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Documenta Praehistorica XXXIV (2007)
Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and
Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar|
Maja Andri;
Institute of Archaeology, ZRC SAZU, SI
[email protected]
ABSTRACT – This paper compares the development of Holocene vegetation in Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes (Ljubljansko barje) regions of Slovenia. The results of pollen analysis suggest that in
Bela krajina the human impact on the environment (forest clearance and burning) was very intensive throughout the Holocene and led to changes in forest composition, increased biodiversity, and
the formation of a mosaic landscape. In the Ljubljana Marshes, forest burning and clearance seem
less intensive, although changes in forest composition and ‘anthropogenic indicator’ pollen types
were detected. These differences between study regions are presumably a consequence of various climates, hydrology, bedrock and land-use in the past.
IZVLE∞EK – V ≠lanku je predstavljena primerjava razvoja holocenske vegetacije v Beli krajini in na
Ljubljanskem barju. Rezultati pelodne analize ka∫ejo, da je bil ≠lovekov vpliv na okolje (sekanje in
po∫iganje gozda) v Beli krajini zelo intenziven, kar je povzro≠ilo pove≠anje biodiverzitete in spremembe v sestavi gozda, oblikovala se je mozai≠na pokrajina. Na Ljubljanskem barju je sekanje in
po∫iganje gozda sicer res videti nekoliko manj intenzivno, kljub temu pa na pelodnem diagramu lahko opazimo spremembe v sestavi gozda in pojav 'antropogenih indikatorjev'. Te razlike med regijama so verjetno posledica razli≠ne klime, hidrologije, geolo∏ke podlage in razli≠ne izrabe pokrajine v
preteklosti.
KEY WORDS – palynology; Neolithic archaeology; Bela krajina; Ljubljana Marshes
Introduction
This paper aims to address the question of the diversity of the environment of the first farming communities in the region of Bela krajina and the Ljubljana Marshes area of Slovenia (Fig. 1). Differences in
the composition of vegetation detected in the pollen
record will be analysed in order to estimate whether
they were a consequence of specific natural characteristics of the regions studied, dissimilar land-use in
the past, or the size of the study sites.
In recent decades an extensive pollen analysis of sedimentary cores and samples collected during archaeological excavations was carried out on Ljubljana
Marshes, so the general development of vegetation
in the area is very well known (e.g. Culiberg 1991;
πercelj 1996 and references cited there, Gardner
1999a; 1999b) and the results presented in this
study (a pollen analysis of ‘Na mahu 1’ core) accord
with previous research. The question of past hydrological conditions in the area was also addressed by
several researchers using sedimentological, geomorphological, archaeological and multidisciplinary palaeoecological data (e.g. Melik 1946; πercelj 1966;
πifrer 1984; Budja 1995; Velu∏≠ek 2005; Gaspari
and Eri≠ 2006; Verbi≠ 2006; Mleku∫ et al. 2006; Andri≠ et al. in prep., and many others). This led to
various interpretations of the complex hydrological
conditions in the basin (most complex in the Neolithic; many researchers would probably agree that in
the early Holocene the area was covered by a freshwater lake, whereas later it became a floodplain and
in some parts a peat bog). In contrast to Ljubljana
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Maja Andri;
Marshes palynological, research
in Bela krajina was less extensive, and both palynologically investigated sites in the area (Mlaka and Griblje, Andri≠ 2001; Andri≠ in press) are presented in
this paper. To date, no studies of
past hydrology have been carried
out in the area. Therefore, since
hydrological conditions on Ljubljana Marshes were very complex,
whereas (presumably much simpler) hydrological conditions in
Bela krajina have not been investigated at all, more (detailed) research is needed in both regions
in the future. Palynological research was much more intensive,
and for that reason this paper
will focus on only one aspect of
both Neolithic landscapes: the
composition of vegetation as revealed by palynological studies.
The main reasons for the variety
of flora in Slovenia include its
geographical position, diverse climate, relief and bedrock (Wraber Fig. 1. Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes study regions and the po1969; Kladnik 1996; Ogrin 1996; sition of palynological cores.
was investigated and compared with Mlaka to assess
Perko 1998). The distinctive vegetation of Slovenia’s
also the intra-regional variability of Bela krajina vephyto-geographic regions became apparent after c.
getation.
