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TO
HOW
MAKE
CONVERTER
STEEL
CASTINGS
Arthur
By
A
comprehensive
in the
involved
by
This
by
The
the
converter
work
the
is
Simonson
of
discussion
the
of steel
manufacture
methods
castings
process.
compiled
from
author, written
for
series of articles
a
and
published by
Foundry.
Cleveland.,Ohio, U
The
Penton
S. A.
.
Publishing Co.,
1914
SECOND
EDITION
Publishers
.56
Copyright,
THE
PENTON
1914
PUBLISHING
CLEVELAND,
OHIO
FEB 13 1914
CO
CONTENTS
Page
1
I
Chapter
Construction
of
Arrangement
Converter
the
Cupola
Heating
the
and
Cupohi
Station
Operating
Converter
Special
for
the
Melting
Iron
Ladles
Grinding
Sand
Converter
the
of
for
Mixing
and
Steel
Foundry
Work
12
II
Chapter
Lining
Kind
Life
Converter
the
of
Used
Brick
of
the
Lining
Construction
of
Wood
Forms
L'sed
for
Lining
the
Converter
18
III
Chapter
of
Analysis
Calculation
Graphic
Chapter
the
of
Iron
to
Cupola
the
of
Method
Converted
be
Steel
into
Charge
Cupola
the
Figuring
Charge
22
IV
Operation
Blowing
How
to
Analysis
Chapter
of
the
Converter
the
Steel
Difficulties
Overcome
of
Converter
During
the
Blow
Castings
29
V
Hot
Chapter
Cracks
in
Steel
Castings
How
and
Steel
Equipment
May
be
Overcome
32
VI
The
They
Foundry
and
Laboratory
Necessary
Determinations
38
Index
111
CHAPTER
Construction
Cupola
AND
Converter
the
of
Melting
FOR
Arrangement
Operating
the
"
Grinding
Station
Heating
Iron
and
Foltndry
will
XT
undoubtedly,
and
the
for
these
in
though
the
the
England
with
of
10
The
field
of
and
those
and
The
intricate
small
over
varying
generally
at
than
rate,
any
in
month
per
less
8
over
say
successful
tons
from
castings
remarkable
possibility of
petition
com-
cellaneous
mis-
of
pound
a
occupying
small
of
steel,
up
of
what
led
has
not
to
A
way.
being
made
space,
it
and
to
work,
in
done
general
is
for
machine
an
duces
pro-
than
stronger
boats
motor
and
the
of
way
gears,
work,
engine
has
longer
to
take
he
requires
get
no
the
to
castings
develop
proposition
after
light
making
of
possible
as
type
and
elaboration
designer
able
Tropenas
the
desirable.
be
can
the
medium
of
engines
gas
and
It
automobile
In
small
material.
closer-grained
sounder,
work,
the
high-grade
converter
particularly
are
has
converter
a
in
ideally
specially
a
well-handled
turbine
realization
is
converter
for
obtained.
levers,
castings
converter
small
quality
otherwise
be
valves
the
600
they
converter,
are
America
is
converters
produces
analyses,
calling
that
superior
a
a
the
fact,
undisputed
in
five
and
in
cheaper,
small
pieces,
large
very
light that
so
brass
or
There
open-hearth
the
the
a
is
tons.
castings,
can
all
in
in
It
converter
business.
things
iron
the
small
a
with
made
give
to
castings
steel-making.
casting
few
steel
probably
and
of
compete
for
operating
open-hearth
castings
to
plant
a
the
is
the
malleable
hand,
open-hearth
of
are
hot
chapters,
steel
making
operating
cannot
iron,
other
of
system
lines
There
gray
succeeding
and
art
company
it
excessively
pieces,
On
weight,
in
tons
tiny
enough.
where
the
this
Tropenas
all
foundry.
iron
"
Steel
for
and
the
in
compete
from
cast
the
that
branches
malleable
be
strong
think
to
in
science
with
Cupola
Sand
Work.
ohject.
the
equipped
mistake
are,
but
of
successfully
can
cannot
author's
idea
foundry
a
plant
Ije the
general
a
Special
"
Ladles
the
Mixing
Converter
the
of
"
Converter
"
I.
and
machine
into
tremendous
proposition
and
details
consideration
in
steel.
power
is
The
engines
put
before
Hoiv
and
the founder
with
which
for
solved, he is
It is
usefulness
large furnaces, in this
Castings
reaHze
to
the
of the
possibilities
plants being erected
the realization
and
the
success
of the claims
made
its
inception.
the
that
open-hearth steel founders
note
realize the
to
of
since
converter
worthy of
Steel
beginningnow
meeting,testifies to
they are
side blow
the
Conz'erter
increasingnumber
The
process.
Make
to
of
a
small
converter
as
are
their
to
annex
an
ginning
be-
now
of absolutelyany business
being able to take care
that comes
ous,
along,and thereby relieve the large furnaces of the tediof
small
is
the
There
also
at
costlynecessity making
today
castings.
of a malleable iron foundry installing
least one
case
a
Tropenas converter.
It
probable
seems
furnace
way
that
operating on
the
is
castingswill
the idea would
and
time
just enough
near
have
at
hand
as
an
when
then, be to make
all the small
of the largerones
to fill-in up
one
or
the entire output might be economicallymade
with the
will now
describe in detail a plant consistingof one
We
having a capacityof
of converter,
about
blower
converter
40
and
of
tons
motor,
more
verters,
con-
castingswith the
to capacity. In
times
and
open-hearth
every
adjunct
verter
con-
dull
converter.
two-ton
verter
con-
It consists
castingsper week.
pulpitor operatingstation,
ladles and
cupola, cupola platform and elevator, cupola blower and motor,
ladle heatingplant,sand grinder and mixer.
An
laboratory is also indispensable,and this has been made
analytical
the subjectof a specialchapter. As for the foundry equipment, including
flasks and
cranes,
no
matter
on
this
what
jib
process
rigging,it
is used, but
it may
is the
be
well
for
same
to
make
a
all foundries,
few remarks
subject in passing.
Electric
or
miscellaneous
travelingcranes
cranes
as
steel construction
accessories.
with
are
now
almost
exclusivelyused
All
with
should
foundry buildings are, or
ample lightingfacilities. Up-to-date plantsare
wall
be
of
vided
pro-
with
air from
side
outheatingand ventilating
systems so that in summer,
be distributed
can
through the building,and in winter it is passed
coils.
The
ter.
through steam
heating of foundries is a very important matIf the sand is allowed
endless trouble, particuto freeze it will cause
larly
if green
sand castingsare
artificial lighting
made.
The
of a foundry
for night work
is a problem requiringconsiderable
attention.
The
phere
atmosin a foundry is often smoky and
always very dusty,and it requires
a
to work
good distribution of powerful lightsto enable the men
very
in
when
at
well
the
time.
The
for
as
as
ovens
night
day
drying
necessary,
molds
should be as large as possible,and their trucks designed of such type
that the heating of axles and
bearings will not affect their operation.
Flasks, chains and general tackle should be as heavy as is convenient
to
handle.
The
less risk taken
the better
has
and
the foundry business
"
enough of them
writer
under
the
most
favorable
conditions.
is of the opinion that any
specialtackle and riggingin
in safety,speed and economy.
The
on
the
amount
the
of money
foundry
pays
pended
judiciouslyexa
good dividend
Hoiv
Con-c'crter Steel Castings
Make
to
Converter.
The
The
it will be
in
with
a
considered
1
idea of the
converter
3
tilted
to
of
Arrangement
"
From
as
approximately 2
the
tilted while
shows
empty
the
the
steel converter
of
Cupola
is
Steel
Conveyed
the metal
converter
in
it is
steel.
ing
capable of turnIn this chapter
illustrations,Figs. 1, 2, 3 and
The
of the
generalappearance
the
say,
of
tons
only ; its metallurgicalside will be dealt
machine
a
is to
capacity,that
succeeding chapter.
arrangement
Fig.
Fig.
operation
each
give a good
the
is of 2 tons
converter
at
out
is
and
the
Converter
to
the
operation
slag after the metal
cupola ; Fig.
and
Cupcjla.
Converter
by
being poured
and
a
shows
shows
the
Metal
Jib Crane
shows
Fig.
has all been poured
2
The
into the vessel
4
4, will
Fig. 1
converter.
out.
for the blow
the
converter
;
Hotv
to
plates,perforated
the
allow
space
steam
occupied by
Fro.
required
comes
to
out
condition
2
"
is al)out
the
with
escape
to
20
Steel
holes
.)/:^-inch
when
the
feet
spaced
and
8
Metal
to
is made
inches
enable
Into
the
the
whole
the
of
center
The
16 feet square
constitutes
mouth, and which
of the steel,to be seen
at all times.
of the
Castings
drying the lining.
is about
converter
Pouring
18
Converter
is 5 feet in diameter
shell of the converter
The
steel
Make
to
amount
and
the
^
to
inch
center
of floor
head
room
Converter.
of
means
the
for
flame, which
judging the
How
The
forms
and
the
a
is
supported
to
on
Castings
steel trunnions,
in
Fig. 6,
which
"
The
being changed.
either side
Fig. 3
of
one
is hollow
which
The
in
separately,
or
is
a
is double, and
varying proportions.
of the converter,
section
Converter
blast box
both
air
This
vertical
Operation
in
of the tuyeres, the level of the
horizontal, showing the arrangement
and
vessel
the approximate
the
while the blow
of
is being
position
made.
