can more easily put off other things and set aside the time you need for studies, if you know how it will help you to achieve your educational or career goals. Ask yourself:    Why are you in college? What are your educational goals? What are your career goals? If you aren't clear on your goals, you may want to contact Janus University’s Student Affairs Department for additional guidance. Using Time Wisely You might have all the time in the world, but if you don't use it wisely, it won't help you to meet your goals. Procrastination is a problem for many students. The following are tips to help you deal with this issue: 1. Clear your schedule. Don't overextend yourself. Recognize that your obligations and resulting stress are as important as other people's needs. Set limits 12 around being interrupted or rescheduling your work time to accommodate others. Omit or reschedule some of your other obligations. You want to give full concentration to your studies without feeling guilty about what you're NOT doing. 2. Get motivated. Create a work area that is free from distractions and commit to staying there for at least one to two hours. If you get side-tracked, remind yourself how this activity will help you to meet your goals. 3. Prioritize. What has to be done first? When is it due? What is worth more in terms of your grade? What is worth more in terms of your personal, educational, or career goals? 4. Make sure you understand the task. Ask questions. Get help if you need it. 5. Break down the task into chunks. Estimate how much time you'll need to complete the task. Don't try to do it all at one time. Break it down so that it's "doable" and not so overwhelming. Stay up-to-date on assignments to help avoid overload. 6. It doesn't have to be perfect. Some people are so afraid that they won't perform perfectly; they won't do anything at all. Make sure you understand the expectations of your instructor. Then evaluate how important the task is and what level of performance is acceptable to you. Then just do it! 7. When you really hate it, try to make it as enjoyable as possible. Work on this task first, while you have more energy. Reward yourself when you complete certain aspects of the task. Study with a friend. Study Environment Once you have found the time to study, commit to a time and place that meets your needs. In order to do this, ask yourself whether the environment in which you are studying matches your learning style and preferences. Based on your preferences, you should schedule your most challenging classes and intense study sessions in the environments that best match your needs. The following are some aspects of study environment you may need to consider. Time of day: Whenever possible, you should schedule your most challenging courses and most intense study sessions during the time of day when you are most alert. Ask yourself if you are more alert/productive during the morning, mid-day, or evening and schedule accordingly. Grouping: Do you prefer to learn or study alone, in small groups, or in large classes? If you prefer small groups, do not sign up for large classes. Try to get into classes where the 13 instructor uses group activity as a teaching strategy. Form study groups to prepare for tests and exams. Posture/Mobility: Some people prefer to sit at a table or desk (formal posture) in order to concentrate and study effectively. Others are able to learn more easily while sitting comfortably on a sofa or lying on the floor (informal). Still others need to move about in order to learn and reading while walking on a treadmill might be appropriate. Further, some people have the ability to sit and study for long periods of time (high persistence), while others need to take frequent breaks (low persistence). Recognizing your posture and mobility needs will help you to plan where and when you should study. Sound: Contrary to popular belief, not everyone needs to study in a perfectly quiet environment. However, if you do choose to study to music, choose Baroque classical music. The tempo and instrumentation of this music seems to be most compatible with study and learning. Lighting: Studies have shown that some people become depressed because of light deprivation during the winter months. If you are one of those people, you should try to study and spend as much time as possible in highly lit places. Other studies have shown that reading ability can be affected by the light contrast between print and paper color. There is a high contrast between black letters printed on white paper. Some people find it easier to read black print on blue or gray paper which has less contrast and is easier on their eyes. Being aware that light does make a difference, you should study in the environment that best matches your learning preferences. Temperature: While you can't always control the temperature of a room, you should be aware of your preference for either a cool or warm environment. Dress in layers so that you can adjust to differences in classroom temperatures. Choose to study in the environments in which you feel most comfortable. Reading the Textbook Preview the text The first thing you should do when you open a new book is to preview the text. Look at the contents page and survey the topics covered in the text. Then ask yourself what you already know and what you think you will need to know about the topics that will be covered in the course. This process will give you a "big picture" of the course and will help you to start thinking about how the contents of the course will fit in with your educational goals. Now draw a map or use Cornell notes to outline the course using information from the contents page and your syllabus. This process will help you to get a perspective on how the instructor's lesson plans match up with the textbook and to plan how you will schedule your reading. 