8800 calBP, whereas the onset of an intensive, largescale forest clearance, burning and the formation of
The Bela krajina study area
the present-day landscape is dated between late
prehistory and the medieval period (c. 3000 calBP –
Bela krajina (Fig. 1) is located in south-eastern Slo1000 calBP). Palynological research also suggests
venia, between high Dinaric Plateaus in the west
that the human impact on the vegetation was imporand the Kolpa River and Pannonian Plain in the east.
tant and contributed to increasing biodiversity (AnMore than half of its territory lies below 400 m a.s.l.,
dri≠ and Willis 2003). Neolithic/Eneolithic farming
on predominantly Mesozoic limestone and dolomite
communities (c. 7000–5000 calBP) lived in an envibedrock (Gams 1961; 1984; Buser 1984). The clironment where differences between regions had almate of Bela krajina is moderate continental-sub-Panready become apparent, but large-scale forest cleanonian, with a sub-Mediterranean precipitation rerances had not yet occurred. In such environments
gime (primary precipitation is highest in autumn),
it is very difficult to distinguish the natural from the
and hot, dry summers. The annual amount of precianthropogenic causes of environmental change. Thepitation is between 1200 and 1300 mm in western
refore, in order to better understand the human imparts. The average temperatures of the warmest
pact on the vegetation, the vegetation history in the
month are between 15 °C and 20 °C, and of the colvicinity of archaeological sites was studied in detail.
dest month, between –3 °C and 0 °C (Bernot 1984;
Sedimentary cores for pollen analysis (Fig. 1) were
Ogrin 1996; Plut 1985).
collected at Mlaka (Bela krajina) and ‘Na mahu 1’
(Ljubljana Marshes) coring locations in order to estiThe composition of Bela krajina forests varies accormate the similarity/dissimilarity of vegetation deveding to altitude, land-use and soil type. Predomilopment during the Holocene in both study regions.
nantly beech forests are characteristic of higher altiIn addition to this, the vegetation history at Griblje
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Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar|
tudes, whereas patchy oak-hornbeam forests grow
in the lowlands (Miklav∫i≠ 1965; Wraber 1956; Marin≠ek and ∞arni 2002; ∞arni et al. 2003). Meadows, fields, pastures and human-managed birch
(Betula pendula) forests (‘steljniki’), which were
originally used as spring/summer grazing areas,
spread into the lowlands due to intensive human impact in the last centuries.
Both palaeo-ecological study sites presented in this
study (Mlaka and Griblje) are small lowland marshy
areas with diameters of c. 30 m and without inflowing/outflowing streams (Fig. 1). Numerous archaeological sites, including Neolithic/Eneolithic settlements, are located close to Mlaka and Griblje (e.g.
Pusti Gradac and Griblje, Arheolo∏ka najdi∏≠a Slovenije 1975; Dular 1985; Mason 2001; Phil Mason,
personal communication 2005).
The Ljubljana Marshes study area
Ljubljana Marshes lies in central Slovenia (Fig. 1) at
about 289 m a.s.l., on predominantly carbonate bedrock, with Triassic and Jurassic limestones and dolomites in southern and western parts of the basin,
whereas Palaeozoic sandstones, conglomerates, shales and limestones prevail in the north and east
(Mencej 1989). The bottom of the basin is covered by
thick layers of Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial and
lacustrine sediments (Mencej 1989; Grim∏i≠ar and
Ocepek 1967; Tancik 1965; πercelj 1965; 1967).
The climate on Ljubljana Marshes is temperate-continental, with a sub- continental precipitation regime
(precipitation highest in the summer) and annual
precipitation between 1000 and 1300 mm. The average temperatures of the coldest month are between
–3 °C and 0 °C, and in the warmest month the average is between 15 °C and 20 °C (Ogrin 1996).
Ljubljana Marsh is currently covered by meadows,
fields and patchy woodlands of pine (Pinus), birch
(Betula), alder (Alnus) and oak (Quercus robur).