The
through
suitable
wheel
is
converter
partly shown
and
Steel
Converter
This
be admitted
bath
Make
of
for the air, connecting with the blast box at the back
enables the air to be kept on
continuously while the
duct
converter.
positionof the
can
is
converter
to
is also
other
trunnion
is extended
gearing,is connected
provided for making small
carries
and
to
a
4
movements
a
worm
horsepower
wheel
motor.
of the vessel
which,
A
as
hand
required
Hozv
time
from
time.
to
Make
to
electric
The
Steel
Converter
Castings
has been
motor
ing
for tilt-
generallyadopted
be employed, and
plants are
may
and hydraulic
compressed air, steam
circumstances.
The
detail and
This
is a
mere
de])ends on
power.
is firmly bolted to pedestals,which
allow
to
converter
are
sufficiently
high
This is advisable
the converter
to make
a
complete revolution if necessary.
although any means
converter,
in various
places using
the
operation
in
for
in emptying
facility
metal
poured
be
to
the converter,
and also to
before the vessel is too low
out
enable
whole
the
for the
of the
the
hold
to
men
ladles.
The
of
The
blast
maintaining
the
is of
blower
the
constant
a
Blower
4
to
used
commonly
engine,but is
by a
and
not
absorbed
very
running
pounds
row
less is advisable,
as
of the reactions.
it is better
to
the risk of the circuit breaker
it
always
to
seems
lower
row,
l"4x-"^inches.
about
revolutions
minute,
per
A
rotary blower
is best
have
of
motor
a
concerned.
in
the
The
horsepower
; no
reserve
and
run
all the time, for when
critical time
a
in
blow
and
this
not
happens,
may
the tuyeres, loss of time and possiblydisaster to the blow.
should be placed close to the converter,
but not too close, as
length of the
the blast.
12-inch
Elbows
air main
in the
pipe
serves
as
should
This
is the
place where
and
tilt the converter
to
charging,pouring, etc.
the
reservoir
always
Operating
the blow
a
lead
and
to
The
a
fair
to
gives elasticity
avoided.
Station.
operator
stands
according
It is better
be
count
ac-
the flame
73
about
little power
a
flyingout
at
occur
to
this
on
makes
cloggingof
blower
is
be supplied by a blowing
satisfactory. Blast may
the
so
satisfactory,as
pulsationsof the engine, unless
in the flame and interfere
manifest
large receiver, are
direct-connected
be
next
capable of
through
square
in the
seven
it
should
in the
inch
of air, and
stream
constant
gives a practically
perfectlysteady,at least as far as outside influences are
blower
ent
independ-
is
the observation
as
keys, for
ment
commence-
an
be
must
per
of
400
about
at
the
dealt with
type, and
sets
\}i inches
A
water-jacketedblower
at
Motor.
and
positive pressure
up
of
means
pipe having
will be
the converter
pressure
by
on
converter
a
consist
of tuyeres, which
in the upper
in diameter, and
seven
of both
area
with
the
set
entirely if desired, or any required
that arise as
the
the conditions
to
according
Converter
The
off
shut
liningof
The
proceeds.
chapter.
blow
to
or
is fitted with
box
upper
be
fastened
are
tuyere
a
it may
admitted
that
so
of
amount
clean out
to
blow.
a
valve
the blast boxes
of
covers
quick removal
to
to
to
watch
the
the different
place this
at
one
progress
of
requirementsof
side of the
vessel,.
Ho-iV
20
about
operator
to
place
to
Make
Converter
Steel
Castings
the
inconvenience
if possible,so that the heat will not
feet away,
It
flame.
is
advisable
the
whole
of the
not
and that he may
see
is foreshortened,
the flame
the building as
in this case
the pulpit across
it is not
and
possible to see the smoke, sparks, etc.. so clearly.
the lever of the bypass
pulpitcontains the controller for tiltingthe motor,
of air going into the converter,
valve
a
to regulate the pressure
signal
and stop
to signal the engineer when
to
start
whistle to the blower
room
The
the blower, and a mercury
engineer, on receivingthe
gage.
pressure
it
signal of two short blasts,starts the blower at full speed and maintains
Variations
of pressure
then obtained
are
at this speed all through the blow.
less
or
by the operator opening or closingthe by-pass and allowing more
The
blast gage,
readair to escape
through a pi])eleading to the outside.
The
FiG. 4
Converter
"
Slag
THE
Has
Tilted
After
Been
the
Poured
to
the
is the controller
; B
mercury
5
Converter
The
"
ing
Operat-
Station
Out
ing in pounds, is attached to the
by-pass. Fig. 5 gives a view of
valve
Fig.
Empty
Metal
of
the
blast
main
the pulpit;
tiltingmotor
between
A
the
is the
;
lever
is the
C
blower
of
the
the
and
by-pass
whistle, and
D
is
gage.
Cupola.
There
for the
has been
Tropenas
a
great deal
converter.
of discussion
It is
largely a
as
to
matter
the best
of
type of cupola
opinion.
The
fact
Hoiv
is, that it is required
to
of
as
be
of
running
capable
hours.
Fig.
6
"
much
Vertical
OF
and
vSteel
Comrrter
about
50 per
as
very
cupola that
Any
Sections
melt
to
oftentimes
Make
cent
5 tons
of
long heats,
will
meet
Horizontal
Converter.
Steel
Castin Qs
of
per hour
steel scrap, to
sometimes
these
as
conditions
Fig. 7
ing
"
Special
Iron
for
a
charge consisting
melt
long
it hot, and
as
eight
is suitable.
Cupola
the
or
It
for
to
nine
must
Melt-
Converter
melting low phosphorus stock such as is used in
steel-making,a hot melting cupola is necessary, and facilities must be provided
for taking care
flux is used
of a large quantityof slag,as considerable
has also been
to keep the sulphur as
considerable
low as possible. There
be
remembered
that
in
Hozv
discussion
the
to
as
to Make
Steel
Converter
of having
desirability
Castings
cupola large enough
a
melt
to
After
taps.
tap, or gettingit at two
charge for one blow at one
somewhat
conclusion
that
has
the
author
to
the
a
come
experience,
long
could
kind
that
this
after
almost
is
the
and
using
best,
specialcupola
every
the
total
be mentioned.
suitable
is
cupola
lines of
built
one
blast furnace, with
a
of
idea
writer's
The
on
a
a
the
bustle
pendant tuyeres, such as is
illustrated in Fig. 7.
The
bustle pipe
blast box must
be ample in size in
or
order to maintain
equal pressure at all
of the six tuyeres.
The advantage of
this type of cupola is that the tuyeres
are
always clean, and if any slag or
pipe and
iron
into them
runs
without
going
The
inches
of
8
Fig.
"
Heating
With
a
Oil
an
be
of 36
then
with
be
inches.
placed
is 6 inches
slag hole, which
two
The
side
in-
required
lower
to
of iron
amount
eres
tuy-
that the
so
this, will be sufficiently
high
of the
54
about
lined
diameter,
should
Burner
again
4j^-inchbricks, giving an
diameter
Ladle
Large
out
runs
cupola should
in
rows
it
into the blast box.
than
allow
being
it has melted
tapped out when
up to
this height. In this way
the cupola
will be kept entirely free from
slag,
the tapping spout will be kept clear
through a long heat, and there will be
little risk
pressure
Cupola
The
FiG. 9
Method
"
Heating
of
Ladles
enough
not
to
carry
less than
vided
with
a
500
day's run
pounds
10
to
14
blast
inches
of
be maintained.
Platform
and
Elevator
cupola platform should
higherthan
as
from
should
water
scaffolding. A
of
of
is usual
it should
be
in iron
arranged
to
be
foundries,
take
care
height of not less than 13 feet of
Hand
cupola from bottom plate to charging
door.
The platform should be strong
of melting stock, and should be figured to carry
of
per
facilities for good
square
a
foot.
ventilation
as
It should
a
good
be
roomy,
deal of smoke
and
from
pro-
the
Hoiv
Make
to
Comrrtcr
Steel
Castings
finds its way
up there and at times it is a Aery undesirable
place
The elevator, preferably electric,
to work.
should have a large platform
and should be capable of lifting
about 3 tons at a time at a speed of about
60 feet per minute.
converter
Cupola
on
and
Motor.
of the
Any
fan
Blower
whether
accepted types of cupola blowers are satisfactory,
but
should
blower,
be
they
pressure
designed to give ample volume,
of the high tuyeres and the largepercentage of steel scrap used
account
or
in the
The
charges.
is of about
motor
25
horsepower.
