NEW ASPECTS of FLUID MECHANICS, HEAT TRANSFER and ENVIRONMENT Why Database for Cooling Capacity of Various Quenchants Should be Developed? NIKOLAI KOBASKO IQ Technologies Inc, Akron, USA and Intensive Technologies Ltd, Kyiv, Ukraine [email protected], www.intensivequench.com Abstract: - In the paper, a necessity of the development of database for cooling capacity of quenchants is discussed. In spite of the existence of several methods for solving an inverse heat conduction problem, appropriate experimental techniques and funding, there is no database containing cooling characteristics of quenchants needed for quench process computer simulations. Two reasons explain this situation. The heat treating industry uses mostly oils for quenching alloy steels for which it is not so critical to have the above database. A standard cylindrical Inconel 600 probe (12.5 mm dia) with the thermocouple installed at the core cannot be used for evaluating real heat transfer coefficients (HTC). This probe can be used for determining only effective HTC. Taking into account environmental issues, it is desirable to substitute, when it is possible, oil quenching with intensive water quenching. Development of the proper database of heat transfer characteristics for water based quenchants will accelerate this process. Key - Words: - Real and effective heat transfer coefficients, Database, Standard probe, Oil, Water as a quenchant, Environment. 1 Introduction As known, alloy and high alloy steels are usually quenched in oils. Often a gas quenching is applied to decrease cooling rates within the martensite range. When quenching in oils, no trouble occurs because steel parts can be cooled to the room temperature without the interruption of the quench. There is no need to interrupt cooling when approaching the martensite start temperature since convective heat transfer coefficient of oil is rather low (250 - 300 W/m2K). To control and to maintain stable the cooling capacity of oils, a standard probe of 12.5 mm diameter, made of Inconell 600 with a thermocouple in the core, was designed [1] . Taking into account environmental issues, it is desirable to substitute, when it is possible, oil quenching with intensive water quenching. Development of the proper database of heat transfer characteristics for plain water and water solutions will accelerate this process. instead of difference ∆T = TW − Tm as it is considered during a convection mode of heat transfer , where: TW is wall temperature; TS is saturation temperature; Tm is temperature of a quenchant. As well known, the formation of nucleating centers depends on the overheat of the boundary layer which is determined by [2]: Rcr ≅ (1) where: Rcr is a critical size of a bubble which is capable to grow and function; σ is a surface tension (N/m); r * is a latent heat of evaporation (J/kg); ρ ′′ is a vapor density (kg / m3); ∆T = TW − TS is a wall overheat. Active nucleating centers are the basic carriers of the thermal energy that remove heat from the part surface and transfer it to a cooler bath. After the initiation of boiling, the bubble continues to grow (in a saturated liquid) until forces cause it to detach from the surface. After the departure, a cooler liquid from the bulk of the quench bath fills the space vacated by the bubble and the thermal layer is reformed. When 2 Real and effective heat transfer coefficients A real heat transfer coefficient during nucleate boiling relates to the difference ∆T = TW − TS , ISSN: 1792-4596 2σTS , r ρ ′′∆T * 304 ISBN: 978-960-474-215-8 NEW ASPECTS of FLUID MECHANICS, HEAT TRANSFER and ENVIRONMENT the required superheat is attained, a new bubble starts to form at the same nucleation site. Bubble dynamics include the processes of growth, bubble departure, and bubble release frequency which includes time for reformation of the thermal layer. The bubble acts like a pump to remove the hot liquid from the surface and replacing it with the cooler liquid [2]. This mechanism is the essential factor causing high intensity of heat transfer during boiling. The bath temperature has no essential effect on a value of heat transfer coefficient during nucleate boiling [2]. Therefore, when determining the heat flux density during boiling it is necessary to relate it to a difference of TW − TS , rather than (63.5) 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.12 0.19 0.84 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.13 0.21 0.56 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.14 0.59 To see what is happening during nucleate boiling, let's consider accurate experimental data of French (see Fig. 1 and Table 1), which were used for solving inverse heat conduction problem (IP). For this purpose, the IQLab software was applied. This software