Only very small peat-bogs with ombrotrophic species have remained (Martin≠i≠ 1987). Predominantly
beech (Fagus) forests grow on the hills surrounding
the area (∞arni et al. 2003). In the 18th century it was
much wetter than today, and mostly covered by peatbogs, smaller ‘puddles’ and springs (Melik 1927) and
drier heather lands, with spruce (Picea), pine, alder
and birch trees. However, in the second half of the
18th century, the first drainage works in the area
started, and by the end of 19th century almost all the
peat had been burnt or cut in order to obtain dry
land needed for agriculture (Melik 1927).
The sedimentary core presented in this study (‘Na
mahu 1’) was collected in the eastern part of the Ljubljana Marsh basin (Fig. 1). Archaeological sites, mostly dated to the 7th and 6th millennium calBP, were
discovered in the vicinity of the coring location (e.g.
Resnikov prekop and Maharski prekop, Dimitrijevi≤
1997; Budja 1995; ∞ufar and Koren≠i≠ 2006; Velu∏≠ek 2006; ∞ufar and Velu∏≠ek 2004; Bregant
1974; 1975)
Methodology
The pollen record of three study sites, Mlaka and
Griblje (G3) in Bela krajina, and ‘Na mahu 1’ in Ljubljana Marshes (Fig. 1) is presented and compared
in this study. The detailed methodology and results
for individual study sites have been published (for
Mlaka and Griblje see Andri≠ in press) or are currently in preparation (‘Na mahu 1’, Andri≠ et al. in
prep.), therefore only selected data will be presented in this paper.
All sedimentary sequences were collected by Livingstone piston corer, and standard laboratory procedures (Bennett and Willis 2002) were used for pollen analysis. The age was determined by AMS radiocarbon dating of organic carbon extracted from the
sediment. The radiocarbon dates at Mlaka and Griblje were calibrated by the BCal program (hosted by
the Department of Probability and Statistics at the
University of Sheffield, Buck et al. on-line), which
incorporates the IntCal 04 calibration dataset (Reimer et al. 2004), and these results were used for
age-depth modelling in PSIMPOLL (general linear
line-fitting by singular value decomposition for Griblje, and a combination of general linear line-fitting
by singular value decomposition and linear interpolation for Mlaka). The conventional radiocarbon
dates used for age-depth modelling are marked on
each diagram. The age-depth modelling for ‘Na mahu 1’ core was a linear interpolation between the
median values of 14C dates (the lower two dates
were excluded from the age-depth modelling due to
an error, presumably caused by the reservoir effect).
The percentage pollen diagrams of selected taxa
were plotted by PSIMPOLL 3.00, 4.25 and PSCOMB
3.01, C programs (Bennett 1998; Bennett on-line).
They were divided into zones using binary splitting
by sum of squares, and the number of significant zones was determined by the broken-stick model (Bennett 1996; 1998). Dots on the pollen diagram indicate values lower than 0.5 %. Palynological richness
(rarefraction analysis) was also calculated by PSIMPOLL. Microscopic charcoal (in two size classes:
179
Maja Andri;
<40 µm and >40 µm) was counted with the pollen
(‘Na mahu 1’ and Griblje cores) and, in addition to
this, the concentration of microscopic charcoal was
determined according to Clark’s (1982) point count
method at both Mlaka and Griblje.
Results
The results are presented on percentage pollen diagrams of selected taxa (Fig. 2) and compared in Table 1. Landscape openness, the microcharcoal record
and palynological richness of all three study sites are
also compared (Fig. 3). More detailed results are being published in separate publications (Andri≠ in
press, Andri≠ et al. in prep.). The mismatch of Mlaka
and Griblje pollen diagrams (compare Fagus curves)
for levels older than c. 6000 calBP are most probably a consequence of problematic radiocarbon dating
at Griblje, where levels between 50 and 61 cm seem
to be up to c. 900 years ‘too old’ (Andri≠ in press).