Ladles.
The
such
Tropenas
makes
converter
exceedinglyhot
steel that
it
all be
the lip of
poured over
ladle, bottom-pour ladles not
can
the
For
beingnecessary.
work
such
hand
as
pounds,
They
pouringsmall
in snap
molds,
bull ladles
or
150
is made
holding about
commonly used.
are
about 13 inches in diameter
at the top and
lined to a
are
thickness
of
ly^ inches. The
are
shanks
have
are
one
Fig. 11
"
7 feet
about
double
Roller
Grinding
end
T^pe
and
Molding
who
is to do the
Fig. 10
long,and
for the
Burner
for
Heating
Ladles
man
Grinder
Mixing
Oil
"
Fig.
for
the
12.
Type
ferred
by
"
of
the
Grinder
Author
Pre-
Sand
pouring and
ladles
helper. The crane
iron foundry ladles, except that they are
are
same
as
generallya little
smaller in diameter in proportion to their height,
the loss of heat
to reduce
by radiation.
They are preferablygeared with pin spur gearinginstead of
a
singleend
the
10
for the
Hoiv
and
worm
wheel,
of
possibility
a
as
to
this
gives
a
Castings
greater control, steadier
drop of the ladle when
Ladle
Steel
Converter
Make
the
gearing is
liow
and
less
worn.
Furnace.
Heating
with steel. In the
generallyheated to redness before filling
oilan
of the large ladles,this is done either by invertingthem
over
case
burning furnace, or introducing an oil burner through a portable cover
The latter is illu.strated in Fig. 8.
the top of the ladle.
placed over
in
A device for heating small ladles, arranged by the author, is shown
side
small
oil
burners
series
of
consists
of
It
a
by side,
placed
Fig. 9.
spaced about 18 inches apart from center to center, and a vertical platewith
the flame passes and
hole opposite each burner, through which
two-inch
a
fillsthe bull ladle,which is reared againstthe plate. In this way any number
of ladles can
be heated, according to the length of the plate,or, if required,
Ladles
one
ladle
are
can
be
heated
white
hot
in
floor space, is clean and easy to operate.
Sand
Grinder
10 minutes.
It takes
up
very
little
Fig.10 is a detail of the burner.
and
Mixer.
The usual type of mixer
grinder of the roller type is generallyused.
in Fig. 12.
author
the
but
the
11,
prefers
Fig.
type shown
is
of the sand
obtained, there is not
In this mixer, while a perfect mixture
sand is more
much
so
crushing of the grains,and the resulting
open, as is
desirable in steel molding.
This mixer is also very speedy in mixing sand,
A
is illustrated in
making
it "strong"in much
less time than the
11
heavy roller grinder.
CHAPTER
Lining
Converter-
the
Kind
"
Construction
XN
enable
general,
of
grade
operate
that
take
had
after
arise,
this
the
to
forget
only
by
the
is
of
true
as
The
fast
as
the
to
is
two
are
equally good,
and
serious
waiting
in
making
make
used
time
the
repairs,
room
and
for
is
occupied
when
matter
The
fulfillment.
to
be
make
a
the
the
chief
large
as
good
may
puzzle
him,
and
drilled
into
him.
achieved,
but
is
success
foundry
unsuccessful
discovered.
has
man
poor
a
lined
in
the
science.
and
repairs
of
sand
and
12
any
repairing
the
use
brick
lining,
cheap
they
as
of
has
rammed
any,
while
which,
being
often
orders
and
special blocks
often
be
to
in
to
provided
all
are
convenience
being
less, this
much
needs
good
A
one
special blocks,
with
to
and
converter,
of
use
converter
amount
costly for
being under
conditions
been
An
the
"
line
the
drawback
ones.
new
probably
be
may
reactions
Converter.
to
ways
after
may
that
the
too
made,
watchfulnes
the
determining
It
conditions.
local
expensive,
very
three
or
factors
the
of
much
that
have
many
as
with
to
who
one
quick and
certainty of disaster
absorb
at
point can
money
every
its
shrewdness,
are
Lining
There
it in,
pour
can
success
in
with
first introduced
be
which
how
learn
to
familiar
steel-making.
watched
not
company
blows
details
to
cyclone
that
foundry
way
in
was
that
principles
only
not
Kansas
a
Rockefeller
essentials
of
attention
all trades,
A
complete.
left
say
indeed,
It is true,
steel-making in
nothing of the high
with
to
it would
but
a
instruction
written
only
converter
great many
himself,
to
a
is
strictest
resembles
business
some
the
them,
seeing
operator
him
cause
is
and
is
and
method.
same
The
of
operation
the
of
castings,
long time
perfectly
a
when
that
instruct
to
one
instruction
personal
It
no
by the
learn
all to
It is true
place.
pioneers
spend
to
of
amount
no
today.
for
experience
considerable
had
has
plant is
converter
a
for
acquainted
of
kind
any
called
is
that
thoroughly
produce
to
that
work
"
Lining
description
detailed
a
not
one
Used
Lining
the
of
"
Converter
it is realized
plant,
Tropenas
will
give
Life
Used
Forms
Wood
the
to
Brick
of
of
attempting
II
are
is that
cut
away
shape,
the
a
may
proper
Hoiv
Two
as
and
three
or
shown
in
to
Make
Converter
the
Castings
be prepared, having dimensions
forms should
rough wooden
made
for
out
boards
by sawing
Fig. 13. They are
top
bottom, 2 inches less in dimensions
stripson
Steel
edges.
forms
The
each
and
way,
18 inches
are
high.
then
nailing1-inch
Set the
of a plumb line, and then commence
positionby means
a
operationsby laying ordinary firebrick in the circular bottom
vertical
of about
wind
box
angles.
26
center
of the lower
FiG. 14
"
One
the
of
IN
Wood
the
in
lining
until a level
in
slot
the bottom
tuyere
alternate courses
at
right
joints and set
ordinary firebrick of good qualityfor
all
Break
is reached.
Use
the
inches below
converter
Forms
this part
of the oper-
Set
Converter
THE
into
the silica brick, and do not come
one-half
of
be made
The
used may
with the heat.
direct contact
cement
For grouting in the
each, high-grade silica clay and crushed silica rock.
be thinned with water.
this cement
after laying,
courses
may
ation, as
The
they are
next
less friable than
step is
to
set
one
of the
forms.
The
illustration.Fig. 14,
that the circular part of the
seen
the location of this.
shows
and the part of
is eccentric with the circular shell of the converter,
form
of the face of the tuyeres, is
largerradius, which givesthe conformation
line
is parallelto the center
set so that a line joiningthe ends of the arc
It will be
14
Hoiv
Steel
Converter
to Make
Castings
A course
of arch hrick on end is laid around
of the trunnions.
of ordinary firebrick backing, and the
and outside of this, a row
brick and shell is rammed-in
with ganister. This
space between
until a level, 2^
is continued
shell referred to is reached.
This
brings
the
to
us
inches
below
the
important point
most
the
form,
remaining
procedure
center
of
in the
lining,namely the
the
slot in the
settingof the tuyeres. Upon this depends a great deal of the assurance
in the subsequent manufacture
of the steel, "the tuyeres, both
of success
tion
direcbe set absolutely level, both m
a
individuallyand as a whole, must
parallelto their length and also in a direction at rightanglesto this.
In other words, the tuyeres must
all be in exactly the same
plane. Fig. 15
shows
it will be noted that for conthe tuyeres grouped together and
venience,
in
1
numbered
the
No.
No.
for
the
0
first tuyere
center.
they are
each side, then No. 2 and No. 3, respectively. The
on
higher numbers
than the lower
from the center
numbers, and the whole sysdiverge more
15
Fig.
is
tem
symmetrical.
silica material
they
of chemical
that the holes must
may be warped to
"
tuyeres
they
Block.
Tuyere
are
made
burnt
are
extent.
some
being the only
leveling,
in the
shell
very
In
iron bars, of smaller diameter
in the holes and the levelingdone
care
a
the greatest amount
action.
Round
this
highestgrade of
high temperature as
of the very
at
of wear
and tear and the greatest
the
setting
tuyeres, it must be borne in mind
be leveled and not the outside of the bricks, as the outside
subjectedto
are
amount
These
available, and
1
-^
.
2
the
be
that accuracy
can
be exercised that the tuyeres
w^ay
should
serted
the tuyeres, should be inprotruding ends of these,
insured.