14 If the text looks like if might be difficult for you to read, speak with your instructor. He or she may be able to recommend a supplemental text that will help you to understand course concepts at your own level. If you lack knowledge about a course topic and/or feel that the course will be covering it on a level that is too difficult for you, go to the library and choose a book on that subject. Read up on the topics covered in the chapter to help fill in the gaps of your knowledge. Check to see if there is a glossary of terms or other study aides in your textbook. Keep a dictionary close by to look up words that are unfamiliar. Preview each chapter Before you read the chapter in detail, skim the entire chapter. Read the introduction, then skim each page, spending approximately 5 seconds per page. Notice headings, illustrations, tables, etc. Then read the summary at the end of the chapter. This process will give you an overview of the chapter and help you to plan how you will break it down into "meaningful chunks" for the next steps of detailed reading and study. Ask questions Now that you have an overview of the chapter, ask yourself:     What do I already know about the information in this chapter? What are the main ideas of this chapter? How can I turn sub-headings into study/test questions to help me focus my reading? What questions are found in the text that might help me? Write down your questions. Read for details Now read the text, looking for the answers to your questions to help you stay focused. As you read, annotate your text, highlighting important information and writing notes in the margins that will keep you actively involved in your reading and help you to better understand what you read. As you complete each section, develop Cornell notes with main ideas in the margin and important details (explanations, examples, and applications) on the right side of the margin. 15 After you finish each section or unit, summarize what you have read in your Cornell notes. Write down the answers to the questions you wrote down previously. Add questions/answers as appropriate. Recite Develop flash cards or mnemonic devices for important terms, concepts, and information that you know you will need to memorize. Read over text annotations and the Cornell notes you developed from your reading. Summarize the information by saying it out loud into a tape recorder or by discussing the chapter with a study group. You may also "recite" the information by writing a summary or by using visual organizers to put the information into another cognitive frame. If you marked any sections of your text for questions to ask your professor, be sure to ask them in class. Review Compare your notes from your textbook reading with your class lecture notes. Continue to summarize your learning. You want to keep reducing the size of your study notes, each time you review the material. The object is to be able to "clue" yourself to remember more detailed information with a single word or phrase. This process will help to keep your memory fresh and will help you to solidify or "over-learn" the material so that it becomes part of your permanent "file" of knowledge. Keep up with reading assignments so that you don't become overwhelmed or are tempted to cram or skip reading important assignments! Listening and Note Taking Listening You may find that reading the text before class will provide you with an overview for the lecture. However, some students find that by going to class first, they get a better sense of what is important and find it easier to focus their reading based on the lecture and recommendations of the instructor. You will need to determine what works best for you based on your learning style and the instructional style of your professor. Regardless of when you read the text, listening with questions in your mind or written on paper will help you to stay focused on the lecture. Some questions you might want to ask include: 16         What do I already know about the subject? What do I need to know? What are the main ideas? What are the important details? What are some oral cues I should be listening for, such as: examples, order of importance, sequence? How could I apply this? How does this relate to what I read in my textbook? What don't I understand about this? Try to listen with an open mind. Don't jump to conclusions or make assumptions before you hear all the information. It is a fact that we think at a much greater speed than the lecturer can speak. So you'll need to keep your mind focused. Taking notes helps you to keep your mind focused and provides the best way to record the information that is covered in class. Note-Taking Note-taking is the primary method for documenting and summarizing the important information covered in your classes. Because you will be dependent on your class notes for study, you want to be sure that you get as much of the information on paper as possible. There are two basic ways to take notes: Mapping allows you to capture the big picture. While limited in the amount that you can note, it can be used as a way to:     Preview text. Preview chapters. Organize ideas before writing an essay. Take notes when the instructor tends to lecture in a holistic style (skips around). Cornell Notes allow you to outline main ideas and details to whatever extent you need to note the information. This format can be used to:    Outline text. Organize writing for a term paper. Take notes when the instructor lectures in a linear style (step-by-step). In order to be sure that you have captured all the important information and to be certain that you can interpret your notes, you should always review your notes shortly after the class is over. In some cases, especially if you tend to be a "big picture" learner, you may want to team up with more "detailed" learners in your class. 17 Be creative when you review and edit your notes. Use highlights, numbers, arrows or other symbols to clarify and evaluate the information. Combine notes from your text with your class notes. Ask more questions, such as, "What information might be included as a test question?" You might want to make up some flash cards on important terms or concepts you think you will need to define on tests as you go along. That way you can start drilling yourself right away and can easily review these terms throughout the course. Using Visual Organizers The best way to fully understand new material is through the process of elaboration. The processes of rephrasing, applying, analyzing, and otherwise manipulating the information allow you to understand at a deeper level and to make the information your own. You can help yourself to elaborate by using the chart showing questions at all cognitive levels. By asking and answering these questions, you process the information at high levels of thinking and better assure your understanding and ability