Early Holocene
At the beginning of the Holocene (between c. 11 500
and 9000–8750 calBP) an open, predominantly broadleaved woodland with oak (Quercus), hazel (Corylus), lime (Tilia), elm (Ulmus), pine (Pinus), birch
(Betula) and spruce (Picea mostly around Ljubljana
Marshes) was growing in both study regions (Fig. 2,
Tab. 1). The increased concentration of microscopic
charcoal suggests that forest fires were common, probably due to the arid early Holocene climate (e.g.
Kutzbach and Guetter 1986; COHMAP Members
1988).
Later (at c. 9000 – 8750 calBP) the forest composition suddenly changed, and thick, mostly beech (Fagus) forest started to grow in Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes (Fig. 2, Tab. 1). In Ljubljana Marshes
this beech forest persisted until c. 6750 calBP, whereas in Bela krajina the development was much more
dynamic. Slight fluctuations in beech pollen curves
(some of them coincide with charcoal peaks and even
with Cerealia-type pollen grain at Griblje) suggest
that the forest in Bela krajina was less dense than in
the Ljubljana Marshes region, and occasional smallscale landscape fires probably caused minor openings in the canopy. After c. 7800 calBP beech (Fagus)
at the Mlaka site started to decline, and by c. 7300
calBP the percentage of tree pollen had significantly
declined (with the exception of lime (Tilia), which
increased), whereas herbs and monolete fern spores
(Filicales) increased, suggesting the opening of the
landscape (Fig. 2a). A similar change in vegetation
was also detected at Griblje (Fig. 2b), where beech
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forest was replaced by a more open landscape, with
higher percentages of pine (Pinus) and Trilete spores than at Mlaka. In contrast to Bela krajina, the hills
surrounding Ljubljana Marshes basin remained very
much forested with beech (Fagus), and after 7600
calBP also fir (Abies) (Fig. 2c). No such increase in
fir (Abies) was detected in Bela krajina, although the
forest started to regenerate at the beginning of the
7th millennium calBP.
After c. 7000 calBP, hazel (Corylus) and oak (Quercus) at Mlaka, increased and between c. 6700–6100
calBP hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) woodland was
growing around the coring location. The Griblje forest also regenerated, and beech (Fagus), alder (Alnus) and hazel (Corylus) started to increase again,
but in contrast to Mlaka, there was no hornbeam
(Carpinus b.) phase. The human impact on the environment around both study sites was significant and
can be associated with the Neolithic/Eneolithic sites
at Pusti gradac and Griblje. Small-scale forest burning
(increased micro-charcoal concentration), agriculture
and grazing (anthropogenic indicator taxa: Cerealiatype, Centaurea, Plantago l., Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Compositae lig. and Compositae tub.) was
most intensive at c. 6100 calBP (Fig. 2a, 2b).
What happened at the same time on Ljubljana Marshes? A major change in the composition of vegetation occurred between 6750 and 5600 calBP (roughly at the same time as Carpinus b. phase at Mlaka),
when beech (Fagus) and fir (Abies) declined, whereas oak (Quercus), alder (Alnus) and hazel (Corylus) increased (Fig. 2c), but an increase in hornbeam
(Carpinus betulus, best seen at Podpe∏ko jezero,
Gardner 1999b) was less significant than at Mlaka.
An increased percentage of herb pollen after 6600
calBP and anthropogenic/grazing indicators (Plantago l.) suggest that the landscape became slightly
more open, which can be associated with human activity at the Resnikov prekop settlement, located c.
1.5 km south of the coring location.
Middle Holocene
In the second half of the Holocene, shade-tolerant
tree taxa started to increase in both study regions.