Together with this
than
on
communicating
with
the
15
lower
wind
come
box
oppositethe
to
allow
of
slot
an
How
unrestricted
Make
to
of
passage
that may
iron
cleaningout any slag or
being satisfied that
After
into the
air
the
Steel
Converter
the lower
Castings
the possibiHtyof
inadvertentlyget into the tuyeres.
and
converter
tuyeres
box
tuyeres should
in these
the
same
in
care
tuyeres and do
numbered
are
not
in line with
be
setting these
at
it.
The
upper
to
necessary
use
combustion
merely
of the iron.
conformation
the
as
similarlyand have the same
is then
body of the converter
of
the
cylindrical
part of
top
ticular,
par-
wind
rectangularopenings
It is not
tuyeres, as they are
approach the surface
time
any
in every
correctlyset
are
the upper tuyeres are set directlyon top of them.
has a slot correspondingwnth the lower one, and the
They
lower
.
The
tuyeres.
feet below
the
dispensed with.
wooden
forms
between
the bricks, and
this
point
a
may
be
certain
overlap each
at
the mouth
last two
The
Be
of hand
matter
easy
and
This
skill is
spaces
From
required in settingthe
It is
eye.
open
no
not
an
matter
easy
to
the
principleis to
liningterminates
this point up the cone
until the
of the converter
in a circular opening,15 inches in diameter.
be made
in the mouth
with the specialwedge brick
rows
may
the
liningis completed, the
is then built-upwith
bottom
16 to 17 inches below
the bottom
from
which
thin grout.
accomplish,but
to
The
out.
with
point about 2
point the
a
leave
to
sure
jointswell
of mechanical
matter
to
from
course
After
mentioned.
grout
amount
brick, as it is largelya
is it an
describe, nor
all the
lined up
the shell, at
correspondsvery
closelyto
wooden
forms may
silica brick until a
pure
edge of the tuyeres
capacityof
a
2
The
tons.
be burnt
depth
of
is reached.
liningbeing
fire is started,the blast valve being shut-off and all
now
complete, a
have been removed
from the wind boxes.
If the blast valve from
covers
in the pipe
the blower is left open, it may
happen that gas will accumulate
wood
and
cause
an
which
explosion,
may
be
more
less serious.
or
describing
In
the
door in
liningof the converter, nothing has been said of the manhole
front of the converter,
which
an"i
time
others
all
the
use
some
operators
It is most
have discarded.
useful in making repairs,enablingthe converter
to
be cooled
handing in
oft' very rapidlyand also forms
bricklayerhis suppliesof bricks and
to the
convenient
a
way
When
cement.
of
this
is used, an arch should be built around
the opening in the shell and filled
is punched out, the remainder
in afterwards ; then when
the manhole
of the
is
undisturbed.
lining
Life
of
Lining.
the
It is almost
impossibleto give definite figuresas
furnace
So
much
linings.
depends on shop practiceand
that it is impossible to make
estimate.
accurate
an
if
furnace
a
last
is
longer than
limit
to
it is
too
run
if
every
run
other
day and
daily for the
patchingthat
the amount
of
late, it will not
be
same
to
16
number
cut
away
qualityof
a
For
other
of blows.
be done, and
can
necessary
repairedevery
life of
the
to
day, it
There
if it is done
lot of
terials,
ma-
instance,
will
is
a
before
good brick in
Hozv
order
to
extensive
make
Make
to
Converter
repairs. The
Steel
inner
Castings
of brick, that is the silica
row
be allowed
to be entirelypenetrated. By
part of the hning, should never
making repairsat as short intervals as possibleand preservingthe original
lines of the furnace, the life of liningswill be preserved indefinitely,
and
the blows
will be nuich more
that
The
are
regular and uniform.
parts
corrosion
the
most
to
are
subject
regions immediately surrounding the
tuyeres, and
at
is in
converter
in
slightlyless
rammed
around
attention
a
to
before
be inserted
the
of the upper
than
them
allowed
and
repairsas
many
the
as
it is necessary
it is necessary
in about
where
cone
pouring position. When
diameter
before
converter
blows
the base
three
to
holes
should
150 and
to
renew
A
of
lies when
the
repairingthe tuyeres, bars
be inserted and ganister
dry with the bars
to
even
200
the
entirelyreline.
hours.
the metal
in
place. By
blows
can
tuyeres, and
A
considerable
new
amount
set
of
ful
care-
be made
up
to
1,000
tuyeres
of the
in
can
ation
depreci-
the liningis caused
by crushing and spalling. Silica brick has
coefficient
of
and the alternate heatingand cooling
high
expansion
very
of the liningcauses
it to crush at one
time and spalloff at another.
The
is
bolts
so
times
someexpansion
holding down the upper cone
great that the
pull apart, the heads flyinga considerable distance. After a converter
has been newly lined, these bolts should be loosened to allow the expansion
to take place.
a
17
CHAPTER
Analysis
Iron
the
of
Cupola
THE
Converted
be
to
Charge
(r\
m
metal
J
^^
reaching
^^^
losses
when
figuring
furnace
material
this
of
this
can
it is
respect
the
In
in
exactly
losses
the
blowing
melted
have
and
it
elements
same
as
the
must
be
:
in
be
to
converted
taken
is
to
certain
consideration
into
castings
and
limit is generally
a
in
as
no
provide
to
necessary
raw
specifications. In
The
practice.
analysis
open-hearth
Per
Cent
1.80-2.10
Manganese
0.60-1.00
Carbon
about
Sulphur
acid
the
meet
Silicon
Phosphorus
and
steel
Before
cupola, where
a
steel
into
limits.
certain
phosphorus,
reduced,
these
be
to
within
be
to
sulphur
be
of
Figuring
of
converter
specifications for
of
content
percentage
before
metal
These
place.
sufficientlylow
the
it has
Calculation
"
Charge
composition
converter
charges.
the
into
definite
a
the
take
the
for
set
of
Method
Cupola
is put
that
be
must
Steel
Into
Graphic
"
the
^^^^^^IIE
III
as
low
3
possible
as
The
The
made
of pig iron and
steel
steel scrap.
cupola charges are
up
of
the
heads
and
defective
and
generally consists
runners,
scrap
is so
in its compoOutside
uncertain
previous heats.
castings from
scrap
sition
scrap
that
to
melt
in
scrap
unsafe
to
the
cupola
just
it.
use
the
As
a
rule,
of
the
best
is
way
in
made
to
arrange
daily
the percentage
creased,
be temporarily incan
surplus accumulates,
if a shortage occurs,
and
the amount
be cut
down.
can
Ordinarily,
20 to 25 per
of steel
a
satisfactory operation of the plant, about
cent
in this way
in the
be carried
The
used
flux
in
can
cupola charges.
practice.
with
it is
the
cupola
coke
with
If
amount
There
consists
of
sulphur,
0.75
are
average
a
limestone
per
two
way.
closely controlled,
in
ways
In
are
or
which
out
silicon
shells,
and
the
coke
is
72-hour
thereabouts.
Cupola
the
figuring
the
oyster
or
cent
Calculating
arithmetical
scrap
this
the
and
may
Charge.
be
charge
manganese,
18
done,
the
two
and
a
graphic
elements,
way
and
which
particularly
the
an
are
sili-
How
Make
to
Steel
Converter
Castings
phorus,
always figured first. As regards sulphur and phosrials
matethat they are
low as possihlein the raw
as
be neglected. Carbon,
that after that point has been settled,they may
so
in all grades of pig iron
the same
that is, total carbon, is practically
uniform
used, and may be neglectedon that account, as it will be practically
This
con.
is
element
it is understood
any
is the
decided
be
to
graphiticdoes
not
blowing, it will all be in
iron
is all
of
amount
there are
charge. Of course
available will place a limit on the amount
in the
carry
the
to
minutes'
state.
first thing
The
carbon
after the first few
difiference,as
the combined
combined
relation of the
The
anyway.
make
scrap
where
cases
of scrap
it is proposed to
grade of pig iron
be used.
that may
the
pig
pig
the silicon to the requiredamount.
of scrap to cut down
iron is low in silicon,it may
be possibleto use
only a very
of scrap.
the conditions are
high
silicon, it will be
the
imperative to
use
high
a
If
centage
per-
If the:
small
portion
pro-
for the purposes
of this example we
will suppose
that
have the correct
ideal, that we
kinds of pig iron and
able to carry any reasonable
of scrap.
As stated above, it is
amount
are
in the plant,
wise, all thingsbeing equal,to confine the scrap to that made
in
and
Let
an
ordinary
that
assume
us
But
this will
way
have
we
amount
to
of
brands
two
say,
iron
from
Silicon
Manganese
Let
that our
0.75 per cent.
us
steel scrap
assume
Let
No.
1
Cent.
3.50
0.25
that
assume
25
cent.
per
No. 2
Per
Cent.
2.00
1.50
silicon,0.25
averages
also
us
to
analyzing:
Per
manganese,
20
we
per
and
cent
will carry
25
per
of scrap.
cent
Problem.