was developed by Intensive Technologies Ltd company (Kyiv, Ukraine) [4]. To solve the IP, thermal properties of materials are needed. Some of them are provided in Table 2. to TW − Tm , which can lead to large errors when calculating the part surface temperature. Table 2 Thermal conductivity of silver, Inconel 600, and AISI 304 steel in W/(m K) depending on temperature (oC) T, oC 100 300 500 700 900 Silver 392 362 366 373 Inconel 14.2 17.8 21.7 25.9 600 Steel 17.5 19.6 23 26.3 29.3 304 Fig. 1 The schematic which shows how thermocouples were placed and accurately flattened to the wall of spheres and polished by French [3]. Table 1 Time required for the surface of steel spheres to cool to different temperatures when quenched from 875oC (1605oF) in 5% NaOH water solution at 20 oC and moving at 3 feet per second (0.914 m/s), according to French [3] Size, inch,. (mm) Time, s 700oC 600 500 400 300 150 1” 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.40 (25.4) 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.11 1.20 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.14 0.71 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.09 0.19 0.99 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.13 0.82 2.5” 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.65 (63.5) 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.80 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.52 ISSN: 1792-4596 Fig. 2 Real heat transfer coefficients during quenching of spheres made of steel and quenched in agitated ( 0.914 m/s ) 5% NaOH water solution at 20oC: a) for sphere 38.1 mm dia; b) for sphere 63.5 mm dia 305 ISBN: 978-960-474-215-8 NEW ASPECTS of FLUID MECHANICS, HEAT TRANSFER and ENVIRONMENT The main difference is in heat transfer evaluation is. The real heat transfer coefficient is calculated as α nb = q . TW − TS (2) The effective heat transfer coefficient during boiling is calculated as α eff = (3) In practice, quenchants are tested using standard probes, for example, silver sphere probes or cylindrical probes made of Inconel 600. The thermocouples, as it was mentioned, are located at the core. It is considered that temperature field throughout the probe cross section for silver is uniform, i.e., Bi ≤ 0 .2 . This assumption was confirmed by the calculation of the heat transfer coefficient from Eq. (3), where q is a heat flux density on the Fig. 3 Real heat transfer coefficients during quenching of plate (14 mm) made of steel and quenched in agitated plain water (0.914 m/s) at 20oC As we can see from Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, the real heat transfer coefficients during nucleate boiling reach maximum values of 200,000 to 240,000 W/(m2K) in 2 s after the beginning of the quench regardless of the part size and configuration. These results were obtained for steel specimens. As known, the thermal conductivity of steel is 16 times less as compared with silver. It means that the calculated values of the heat transfer coefficient during cooling of silver probes in water and water solutions will be higher. This is because according to the Fourier law, the heat flux is directly proportional to the material thermal conductivity. Assume that heat transfer coefficients during cooling of silver spherical probes (20 mm in dia) are the same, then we can calculate Biot number, which corresponds to the maximum value shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, i.e.: Bi = probe surface; TW is the wall temperature; Tm is the temperature of the quenchant. This is a generally accepted approach for the film and nucleate boiling heat transfer evaluation. However, film and nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficients should be determined from Eq. (2). It means that, in reality, heat transfer coefficients during nucleate boiling are much higher. Let us illustrate the above mentioned phenomenon by the following example. Let TW =110°С; Ts = 100°С; Tm =20°С. If α is calculated by equation (3) then: q q α1 = = o ; o o 110 C − 20 C 90 C If the calculation is performed using equation (2) then: q q α2 = = o . o o 110 C − 100 C 10 C Now consider by how many times α 2 differs 240 ,000W / m 2 K × 0.01m = 6.6 . 366W / mK During testing of silver probes, it is accepted by investigators that the probe core temperature and surface temperature are equal. It is almost true when Bi < 0.2. However, Bi > 6.6 and it means that the probe core temperature and the probe surface temperature are not equal. According to the experimental and calculated data this difference is up to 100oC and the error can exceed 100% because Biot number is 33 times higher. This problem was widely discussed in book [5]. ISSN: 1792-4596 q . TW − Tm from α1 by dividing one value by the other: α2 q q = o : o = 9, α 1 10 C 90 C i.e., α 2 is 9 times greater than α1 , which means that, using silver probes during testing, subsequent miscalculations will appear. Therefore, it seems like Biot number Bi ≤ 0 .2 . 