In Bela krajina, beech (Fagus) forest spread again
after 5700 calBP, but forest composition changed at
c. 4800 calBP, when beech was replaced by fir (Abies)
(Fig. 2a). Similarly, an increase in beech on Ljubljana Marshes is dated after c. 6000 calBP, but this was
very soon replaced by fir, which remained the most
important tree taxon until c. 4500 calBP, when spruce
(Picea) and alder (Alnus) increased (Fig. 2c). The de-
Forest regrowth through a phase
of hazel (Corylus) and oak (Quercus)
Beech (Fagus) decline and more open
landscape at Mlaka and Griblje
(with slight differences between study sites)
Predominantly beech (Fagus) forest
(with occasional small-scale openings
of the canopy due to burning), gradually
opening up, first ‘Ceraealia-type‘ pollen grain
occurs at Griblje
Woodland with lime (Tilia), oak (Quercus),
elm (Ulmus), hazel (Corylus), spruce (Picea),
increased microcharcoal concentration, more
pine (Pinus) and birch (Betula) at Griblje than
at Mlaka
Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) phase at Mlaka
Human impact on environment (small-scale
forest burning, agriculture and grazing),
most intensive at c. 6100 calBP,
when hornbeam woodland was burnt\cut.
Woodland with spruce (Picea), elm
(Ulmus), lime (Tilia), oak (Quercus) and
hazel (Corylus), increased microcharcoal
concentration
Beech (Fagus) forest, fir (Abies)
starts to increase after 7600 calBP
Fir (Abies) and beech (Fagus) decline,
whereas oak (Quercus), alder (Alnus) and
hazel (Corylus) increase at 6750 calBP,
Human impact (agriculture and grazing)
Beech (Fagus) increases again after
c. 6000 calBP
Beech-fir (Fagus-Abies) forest
Fir (Abies) remains high and only declines
after c. 4500 calBP, when spruce (Picea)
and alder (Alnus) increase
Fir (Abies) increases Human impact
continues, but without large-scale forest
clearance
Forest composition changes> beech (Fagus)
declines and fir (Abies) increases at Mlaka
Beech (Fagus) forest and decreased human
impact on the environment
Vegetation development in
Ljubljansko barje (‘na mahu 1’)
Vegetation development in
Bela krajina (Mlaka, Griblje)
|
|
Bela krajina> Neolithic\Eneolithic sites near Mlaka (Pusti Gradac)
and Griblje|
|
Bela krajina> Neolithic\Eneolithic sites near Mlaka (Pusti Gradac)
and Griblje, small scale forest clearance\burning,
coppicing, agriculture and grazing
Ljubljansko barje> Resnikov prekop (c. 6600-6500 calBP), smallscale forest clearance, agriculture and grazing
Bela krajina> Neolithic\Eneolithic sites near Mlaka (Pusti Gradac)
and Griblje | small scale forest clearance\burning, agriculture
and grazing
Ljubljansko barje> Maharski prekop (c. 5500-5000 calBP|)
small-scale forest clearance, agriculture and grazing
|
Archaeological sites in the vicinity of coring
locations and their impact on the vegetation
Tab. 1. Comparison of vegetation development in Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia.
before c. 9000
(8750) calBP
c. 9000 (8750) 7500 (7600) calBP
c. 7500-7000 calBP
c. 7000-6700 calBP
Early Holocene
c. 6700-5700 calBP
c. 5700-4800 calBP
Age (calBP)
Bela krajina
(Ljubljansko barje)
Middle Holocene
c. 4800-4500 calBP
Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar|
181
Maja Andri;
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Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar|
Figs. 2a and 2b (on previous page) and 2c (up). Mlaka, Griblje (G3) and ‘Na mahu 1’ percentage pollen
diagrams of selected taxa. * hiatus due to peat cutting/burning on Ljubljansko barje.
velopment of vegetation on Ljubljana Marshes in subsequent millennia cannot be reconstructed, since the
younger sediment was destroyed by peat cutting and
burning in the 18th/19th century.
Discussion
The human impact on the environment
After comparing the pollen record from both study
regions, it appears that the intensity of human impact on the environment in Bela krajina was very
considerable. Constant small-scale forest burning
and cutting associated with the appearance of anthropogenic indicator taxa and increased biodiversity (palynological richness, Fig. 3) was detected from
at least c. 6000 calBP, which led to changes in forest
composition, increasing differences between the Mlaka and Griblje study sites and the formation of mosaic landscape (Andri≠ in press).