2
In a 100-pound charge, what
quantitiesof the above No. 1 and No.
pig irons and steel scrap will give a mixture with an analysisof say, silicon,
2.00 per
steel scrap
we
(Weight
)
=
cent,
are
and
going
of scrap
(1,000 pounds
X
0.80
manganese,
to
per
carry
(250
silicon)+
cent
mixture
X
X
200
per
figurethe
X
X)
7S0X
X
The
next
1, 3.50
question is:
per
cent
In
a
silicon,and
will give a mixture
silicon,
know
how
silicon first,
as
X
per
much
follows
cent
:
con
sili-
silicon)
62.5 +
No.
We
(weight of pig iron
cent
0.25) -^ (750
cent?
per
will
and
2000
=
2000
=
^
2.5833
charge of 750 pounds, how much
pig iron.
how
much
pig iron. No. 2, 2.00 per cent
containing2.5833
19
per
cent
silicon ?
Hoiv
to
Make
PercerJ
Converter
Steel Castiii
of ifjjjcoiy/o Cirpo/a^.
iZ/eeJifcj-i^
2s7 ifjjicon..CorJeJr\ii\.j
FiG. 16
"
Graphic
Method
of
20
Figuring
Cupola
Charges
CHAPTER
Operation
Converter
of
Blowing
"
Difficulties
A V IN
^
^
I
F
'^
^^
coke
to
charge,
per
In
provision
must
of
be
used
and
be
1
advantages,
is less
coke
has
to
better.
the
box
by
a
to
heat
for
that
converter,
of
cupola
a
while
the
most
the
others
two
taps
per
blow.
time
in
contact
fire
about
two
is
this
doing
25
coke
sary
neces-
metal
cupola
sufficient
size
prefer
cupola
a
This
to
has
with
three
hours.
alternately
the
over
is
the
its
bed
that
burner
for
heat
the
of
bottom
natural
or
to
the
gas
minutes
coke
and
the
is
turned
and
coke,
is
which
bottom,
the
pressure
of
ton
retain
factory
satis-
most
pound
a
sary
neces-
it is the
the
1
15
It is
hotter
perhaps
the
melted,
iron.
the
about
mouth
to
of
Half
blown
iron
the
fact
and
it with
This
oil
in
purpose,
blow
and
or
charged and
first charge
the
of
ways
coke
An
hot.
of
one
1 of
than
containing
i)lenty of
shorter
this
It is essential
blast.
It is
use
been
receive
removed.
covers
the
make
plate fastened
a
the
time,
has
cupola
converter
with
particularly
found
not
converter
should
be
and
may
used,
is
satisfactory.
When
the
into
ladles,
iron
iron
is
pit and
The
etc.
tapped
to
just
has
converter
ash
the
transferred
the
for
the
down
reached
a
blast.
in
pro-
cupola,
a
sulphur.
different
are
of
metal
therefore
sluggish,
one
and
absorb
high
be
in
ratio
higher
a
Cupola
cupola
the
subsequent
pig iron
and
for.
operators
remaining
with
of
the
through
along
melting
hot
to
at
Overcome
to
tlie calculations
course
looked
steel
tons
prepared
a
for
amount
time
a
the
make
and
all tuyere
the
time
blower
necessary
out
to
There
upside
be
liable
been
is to
from
at
iron
it to
get
scrap
Some
2
ton
the
During
converter
good
clean.
the
as
steel
hot
"
chapter
its
liable
ample
necessary
holding only
of
is
scrap
an
and
the
out
tap
hot
last
made
How
"
Analyses
Castings
follow
scarcely be
insure
to
be
the
the
now
melting
can
steel
things
should
iron
of
cent
must
cedure.
7
in
will
we
Blow
Converter
considered
G
Steel
the
During
OF
'^ ^.^f
IV
the
comes
the
been
out
of
the
converter,
to
the
be
lip.
It
ready
The
cupola.
after
recovered
portion
should
converter
heated
thoroughly
unburnt
which
is then
22
at
exactly
coke
be
latter
skimmed
the
in
free
dumped
in
drying
time
same
is turned
entirely
is
used
is collected
iron
the
the
to
a
ladle
down
from
as
and
until
slag
Hoiv
this should
and
vessel
turned
is then
Steel
Castings
each
commencing
before
done
be
Com'crter
Make
to
subsequent
it rises,the operator
as
through
of the vessel and continues the rotation until tne
the edge of the tuyere.
metal just appears
over
again and
up
Tlie
h\o\\\
looks
the back
the tuyeres from
molten
the
of
convex
edge
be
important point in the manipulation. The metal must
is
that
matter
constitutes
and
what
a
"up"
"up",
tuyeres,
smoked
It is well to use
time to learn.
takes some
glasses,or get the eyes
metal
the
the color of
accustomed
to
by watching it while being tapped
otherwise
it is comparatively
and skimmed,
out, poured into the converter
metal
is
that
the
When
deceived.
be
sure
tion
to
exactly
"up", the posieasy
is carefullynoted.
of the converter
the writer uses
indicator, as illustrated in Fig. 17,
For this purpose
an
of
iron
attached to the rotating
sheet
is
which
gland on
simply a quadrant
is the
This
but
most
in the
not
Dial
th
Rotating
Converter
nxed
Fig. 17
Indicator
"
for
the trunnion, and a fixed pointer. The
both ways
from the vertical.
the
is in the
converter
obtainingthe
correct
tion
Posi-
indicator
is
graduated
in
degrees,
position for blowing, that is for
show
about 5 to 9 degrees
should
indicator
results, the
Noting
Converter
OF
When
Pomler
best
the
the vertical, that is the tuyeres should be inclined towards
be very slightly
surface of the metal and the direction of the blast should
ance
create
too
it.
Too
downward
great a disturbgreat an angle would
upon
If
is designed to obviate.
the Tropenas process
of the bath, which
back
from
the
angle
taken
may
in
out
appears
or
added
then be noted
tapping
After
out
the
too
as
and
great
the
adjusting and
be.
may
thereafter
correct
gettingthe
case
small,
too
or
the
The
cupola
a
bull
ladle of
iron
should
be
height of the iron in the ladle
tender should have no difficulty
amount.
proper
noting
of
amount
the
good, hot, clean iron
angle, the
23
tuyere
box
covers
in the
are
verter,
con-
put
on
Hoiv
D
"
1
to
Make
Converter
Steel
Castings
C
A
i.
c.
-
o
u
o
n
"
24
to Make
Hozv
signal of
blower
in
room,
mercury
Blast
position.
short blasts
two
gage
the whistle
on
should
time of startingthe blow
exact
is then turned
but
should
smoke
be
of
copious,large
noticeable
and lightyellow in color, the smoke
scintillating,
and
of the mouth
out
come
sparks should
The
littleflame.
very
Steel.
the
and
beginning,sparks
the
the converter
on
bell
or
be made.
Blowing
At
Castings
by giving the customary
communicating with the
the
should be speeded to give 3 pounds on
and the motor
A record of the
the by-pass valve is entirelyclosed.
when
fastened
and
Steel
Converter
but
too
not
An
in color.
experienced operator,
tell during the first
is right,and if he is going
the silicon content
minute
of the blow whether
it up as it goes along.
if it will be necessary
to have a hot blow
to doctor
or
The sparks should all go up the chimney in parallellines,not crossing or
acter
shooting out at different angles. In from three to five minutes the charand
become
of the sparks should change
and at the
non-scintillating,
and
voluminous,
by noting the
time
same
the time
not
brown
sparks and smoke,
of the
appearance
flame
a
dark
too
should
the mouth
at
appear
can
of the
This
converter.
is
the carbon
is commencing
as
tuyeres slightly,
open
and extra
is
needed
its
combustion
and reap
to burn
to
complete
oxygen
the full benefit from
the heat generated. At the same
time, the position
2 to 3 degrees,to compensate
of the converter
should be advanced
from
for the shrinkagein bulk due to the elimination of the impurities.
four or
five minutes
the flame increases in brightDuring the next
ness
and
should
the upper
to
until what
volume
metal, the blast pressure
reduced
will
1^
to
always be
unless
Sloppy
certain
a
converter
two
quietcondition
for
flame
The
clear,and
finallydies down
extreme
of
any
it may
cases
it is advisable
as
flame
out
to
be
There
go.
this is immaterial
of the flame.
incorrect
composition of metal, bad
After maintaining its top position
dies down
The
somewhat,
upper
remains
and
tuyeres may
in
be
now
a
fully
again, becomes
particularlybright and
for the last time with the evolution of copious
smoke.
The
smoke
rises
then
throw
to
projectionof slag,and
blast.
flame
minutes.
some
opened.
brown
much
too
or
minutes, the
In
The
occurs.
tendency
a
the observation
indicative
are
low
as
of
with
is
reduced.
be
amount
it interferes
blows
for
or
should
"boil"
the
as
if there
and
pounds, but this is
positionof
one
is known
carefullywatched
be
blow
should
as
be
turned
this smoke
appears,
and
ruination
to
controller,turningdown
the vessel
after
signalsone
there
is in the
whistle
converter
to
a
a
few
seconds
before
represents burning iron, which
of metal
the
down
remainder.