306 ISBN: 978-960-474-215-8 NEW ASPECTS of FLUID MECHANICS, HEAT TRANSFER and ENVIRONMENT established function is the same (idem). According to the results shown in Fig. 5, it is However, actually it is greater than approximately 6.6, that is why the sphere core temperature differs from the sphere surface temperature. K n = idem possible to say that (4). It means that heat transfer coefficients for boiling processes can be generalized in forms (4). This simplifies significantly cooling time calculations during the transient nucleate boiling process. Fig. 6 explains why it happens. With increasing of the size of the cylinder the heat flux decreases proportionally to the cylinder size. The average values of BiV and Kn remain the same (see Fig.5 and Fig. 6). The main conclusion from the above calculations is that the standard Inconel 600 probe can be used for effective HTC calculations. However, one should keep in mind that such data can be used for cooling rate calculations at the core of steel parts and cannot be used for temperature fields calculations. Fig. 4 Heat flux density and Kondratjev number Kn vs. time for 1 inch (25.4 mm) cylindrical steel probe quenched in 5% NaOH solution Fig. 6 Temperature field distribution in cylindrical probes 20mm and 40 mm dia. during quenching in 5% NaOH solution at 20 oC [6] Fig. 5 Kondratjev number (Kn) vs. Fourier number (Fo) for cylindrical steel probes 20, 30, and 40 mm dia. and quenched in 5% NaOH solution [6] 3 Critical heat flux densities and their impact on understanding the boiling processes It is important to keep in mind that upon the immersion of a steel part into the quenchant, the initial heat flux density q can be: The software IQLab was used also for calculations of the effective heat transfer coefficients, generalized Biot numbers and Kondratjev numbers Kn. Fig. 4 shows that after 2 seconds of cooling, the Kondratjev number is a linear function of time. In coordinates Kn vs. Fo for different diameters of cylinders, the ISSN: 1792-4596 q >> qcr1 ; q ≈ q cr1 or q << qcr1 . 307 ISBN: 978-960-474-215-8 NEW ASPECTS of FLUID MECHANICS, HEAT TRANSFER and ENVIRONMENT 4 Discussion In the first case, q >> q cr1 , a full film boiling is observed. A transition boiling is observed when q ≈ q cr1 . In the last case, There are many institutes and universities which investigate cooling capacity of quenchants and use noise control systems to evaluate boiling processes. Unfortunately, there is no database designed for cooling capacity of quenchants which can be used by engineers for the cooling recipes development. We have only cooling curves at the core of standard probes. These data cannot be used for solving the inverse heat conduction problem for getting real heat transfer coefficients. Using these curves, it is possible to calculate only average effective heat transfer coefficients suitable for cooling time calculations at the core and not at the surface. At present time, it is possible to design DATABASE for cooling capacity of quenchants since everything is prepared for this purpose: 1. Liscic probe is available, which should be standardized since it is very suitable for solving the inverse heat conduction problem and for providing very accurate data [8]. 2. Small silver probes and the method for calculations of critical heat flux densities are available, which should be standardized for critical heat flux densities evaluation [9]. 3. The noise control system and method for processing of data obtained are available which should be standardized for transient boiling processes investigations [10]. Also an international team is organized to design the above DATABASE (see www.worldses.org/projects/Heat_and_Mass_Tra nsfer.doc) If such DATABASE is designed, it will be applied for solving important problem [11-15] and for accurate computer simulations of technological processes [16, 17]. Switching from oils to plain water as a quenchant will make environment cleaner. The database, if designed, will accelerate this process. q << qcr1 , film boiling is absent and the main mode of heat transfer is nucleate boiling. Each of these three cases will produce different values of α = f (Tsf ) versus the part surface temperature. Therefore, there is no unique interrelationship of the heat transfer coefficient α as a function of the surface temperature. To predict what kind of heat transfer mode one can expect, we must know critical heat flux densities. When evaluating critical heat flux densities, only film boiling heat transfer coefficients are used, which are small enough (300 - 1000 W/m2K). In this case, the condition Bi < 0.2 will be always satisfied. It means that the surafce temperature TW during testing will be equal to the core temperature Tcore of the probe only at the end of film boiling. The probe presented in Fig. 7 can be used for the critical heat flux evaluation [7]. Rounded ends of cylinder will provide the second type of heat transfer mode and accurate estimations of critical heat flux densities. 