The human impact on the environment on Ljubljana
Marshes seems much less intensive; here, thick beech
and beech-fir forest persisted until c. 6750 calBP. At
c. 6600 calBP a minor forest clearance (Fig. 2c, 3)
and anthropogenic indicator taxa were detected, but
the landscape remained very much forested (as already demonstrated by previous research, Gardner
1999a; 1999b) and the development of vegetation
much less dynamic than in Bela krajina. Does this
mean that in Bela krajina, Neolithic/Eneolithic settlements were more numerous and farming activities
more intensive (or earlier) than on Ljubljana Marshes? Not necessarily. The differences between Bela
krajina and Ljubljana Marshes could be a consequence of the natural features of the study sites (Fig.
1). Both sites in Bela krajina, Mlaka and Griblje, are
small basins with diameters of c. 30 m and without
inflowing or outflowing streams. In such small basins, which receive pollen deriving mainly from local vegetation, small-scale local changes in vegetation
are very visible (Jacobson and Bradshaw 1981). In
bigger basins with complex hydrology, such as Ljubljana Marshes, regional pollen prevails (Jacobson
and Bradshaw 1981), so local, small-scale forest
clearance is less visible in the pollen record. Considering palynological theory, therefore, these results
were expected.
Despite all these differences between Bela krajina and
Ljubljana Marshes, there is one similarity: an increase
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Maja Andri;
Fig. 3. Landscape openness, microcharcoal record and palynological richness at Mlaka, Griblje (G3) and
‘Na mahu 1’ study sites. * hiatus due to peat cutting/burning on Ljubljana Marshes.
184
Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar|
in biodiversity (palynological richness, Fig. 3) at the
beginning of the 7th millennium calBP (c. 7000 calBP
at Mlaka and 6700 calBP at ‘Na mahu 1’ core), although no major landscape forest clearance has been
detected on pollen diagrams. This could probably be
associated with small-scale forest clearance and the
activities of early farming communities.
Human impact versus climate
Changes in forest composition and differences between the study regions can be a consequence of climatic fluctuations and/or human impact. Today, summers in Bela krajina are warmer and drier than on
Ljubljana Marshes, and it is possible that a similar
contrast existed in the past. Therefore, less fir (Abies),
which needs a humid climate (Ellenberg 1988) was
growing in Bela krajina than on Ljubljana Marshes.
However, fir is susceptible to fire (Tinner et al. 1999),
and it is possible that in Bela krajina it was suppressed by anthropogenic burning of the landscape. The
charcoal record suggests that the vegetation around
Ljubljana Marshes was not burnt so often. Why not –
because the lake/marshy landscape of Ljubljana Marshes was more difficult to burn, and this landscape
was used instead for hunting, fishing and gathering?
Due to the complex hydrological conditions, more
open land probably already existed (or was regularly formed) near the edge of the lake and/or along
floodplains, and very extensive forest clearance for
agriculture was not needed (Willis 1995)?
Palynological research also demonstrated that differences in the composition of vegetation occurred not
only between the phytogeographic regions of Slovenia, but also within each individual region. This can
best be demonstrated by the differences between
Mlaka and Griblje, where, although the study sites
are located only c. 10 km apart, the vegetation history was very dissimilar. While at Mlaka (located on
predominantly limestone bedrock) human pressure
on the environment was intensive throughout the
Holocene, and the present-day open landscape had
formed by the medieval period at c. 1000 calBP, the
landscape at Griblje (on sand and clay) remained
predominantly forested up to the present. This suggests that areas more suitable for agriculture were
probably most intensively used.
Climate
To date no studies of local (regional) climate have
been carried out, therefore changes in vegetation
(e.g. forest composition) can be only compared with
the global (Northern Hemisphere) climate. In both
study regions beech (Fagus) establishment at the be-
ginning of the 9th millennium calBP was presumably
associated with climatic change – an increase in precipitation. A similar increase in shade-tolerant tree
taxa also occurred in other regions of Slovenia (Andri≠ and Willis 2003) and neighbouring countries
(Abies expansion in the lowlands of the southern
Alps, Tinner et al. 1999; Gobet et al. 2000; Tinner
and Lotter 2006; and Fagus increase in Dalmatia,
Schmidt et al. 2000) and it seems that this palaeoenvironmental change was of regional extent. It was
limited to the areas south of the Alps, where a continental climate regime had already been replaced by
an Atlantic climate regime at about 9100 calBP, whereas north of the Alps, the Atlantic climate is associated with the 8.2 ky BP event (Tinner and Ammann
2001).