The
operator
into the horizontal
the
brown
waste
means
throws
over
his
and a second
position,
At this stage
engineer to stop the blower.
bath of practically
iron at a temperature
pure
the
25
Hoiv
Make
to
Steel
Converter
Castings
of
Fig. 18 gives the approximate curves
In
order to recarburize it
a
typicalblow.
weighed final addition of ferro-manganese, ferro-
well over
3,000 degrees Fahr.
in
elimination of the elements
point,a
the desired
to
is introduced.
This may
be added
what
not,
or
silicon, silicon-spiegel,
be used, or
small cupola or crucible furnace may
a
melted, in which case
it may
in
in cold
be thrown
lumps
at
of the
the mouth
ately
immedi-
converter
In this
the blow, before the slag gets too hard.
that the explosion of the
the lumps must
first be dipped in water
so
case
it
will
and
allow the alloyto go enstrike
the
hot
tirely
as
they
slag
part
vapor
has been
found
This latter method
into the bath of metal.
by the
after
author
turningdown
A
mouth
far
be
to
the
specialshaped
of the
for
core
and
converter
and
useful
most
the
regular
back
skimming
is then
metal
of
way
the
ready
tions.
adding final addiin
the
is
fixed
slag
be
to
tapped into
the
ladle.
How
is
This
place
a
15
their
make
If
it
20
to
a
perfectlynormal
minutes.
its appearance
at the mouth
in less time, it is
comes
is too
metal
low
and
the
of the
converter
sign
a
that
that
probabilities
are
which
blow,
Unfortunately
having to be harmonized
Some
of
occasionally
go wrong.
will be briefly
touched
and cure
cause
Steel.
Blowing
in
all blows
conditions
of which
some
Difficulties
descriptionof
a
in from
great many
with
Overcome
TO
to
should
take
normal,
not
are
produce this result,
the difficultiesthat
arise,
The flame should
upon.
in from
3 to 5 minutes.
the
silicon content
the blow
will
l)e
not
of
the
as
hot
from which heat
desired, for the silicon is the fuel, and the chief source
To
olTset this, when
its appearance,
the conis derived.
the flame makes
verter
as
should
be advanced
of ferro-silicon in
has
noticeablyhotter.
at the same
a
that the
too
blow
great, the blow
on
If the blow
time the blast pressure
the iron is either
by
of
account
two
degreesand
into the mouth
it melts
as
sign that
caused
than
more
thrown
astonishingeft'ectand
an
becomes
is
not
pig form
and
goes
gives up
on
for
pounds
This
converter.
its silicon the blow
five minutes,
the blast gage, it
than
more
remaining the same
high in silicon
too
100
about
of the
on
or
it is
too
cold.
If
high silicon,there may not be very serious results except
will certainly
be very
sloppy,the loss will be abnormally
steel may
be high in silicon
will be longerand the resulting
tlie fact
eliminated.
that the carbon
burns
out
before
the silicon is
tirely
en-
there is nothing to do but coax
its appearance.
it along and dose it with silicon after the flame makes
A frequenttrouble due to various causes
is the corkingof the tuyeres.
Its
signsare
in the
speed
of which
If the latter is the
case
in the blast gage without
increase of pressure
of the motor
; a change in the directions of the
an
shoot
out
at
rightanglesinstead
the progress
of the reactions.
troubles, such as cold blows, and
any
sparks, some
and delay in
of all being parallel,
of the tuyeres may
cause
violent reactions.
The tuyeres are
Stoppage
26
increase
serious
corked
Hozv
to
Converter. Steel
Make
Castings
of nozzles
of slag on
their extremities which
tend to
by the formation
in
directions,dispersing
lengthen the tuyeres and may have openings
many
of it to react on the
the blast and possiblypermittingonly a small amount
metal.
They are caused by cold metal, not settingthe positionof the vessel
When
and not skimming it clean from slag at the commencement.
correctly,
before the flame makes
its apthis corking is noticed it generally occurs
pearance,
and
the
the
and
the
usuallyproceed
or
sloppy blow
if
returned
converter
The
be
may
result of
nothing
In
let
course
us
regard
the
to
of
Converter
at varies
blast is then
The
Castings.
of final addition
amount
be written, also as to the materials
take the ordinary grades of simple or
be aimed
bar.
it will
originalposition,when
this
to
two
procedure
repeat
necessary
corked
is
almost
invariablya
tuyeres
worse.
Analyses
of
iron
an
off and
the blast shut
down,
its
to
right. It
all
three times.
even
off with
nozzles knocked
projectionsor
started
be turned
should
converter
principallywith
be used
to
a
be used.
to
carbon
could
deal
good
In the first place,
steel.
The
analysisto
castingsare to be
extent
weight of the piece.
secondly to a
shape
nary
Speaking from the first standpointit may be said that the analysisfor ordimachine
or
engine castingson which a good deal of machining has
put, and
to
less
be done
should
with
which
to
use
the
the
and
carbon 0.25 to 0.30 per cent, silicon 0.25 to 0.30 per
0.75 per cent, and sulphur and phosphorus as low
0.05 per cent.
be
0.60
cent, manganese
the
to
possible,under
For castingswhich
will be subject to a greater amount
of wear
than
such
and
for
those
tensile
which
as
ordinary,
require a greater
strength
as
levers, connectingrods and
0.40
cent,
per
and
in
of differences
to
gears
in
the carbon
cent, silicon 0.30 per cent, and manganese
castingslast referred to will have to be annealed
For
used
are
the purpose
of recarburizingto these
ferro-silicon containingabout 12 per
up to 1.10 per
in all cases.
points the
cent
of silicon,
10 per cent silicon and 20 per cent
The
containing80 per cent manganese.
manganese,
manganese
amount
an
such
ec^uation
charges,but it must be borne
of ferro-manganesemust
cent
to
deoxidize
amount
of
The
its carbon
the
the metal, and
ferro-silicon.
action
an
in mind
as
that
be used
to
used
was
excess
an
5 per
to
the close observer.
The
higher is the meltingpoint and therefore
27
20 to 30 per
goes
of the calculated
of
indication
an
and
to
can
calculatingcupola
cent
softer
in order
ferro-
and
be used
for that which
of the steel in the ladles is somewhat
content
silicon-spiegel
to
of from
compensate
of about
excess
for
cent.
materials
common
containingabout
easilybe figured by
to
the
0.50 per
The
0.35
be raised to from
may
count
castingsare liable to "pull" on acbe raised
section, great length,etc., the carbon may
where
cases
purer
have
it
the
to
of
steel
remain
Hozv
fluid in the ladle and
to
"dead
to
and
allow
higher degree
a
melt"
run
more
Converter
Steel
it to
free itself from
than
the harder
soft steel than
are
iron remains
that gray
to Make
hard
it needs
gases,
grades. It is more
soft castingsare
steel, and
liable to blow-holes.
fluid in the ladle at
Castings
This
is borne
temperature
a
be
to
heated
super-
difficult to
difficult
more
out
where
by
the
fact
steel would
set.
For
the
making
are
which
thermic
the pure
used, and
the
such
or
tungsten
as
steel, chrome
of
ferro-alloys
or
these elements
alumino-thermic
ess
proc-
the amounts
for
widely according to the purpose
vary
be
used.
The
materials
aluminoto
the
produced by
castings
are
are
process
it necessary
effect,and
analysis
alloysteels
nickel steel, either the
products of the electric furnace
steel
steel,manganese
or
specialor
more
to
by
use
very
useful
only
the freedom
the
on
account
minimum
from
of their
amount
carbon,
simple and certain.
28
etc..
to
concentration,rendering
produce the maximum
making
control of the ultimate
How
should
Make
to
Converter
Steel
be
and wherever
a
amply filleted,
pattern protrudes,the sand in its immediate
by rammin_^ in cinders, sharp sand or saw
away
2
within
to
the space
3
or
inches
filled in with burnt
Another
Castings
of the
arm
or
a
projectiiii^
vicinityshould be loosened up
rib
dust
the mold
; or
of the pattern, after it has
sand.
be
can
cut
dried, and
been
of hot cracks
point to be attended to with the idea of reducing^the danger
is the drying of the molds.
To
produce the best results,a
mold
be
be
should
but
almost
rather
over-dried
than
under-dried, that is
quite
rigidpossiblecondition ; it can
sufficient strength to stand
preserve
the
will then
to
A
burned.
not
be
most
ofifer much
ideal mold,
less resistance
has been
as
to
it should
say
that is
mold
baked
a
and
wear
the
only just dry
good deal more
of
tear
shrinkage of
said before, consists of
a
hard
is in the
and
yet
it
pouring,and
the
metal.