5 Summary 1. There are two approaches in HTC evaluation. The first approach provides real heat transfer coefficients, which can be used to calculate temperature fields and residual stress distribution. The second approach provides effective heat transfer Fig. 7 Shape and dimensions of the silver cylindrical probe with rounded ends that can be recommended for evaluations of critical heat flux densities [7]. ISSN: 1792-4596 308 ISBN: 978-960-474-215-8 NEW ASPECTS of FLUID MECHANICS, HEAT TRANSFER and ENVIRONMENT [8] B.Liscic, H.M.Tensi, and W.Luty, Theory and Technology of Quenching, SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1992, 484 p. [9] N.I.Kobasko, Quenching Media, Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka, Moscow, VINITI, 1989, p 127-166. [10] A.A.Moskalenko, N.I.Kobasko, L.M.Protsenko, O.V.Rasumtseva, Acoustical System Analyzes the Cooling Characteristics of Water and Water Salt Solutions, Proceedings of the 7th IASME / WSEAS International Conference on HEAT TRANSFER, THERMAL ENGINEERING and ENVIRONMENT (HTE '09), Moscow, Aug. 20 -22, 2009, pp. 117 - 122. coefficients, which can be used to calculate the part core cooling rate. It cannot be used to calculate correctly the temperature field in steel parts during nucleate boiling process. 2. The Inconel 600 cylindrical probe is used to control stability of cooling capacity of quenchants. It can be also used to obtain effective heat transfer coefficients. 3. There is a need to create DATABASE which includes critical heat flux densities, real heat transfer coefficients, and initial heat flux densities during immersion of steel parts into the quench bath. If designed, the DATABASE will accelerate in many cases switching from oil to plain water as a quenchant and will make environment cleaner. [11] N.I.Kobasko, 6,364,974 B1 Patent No. [12] N.I.Kobasko, Steel superstrengthening phenomenon, Journal of ASTM International, Vol. 2, Issue 1, 2005, paper ID JAI12824, available online at www.astm.org [13] N.I. Kobasko, W.S. Morhuniuk, B.K. Ushakov, Design of Steel-Intensive Quench Processes, Steel Heat Treatment: Equipment and Process Design, (George E. Totten, Ed.), CRC Press, New York, 2007, pp. 193 - 237, www.crcpress.com [14] N.I.Kobasko, Intensive Steel Quenching Methods, Quenching Theory and Technology, Second Edition, B.Liscic, H.M.Tensi, L.C.F.Canale, G.E.Totten (Eds.), CRC Press, New York, 2010 [15] N.I. Kobasko, W.S. Morhuniuk, B.K. Ushakov, Design of Steel-Intensive Quench Processes, Steel Heat Treatment: Equipment and Process Design, (George E. Totten, Ed.), CRC Press, New York, 2007, pp. 193 - 237, www.crcpress.com B.L.Ferguson, [16] A.M.Freborg, M.A.Aronov, N.I.Kobasko, J.A.Powell, Intensive quenching theory and application for imparting high residual surface compressive stresses in pressure vessel components, SAE Journal of Pressure Vessels Technology, Vol.125, May 2003, pp. 188 - 194. [17] B.L. Ferguson, Z. Li and A.M. Freborg, Modeling Heat Treatment of Steel Parts, Computational Materials Science, Vol. 34, Issue 3, 2005, pp. 274 - 281. References: [1] G.E.Totten, C.E.Bates, and N.A.Clinton, Handbook of Quenchants and Quenching Technology, ASM International, Materials Park, 1993, 507 p. [2] V.I.Tolubinsky, Heat Transfer at Boiling, Kyiv, Naukova Dumka, 1980, 316 p. [3] H.J. French, The Quenching of steels, American Society of Heat Treat., 1930. [4] V.V.Dobryvechir, N.I.Kobasko, E.N.Zotov, W.S.Morhuniuk, Yu.S.Sergeyev, Software IQLab (commercially available from Intensive Technologies Ltd., Kyiv, Ukraine, [email protected], www.itl.kiev.ua) [5] N.I.Kobasko, Steel Quenching in Liquid Media Under Pressure, Naukova Dumka, Kyiv, 1980, 206 p. [6] N.I.Kobasko, Transient Nucleate Boiling as a Law of Nature and a Basis for Designing of IQ Technologies, Proceedings of the 7th IASME / WSEAS International Conference on HEAT TRANSFER, THERMAL ENGINEERING and ENVIRONMENT (HTE '09), Aug. 20 - 22, Moscow, Russia, 2009, pp. 67 - 75. [7] M. Narazaki, S. Fuchizawa, M. Kogawara, and M. Inaba, Effects of surface oxidation on cooling characteristics during quenching of heated metals in subcooled water, Tetsu to - Nagane, (J. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn.), Vol. 79, No 5, 1993, pp. 583 - 589. ISSN: 1792-4596 US 309 ISBN: 978-960-474-215-8
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