At the beginning of the 8th millennium calBP, beech
(Fagus) in Bela krajina started to decline, and by c.
7300 calBP, the beech forest had been replaced by
a more open landscape. Fagus decline is limited only
to Bela krajina (the Ljubljana Marshes region remained very much forested), so it seems unlikely that it
would have been triggered by cold global climatic
fluctuations, such as the 8.2 ky BP event (Alley et al.
1993; Meese et al. 1994; Stager and Mayewski 1997;
Haas et al. 1998; Alley and Ágústsdóttir 2005). However, the impact of precipitation fluctuations might
have been more important than the temperature, especially since the 8.2 ky event is assumed to have
been dry in the lowlands (Haas et al. 1998), with lower lake levels north and south of 50°N and 43°N
respectively (Magny and Begeot 2004). It is possible
that in the 8th millennium calBP climatic differences
between Bela krajina and the Ljubljana Marshes were
more pronounced than today, and forest composition
in Bela krajina was affected by warm and dry summers, whereas at the same time no major change in
forest composition took place on the Ljubljana Marshes.
Is it possible that Fagus decline was caused by the
impact of hunter-gatherers and/or farmers on the
landscape? Yes. Admittedly, no archaeological sites
reliably dated before c. 7000 calBP have been discovered in Bela krajina, but this option cannot be completely ruled out, and further archaeological and
multi-proxy palaeo-ecological research of the regional climate is needed.
After c. 6700 calBP, the percentage of beech (Fagus)
and fir (Abies) was low in both study regions. This
is most probably a consequence of significant human
impact (forest clearance and burning), and coincides
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Maja Andri;
with a major climatic reversal after 8.2 ka calBP (Stager and Mayewski 1997; Alley and Ágústsdóttir
2005), when the oceanic early Holocene climate with
enhanced westerly airflow was presumably replaced
by a more meridional flow pattern, with anti-cyclonic
summer conditions, and thus a dry climate and lower lake levels in the period between c. 6800–
5700 calBP (Seppä and Birks 2001).
While at Bela krajina, where all the study sites are
small marshes without inflowing/outflowing streams,
the local Neolithic impact on the landscape is very
visible, the Ljubljana Marshes study site is much bigger and has a more complex and changeable hydrology, which affected the pollen source area. Here, a
weak local human impact on the vegetation is more
difficult to detect.
After c. 6000–5700 calBP, beech (Fagus), and later
also fir (Abies), increase in both regions, with a slightly decreased human impact on the environment.
This could have been associated with the cold and
wet climate in the 6th millennium calBP (Mayewski
et al. 2004; Haas et al. 1998; Magny 2004; Magny
and Haas 2004; Denton and Karlén 1973; Seppä
and Birks 2001; O’Brien et al. 1995; Bond et al.
1997).
How to proceed: more archaeological research is needed in both regions in order to better understand
the economy of past societies and their impact on
the vegetation. Especially in Bela krajina, where natural conditions are not very favourable for the preservation of archaeological sites or animal and plant
remains, more information about archaeological settlement patterns and the economy during the transition from hunting-gathering to the first farming communities would be very valuable. More multi-proxy
palaeo-ecological (palaeo-climatological and palaeohydrological) research is also needed, since the impact of climate fluctuations on the vegetation and
hydrology was significant.
Conclusions
The above described differences between Bela krajina and the Ljubljana Marshes are presumably a consequence of different climates (wetter/colder in the
Ljubljana Marshes region?), hydrology, topography
and bedrock, as well as archaeological settlement
patterns and land-use (more frequent landscape burning in Bela krajina) in the past. However, different
natural characteristics and thus the pollen source
area of individual study sites should not be ignored.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by the Slovenian Research
Agency, project no. Z6–4074–0618–03. I am very grateful to Mateja Belak, who prepared the figures.
∴
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