The
refractoryskin and
the cooling skin of
as
collapsible
backing, which will give way as soon
the casting has become
sufticiently
rigid to support itself,and begins to
shrink.
It is to the production of these conditions, as nearly as may
be
a
possiblein practice,that foundrymen have
Cores
Defective
construction
castings. Coremaking
receive
the
of
sand
it merits.
their efforts.
Castings.
is another
cores
fruitful
of the steel
branch
a
bend
of cracked
source
foundry trade
that does
not
equally as important as the mold
itself,calls for as much
or
skill,and contributes equally to the success
failure.
And
often
find
the
ondary
coremaking relegated to a secyet we
ing
studied as moldplace. Core sand mixtures should be as carefully
of
attention
is
Steel
for
to
mixtures, and
by
careful
as
to
attention
mold
to
savingmay
great
a
cracking,but in the
It is
be effected, not
only in
the matter
cleaningand the soundness of the castings
this point. The same
descriptionappliesto a core
of
have
a
cuttingand
will resist the
hard, smooth
face, which
and fall out
fusing action of the metal, but it should crumble
in the form
of
a
it should
cost
"
Careful handling will permit the use
exceedinglydelicate. As the author has
of almost anything,provided the wash
be made
can
previouslystated, cores
is satisfactory.When
the core
is rammed
up it should have a good coat of
wash
made
of silica flour, Ceylon graphiteand molasses
and then
a
water,
of
put
powder when
which
cores
in the
and
oven
thoroughly"rotten".
be
given, and
becomes, and
In
a
the mold
burnt.
seemingly are
the
it is
baked
Then
coat
scratching the
of wash
or
two
is redried.
core
no
until after
another
more
than
It is surprisinghow
1/32 inch thick.
skin
the
inside
is
if necessary
may
strong this skin
has to stand much
than
cases
a
core
great many
greater pressure
the metal is
itself,as for instance in a pipe or cylinder,where
shrinkingon
the
core
from
every
direction.
30
If the
core
is
not
collapsible
How
one
nmst
tilings
two
or
to
will become
hard
so
Make
Steel Castiii"/,s
Converter
"
will be
that its removal
a
the
castingor
expensive and
crack
liappen eitlier it will
the
very
core
lengthy
operation.
jioint.
namely the composition of the metal itself,is equally
foregoing. Any conditions which tend to hot-shortness
important
be carefully
of the metal, whicli means
brittleness above
red heat, must
in common
found
avoided.
The
two
practice which
principalelements
have this tendency are
sulphur and copper, and while their influence is not
The
second
with the
very
great
through
in
the
the hot
cold
short
of
state
period
the
before
steel,
cooling to
it is important they should be kept as low
of the
is dangerous, but the combination
of
Eastern
great deal of the
of copper,
content
carefully,and
care
iron is made
from
available,
scrap
and it is therefore
should
be taken
two
as
necessary
not
to
metal
has
to
pass
the
ordinary temperatures,
possible. Either, by itself,
is fatal.
As a large proportion
from
ores
well
as
as
the
as
the
to
allow
the Cornwall
iron, has
watch
it to
district,a
appreciable
the sulphur most
run
an
over
0.045
possiblein
per
sulphur
by selectingmelting stock as low as
will prevent increase of sulphur
which
and running a high manganese,
it, if anything, by the formation
from the coke, etc., and tend to reduce
of sulphide of manganese.
cent.
This
is done
31
CHAPTER
Steel
The
Foundry
ONE
Laboratory
essentials
the
to
Its
"
Equipment
and
Determinations
Necessary
THE
of
\'I
in
success
the
of
operation
is
foundry
steel
a
the analyses of
terials
maraw
well-equipped laboratory, where
of the finished
and
also that
entering into the manufacture,
for
be
when
made.
Nowadays,
product
can
checking purposes,
it
is
the
iron,
coke,
wanted,
to
etc.,
analysis
buying pig
specify
customary
certain
within
their
materials
and
most
are
producers
willing to guarantee
At
lot.
each
that
carload
limits, supplying with
analysis of
particular
an
all events,
it is supposed
be the analysis of that
to
particular carload, but is
loaded.
often
the analysis of the cast
which
the car
was
more
or
pile from
it is
As
of
iron
varies
from
end
the
cast
to
other,
one
pig
necessarily
any
all the
a
wise
take
to
using,
avoid
to
Steel
is
be
to
a
each
of
such
and
by
check
and
car
before
composition
the
mistakes.
manufactured
laboratory,
employer
from
sample
a
today
the
it is
often
by
his
to
trouble
locating
quired
re-
without
get along
saving money
to
of
means
but
is
specifications and
impossible
the
mistakes,
avoiding
only
not
is
chemist
close
such
on
high quality, that
it
when
without
time.
located
where
loss of
The
be
a
laboratory should
in some
and
where
the vibration
light is available
part of the works
caused
will
hammers,
steam
etc.,
by operation of heavy machinery, cranes,
be felt as
little as
for
usefulness
of
the
tory
laboradeal
of
the
a
possible,
great
consists
in the
with
and
weighing of materials
exceeding accuracy,
occurs
north
the
balance
less
not
one
balance
should
and
feet
chemist's
benches
in
should,
beakers,
if
the
action
that
apparatus
be
cleanliness
wood,
well
should
a
not
fitted
be
to
wide
sink.
three
and
the
The
should
be
may
be
smaller,
sides
of
the
other
the
result
between
doors,
two
Under
constant
the
in
two
balance
benches
filter papers,
use,
exclude
the
the
by
spoiling
of
is
dust.
It
all
directions.
32
very
the
rooms,
for
larger
for
may
fumes
in
should
etc.,
and
will
order
that
from
drawers
these
important
bench
be
There
preserved
be
the
and
estimations.
be
the
room
should
proper
rooms
The
two
is left
side
laboratory
plaster is affected
as
observed
other
the
Around
passage
of
There
degree.
and
and
fumes.
in
last
inches
with
etc.,
acid
is
20
furnace
possible, be
protection
of
the
to
square,
office.
about
entirely
into
through
should
18
closet, mufifle
sheathed
the
than
the
run
draught
fall
is sensitive
used
drawers
that
or
for
exreme
table
sup-
How
to
Make
Converter
Steel
Castings
porting the balance sliould be very heavy and rigid,to minimize vibrations,
it is entirelyimpossibleto weigh quicklyor accuratelyon a balance that
should be placed over
the
of wood
extra
case
is not perfectlysteady. An
as
further exclude dust.
the walls of the laboratory should be shelves at a convenient
the benches, to hold the bottles containing re-agents for imabove
balance to
Around
height
Air
Foam
A
mediate
acids may
use,
and
underneath
the benches
the
Pump
large Winchester
bottles of
convenientlybe stored.
Apparatus
The
Filter
Still
Handy
following is
analyses of iron and
Required
a
for
Making
Analyses.
descriptionof the principalapparatus
needed
steel materials, coke, sand, firebrick, etc.. and
33
for
while
How
more
below
provided,
be
may
work
to
of
or
steel works
a
Make
Steel
Coni'cricr
Castings
the ordinary
cases,
specialapparatus used in some
is
be
done
with
what
appended
laboratory may
:
it lasts practicallyforever
should
be of the best quality,as
short
It should
have
of results.
a
responsiblefor the accuracy
7 inches
material,
long, wdiich should be of non-corrosive
beam, not over
of
much
make
the
balances
time
beam
the longer
longer as
weighing very
will be sensitive to 1/10
they take so long to oscillate. A 7-inch beam
All knife edges
is sutiicient for all practicalpurposes.
which
milligram,
and planes should be of agate as the steel knife edges will rust in spiteof
The
balance
is
and
all
be taken
that may
vessels
small
more
care
or
one
Beam
Short
lime
from
absorb
to
time
and
as
to
from
accommodate
time
weighing
small
to
of
weight
balance
mu.st
all accuracy
A
1
In
the
balance
small
camel's
case,
hair brush
and
these should
be used
should
set
be
of
be
ok
Hood
changed
daily to
dust
of
to
time, but the metal pans should never
small aluminvmi
materials, instead
a
should
l)e used.
It cannot
be
too
be
used
for the actual
counterpoisedby a
pan,
stronglyimpressed that the
.scrupulouslyclean and in good condition,
will be destroyed at the outset.
be
or
Closet
Draught
in the balance
should
chloride
cases
acid
weights is needed running from 50 grams to one
for
of the balance
hang on the graduated beam
be
should
balance
The
the
of
large so
milligram.
pans
be
have
to
that
weighed
small pieces of apparatus
may
A
riders
of
subdivisions
it.
Balance
time.
off the balance.
prevent
containingstrong sulphuric
the moisture
to
milligram,
to
as
this is where
11 01V
Some
of
form
to
be
may
a
still is necessary,
forms
are
many
be
can
This
pipe.