to apply important concepts. Another way to elaborate and to assist your memory is to organize the information into visual formats using visual organizers which include: illustrations, maps, tables, charts, webs, etc. The process of putting the information into these cognitive frames supports your understanding at high levels of cognition. Once information is in a visual format, you remember it more easily by "seeing" it in your mind's eye during testing or for application in the future. By elaborating new information from your reading and lectures, you will learn the information more effectively and thoroughly; and you will find that you won't have to spend as much time preparing for tests. Papers There are many excellent text books and web sites on writing. They can provide you with information and ideas on how to conduct research and on the process of writing (and editing) a paper. One of the most important and overlooked aspects of the writing process is the need to PLAN AHEAD. For many students, writing a paper means staying up the night before the paper is due to write the FIRST DRAFT of their paper. By doing this, they deprive themselves of the opportunity to think and write clearly. They make simple, yet costly spelling and grammar mistakes that they would have easily caught had they planned more efficiently. (We won't get into last minute problems with floppy disks not functioning, printers jamming, or unsaved files being lost during a power surge.) 18 More importantly, when you treat a paper as a last minute project, you lose the opportunity to learn something of personal value. The point of writing a paper is to explore a topic of interest that you might not otherwise cover in class or to provide the additional detail you need to meet your career or educational goals. For this to happen, you must first choose a topic that really interests you. Your motivation to learn will add a great deal to the quality of your paper and to your enjoyment in writing it. You can avoid problems and optimize your learning (and grade) with some effective time management in planning the research and writing process. The following are some suggestions: 1. At the start of each semester, get out a calendar and plan out your term. Look at the syllabus for each class. When are your papers due? When are quizzes and tests planned? Notice when you have more than one assignment due or test to take. How will you manage your time to avoid last-minute log jams? 2. As soon as the assignment is given, read through the list of topics (if provided) or consider what you want to learn more about that is not covered (sufficiently) by the course. Think about what you might need to know for your future career or further education. 3. During the next week, do some reading on a few of the topics that interest you. This should help you to decide which is of most interest (or the "lesser of evils"). Search the library catalogs for books, magazine articles and other references available on these topics. This will give you a "big picture" on these topics and help you to identify resources that you will be able to use. 4. One week after the assignment is given, choose your topic. 5. In the next week or two, do some preliminary reading on your topic. Explore the different ways you can approach your topic and what kinds of sources you might want to include in your research. Jot down or start mapping ideas for "big picture" possibilities for your paper. 6. Take a week to outline or make a map of the paper. This will serve as a guide to the kinds of materials to look for when you start your research. 7. Start conducting your research. You'll need to set aside large chunks of time in the library for hunting down the information and for making copies of articles or other materials. It's important to start this process as early as possible, because you may have to borrow materials from other college libraries, which may take some time. (That's assuming that they will be available when you want them!) Give yourself a deadline for conducting your research so that you will have time for steps 8-11. 8. Give yourself a week or two to compile your notes and write a detailed outline of your paper. The more time you put into organizing your paper, the better it will flow when you sit down to write. This process will help you to see gaps in your logic and information. You'll have plenty of time to do additional research if necessary. 9. Give yourself a week or two to write the rough draft. You want to let it flow out of your personal interest and the information you've collected from your research. 19 10. Allow at least a week to edit your rough draft. This way you'll have the time to put it down when you get overwhelmed with the details and then take it up again with a fresh perspective. 11. Give yourself a week to write your final draft. You'll want to take the time to read it carefully for last minute edits and to make sure you've done your very best work. Tests Before the Test 1. Stay up-to-date on assignments. Learn material and review as you go along. 2. Make sure you understand the information as you are learning it. That way, you won't have to "re-learn" it OR have to "cram" a great deal of information at one time. 3. Read and study information in meaningful chunks (by chapters or units) so that you'll be able to "file" and "retrieve" information easily. 4. At the end of each chapter or unit, identify the information that was most important. Make up "flash cards" on this information that you can easily carry and use for study on a regular basis. 5. Analyze past tests to determine how you can improve test results. 6. Get the big picture. Ask the instructor about the test. Find out what information will be stressed and the kinds of questions that will be asked. Then go over your text and lecture notes to develop a study strategy. Map or outline the course contents if you haven't done so previously. 7. Before a test or exam, break study sessions into manageable time segments and meaningful units. You'll remember more if you study for short periods of time (45 minutes to 1 hour) and over a longer period of time (1-2 weeks) than if you cram all your study into a "binge" session the night before the test. 8. Practice answering essay questions BEFORE the test. Use cognitive questions at all levels to assure learning and ability to answer essay questions. For example: How would you describe, compare/contrast, predict, classify, apply, evaluate, prioritize, etc? 9. Use mnemonic techniques to memorize lists, definitions, and other specific kinds of information. 