If
water.
Coivz'crtcr
by connecting a live
made
coil which
service
a
There
determinations.
one
Make
to
water
pure
of stills,and
must
as
pipe,if
steam
of
stream
water
a
a
be
used
simple and
in
all
effective
line is
handy,
laboratory
copious supply of
steam
from
the
cheapest way of obtaining a
must
pipe is not available, a self contained sun
of
20
25
will
be
or
gallons per day
having a capacity
is the
one
large enough.
For the heavy
a
(.'astim/s
steam
a
pure
be provided, and
kept cold by
Steel
it is necessary
filter
to have
a
gelatinousprecipitates,
This
consists
of
of
a
filtering.
simply
specially
pump
supply,and the water
having a side inlet, attached to the water
shaped pil'e,
vertical
the
causes
a
powerful suction through the
pipe
passing through
filter
This
is
connected
to a
flask,which is a conical flask having
side pipe.
When
ing
filtercork fitted with a glass filter funnel.
and a rubber
a side tube
it is well to introduce
of the pump,
bv means
a platinum cone
perforated
with small holes, to prevent the suction from bursting the filter paper.
is for incinerating
muffle
furnace
The
precipitates,
fusing refractory
be large enough to contain a muffle about 8 x 5^
material, etc., and should
of five or six bunsen
burners
in a battery,,
inches.
It is heated by a row
to
reduce
or
the
time
Hot
wdiich may
furnace
to
The
be
controlled
different
draught
independently,so
temperatures
closet
Plate
is
as
to
heat
different parts of the
if desired.
enclosure
iron plate with
containing an
burners
is used for evaporations,solutions, and for the making
of any reactions which
be ungive off fumes or gases, which would
pleasant
or
dangerous. It should have a chimney with a good draught
which
be increased
by the introduction of a jet of compressed air
may
the
blowing up
chimney. Practicallyall boilingof liquidsis done in this
closet although there are gas connections
the benches.
at intervals all around
The
laboratory is in this way
kept cooler and more
pleasant to work in.
The plate should not be less than 24 inches long and 16 inches wide, as at
times a great many
beakers
will be evaporating at the same
time.
The
in
door
slides
is
and
sash
counterljalanced
glass
by
weights. The
grooves
inside of the draught closet is preferablylined with tile.
The
carbon
bath is a piece of ajjparatus used
for the determination
of carbon
and
consists of a copper
vessel about 7
by the color method
7 inches high. It contains a support for the test
and
inches in diameter
of two
tubes to be heated, in the form
perforated discs held together with
an
beneath, and
35
a
wire
this
bein^
to
The
test
support.
broken
The
Cojivcrtcr Steel
tubes
of the apparatus necessary,
probably needs
will Ije merely enumerated
follows :
as
remainder
descriptionand
One
air oven,
One
water
One
rough
One
test
Four
Two
One
Six
bath,
bunsen
with
copper,
iron
with
stand
tube
pair crucible
tongs.
One
platinum
One
dozen
One
6-inch
One
horseshoe
24-ounce
acid
capacity.
ounce
One
dozen
5-ounce
Four
40-ounce
One
100-ounce
Six
3-inch
conical
flasks.
flasks.
One
500
cubic
250
cubic
One
dessicator.
100
25
centimeter
dozen
graduated
graduated
test
flask.
flask.
flask.
measuring
glass.
pleasuring
glass.
centimeter
centimeter
test
graduated
centimeter
centimeter
cubic
cubic
dozen
glass funnels.
glass funnel.
One
One
glass.
Bohemian
conical
1,000 cubic
One
Bohemian
Bohemian
flasks.
conical
ribbed
6-inch
beakers, best
beakers, best
beaker, best
8-ounce
40-ounce
rubber
rubber
tubes, 8
x
tubes, 5^
x
1 inches.
6
36
inches.
stoppers.
stoppers.
glass.
glass.
beakers, best Bohemian
glass.
beakers, best Bohemian
glass.
16-ounce
Six
two-hole
bottle.
dropping
12-ounce
Six
'/^
magnet.
flasks, fitted with
10-ounce
Two
capacity.
ounce
tubes, 12 inches
long.
two-hole
tubes, 6 inches, fitted with
bulb
dozen
One
1
thistle funnel
dozen
One
pestle.
porcelain crucibles,
One
Four
high.
and
crucible,
One
Four
grams.
pestle.
and
mortar
Two
Two
500
holder.
mortar
Six
to
grams
rings.
earthenware
Six
weights, 10
and
clamps
with
tripods, 8 inches
One
special
burners.
test
by
rings.
balance,
stands
burette
wooden
no
stand.
burette
iron
are
inches.
weighing
tube
One
One
8x8x8
and
prevented from
and
boilino^,
vertical
a
Castings
into the holes
introduced
are
while
])osition
by the agitationof the water.
in
held
means
Make
Hoiv
INDEX
Page
Alloy
28
Steel
Converter
of
Analysis
Calculation
Arithmetical
Blast
of
Box
the
and
19
Charge
3
Cupola
5
Converter
Blower
for
the
Converter
Blower
for
the
Cupola
Blowing:
Cupola
of
Converter
of
Arrangement
27
Castings
6
10
25
Steel
the
Cupola
the
Calculating
18
Charge
27
Carbon
Carbon
Charges
Cold
35
Bath
Cracks
Steel
in
Construction
of
Converter
Converter
Lining,
Converter
Manhole
Cores
Core
4
5
Life
Steel
16
of
16
Operating
for
29
Castings
Converter
the
Operation
in
Converter
18
Cupola
the
for
6
Station
30
Castings
30
Wasli
Cupola
7
Cupola
18
Cupola
Curves
Charges
Elimination
Description
of
Difficulties
Draught
Drying
in
9
Floor
Charging
of
a
of
Elements
Converter
Blowing
Steel
Steel
"
How
in
Typical
a
2
Plant
Casting
May
They
be
26
Overcome
.
35
Closet
the
24
Blow
30
Molds
38
Index
uf
EquipniciU
2
Fuundry
Slccl
a
27
Ferro-]\Ianganese
27
Ferro-Silicon
Field
Filter
Converter
tlie Small
of
Flux
in
Used
Cupola
the
Method
Heating
the
Converter
Heating
the
Foundry
Heating
the
Ladles
Cracks
of
2
11
Castings
29
Indicator
22
of, for
Iron, Analysis
Laboratory
Apparatus
Laboratory
Balance
Laboratory
for
Laboratory
Still
Conversion
into
Steel
18
33
34
the
Steel
Foundry
32
35
Ladles
10
Lining, Converter,
Life
Lining, Converter,
Necessary Repairs
Lining
21
22
Steel
in
18
Calculating-Mixtures
Graphic
Hot
1
35
Pump
of
the
Manganese.
of
16
for
Converter
Alethod
17
12
of
Calculating
21
Manhole
16
in the
Ratio
Melting
Molds
for
Muffle
Furnace
Steel
Cupola
22
Castings
29
35
Pouring
the
Metal
into
the
Converter
4
Pouring
the
Metal
into
the
Converter
23
Recarl)urization
Renewal
Repairing
of
the
Metal
26
Lining
17
of Tuyeres
Converter
17
39
Index
Sand
Grinder
Scrap, Use
11
of, in
Silica Brick
for
Silicon, :\lethod
Cupola
Mixtures
18
Lining the Converter
of Calculating
13
21
Silicon-Spiegel
27
Skimming
22
the
Tilting
the
Tuyere
Block
Iron
Converter
6
15
Tuyeres,
Combustion
Tuyeres,
Renewal
16
of
17
Tuyeres, Setting in the
Wooden
Forms
for
Lining
Lining
the
15
Converter
40
14
List of Illustrations
LIST
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page
Arrangement of Steel Converter and Cupola
Pouring the Metal Into the Converter
in Operation
The Converter
Converter
Tilted
Empty
to
the
Slag
After
3
4
5
the Metal
Has
Been
Out
The
7
Converter
Vertical and
Operating Station
Horizontal
Special Cupola
for
Sections
Melting
Roller
Type Grinder
Another
Wood
One
Ladle
a
Type
Form
Used
of the Wood
Curves
for
for
Forms
Tuyere Block
(iraphicMethod
Indicator
for
of Sand
7
of Converter
Iron
8
for the Converter
With
Oil
an
Large
Method
of Heating Hand
Ladles
Oil Burner
for Heating Ladles
Heating
Poured
8
Burner
9
9
10
Grinding and Mixing Molding
Grinder
Sand
10
10
the Converter
13
Set in the Converter
14
Lining
15
of
Figuring Cupola Charges
Noting
Position
of Elimination
20
of the Converter
of Elements
in
A
a
Typical
23
Blow
24
Handy Laboratory Still
Filter Pump
33
Short
34
Beam
Draught
Hot
33
Balance
Closet
or
Hood
34
Plate
35
41