10. Form a study group with other students in your class to discuss and quiz each other on important material. This will add other perspectives and help to "complete" your study if you tend to be either a "detailed" or "big-picture" learner. 11. Maintain healthy living habits. Get a good night's sleep before the test. During the Test 1. Get to the test site early so you can select a seat, organize your materials, and get relaxed. Be prepared with pencils, paper, calculator, books (if appropriate), etc. 20 2. Get the big picture. Survey the entire test before you answer any questions. This will help you to get an overview of what's expected and to strategize how you will take the test. 3. Take a few deep breaths and to relax tense muscles. Repeat throughout the test. This process will help you to stay relaxed and to make more energy available for remembering, thinking, and writing. 4. Read directions carefully. Ask questions if you don't understand or need clarification. 5. Do a quick "mind dump" of information you don't want to forget. Write it down on scrap paper or in the margin. 6. Answer the easiest questions first, to help yourself calm down. Matching questions are often good to start with because they provide a reminder of important terms and definitions. 7. Use good strategies for answering multiple choice and other objective questions. o Look for the central idea of each question. What is the main point? o Statements that begin with always, never, none, except, most, or least-are probably NOT the answer . Underline these or other key words if you are allowed to write on the test paper. o Try to supply your own answer before choosing an alternative listed on the test. o Mark an answer for every question. o If you have to guess:  The length of choices can be a clue. Choose the longest.  If two choices are similar, choose neither.  If two choices are opposites, choose one of them.  The most general alternative is usually the right answer. 8. When answering essay questions, remember that the objective is to demonstrate how well you can explain and support an idea, not just what you know. Keep the following in mind: o Read over all the essay questions before you start to write. Underline key words like define, compare, explain, etc. o Think before you write. Remember, a good answer:  Starts with a direct response to the question.  Mentions the topics or areas described in the question.  Provides specific as well as general information.  Uses the technical vocabulary of the course. o Then map or outline the main points you want to make, determine the order in which you want to write your points, determine the support you want to add, then write. o Write legibly. Leave some space so you can add to your answer, later. o Proofread your essay. Check for grammar, punctuation, spelling, etc. This often adds points! 9. When problem solving, ask yourself: o What am I being asked to find? o What do I need to know in order to find the answer? o What information has been provided that will help me to find the answer? 21 o How can I break the problem down into parts? What steps should I follow to solve the problem? o Does the answer make sense? Does it cover the whole problem? 10. Keep an eye on the clock. Make sure you'll have time to complete the test sections with the highest value, if not the entire test. After the Test When you receive your test paper, go over it to determine areas of strength and weakness in your test-taking skills. If you have done poorly, learn from your mistakes! Always analyze your tests to determine how you can improve future test results. 22 Appendix Cornell Notes Subject: _____________________ Date: _____________ Main Ideas Details Summary: 23 Mnemonic Techniques The following are examples of techniques you can use to memorize important information. When to Use It: Technique: Example: For information involving key words Acronym - an invented combination of letters with each letter acting as a cue to an idea you need to remember. BRASS is an acronym for how to shoot a rifle-- Breath, Relax, Aim, Sight, Squeeze. For information involving key words Acrostic - an invented sentence where the first letter of each word is a cue to an idea you need to remember. EVERY GOOD BOY DESERVES FUN is an acrostic to remember the order of the G-clef notes on sheet music-- E,G,B,D,F. For ordered or unordered lists Rhyme-Keys - a 2-step memory process: Food groups: 1. Memorize key words that can be associated with numbers (one-bun); 2. Create an image of the items you need to remember with key words. (A bun with cheese on it will remind me of dairy products.) 1. Dairy products: one-buncheese on a bun. 2. Meat, fish, and poultry: two-shoe-livestock with shoes. 3. Grains: three-tree-sack of grain hanging from tree. 4. Fruit and vegetables: fourdoor- opening a door and walking into a room stocked with fruits and vegetables. For approximately twenty items Loci Method- Imagine placing the items you want to remember in specific locations in a room with which you are familiar. To remember presidents: Place a dollar bill (George Washington) on the door. Walk into the room and see Jefferson reclining on a sofa and Nixon eating out of the refrigerator. For foreign language vocabulary Keyword Method- Select the foreign words you need to remember, then identify an English word that sounds like the foreign one. Now imagine an image that involves the key word with the English meaning of the foreign word. In Spanish, the word "cabina" means phone booth. Invent an image of a cab trying to fit in a phone booth. When you see the word "cabina," you should be able to recall this image and thereby retrieve the meaning "phone booth." 24 For remembering names Image-Name Technique- invent Shirley Temple - her curly a relationship between the name (rhymes with "Shirley") hair and the physical characteristics of around her temples. the person. For ordered or unordered lists Chaining- Create a story where each word or idea you have to remember will cue the next idea you need to recall. 25 Napoleon, ear, door, Germany Story: Napoleon had his ear to the door to listen to the Germans in his beer cellar.